Issues and Debates Flashcards
(95 cards)
1
Q
What is gender bias?
A
The distorted view that behaviours observed may be typical of behaviours for both men and women
2
Q
How does Milgram’s obedience study show gender bias?
A
Involved only men in the study and found high levels of obedience among them with 62% of them going all the way up to 450 volt shocks
Assumed that the results might be the same for women which may not be true. It may be that women have even higher obedience rates, or potentially lower
3
Q
What is androcentrism?
A
Refers to when theories or views are based exclusively from a male view-point
4
Q
Why has psychology, since it’s inception, been male dominated?
A
Most psychologists were men and therefore the theories they created tended to be from a male-centred world view often at the exclusion or neglect of women
5
Q
What may androcentrism be a result of?
A
Alpha or beta bias
6
Q
What is alpha bias?
A
When the differences between men and women are exaggerated which results in alpha based theories that devalue one gender in comparison to another
7
Q
What is an example of alpha bias?
A
Sigmund Freud’s Psychoanalytical Theory
8
Q
What is Sigmund Freud’s Psychoanalytical Theory?
A
Portrayed women as significantly inferior to men.
This is because his theories reflected the 19th century culture in which he lived when men are more powerful and more educated and thus regarded as more superior than women. His alpha-based theory of psychoanalysis viewed femininity as a failed masculinity and exaggerated the differences between men and women
9
Q
What did Josselson point out regarding Freud’s theory about why women are inferior to men?
A
Women are seen as being inferior to men because they are jealous of men’s penises and because they cannot undergo the same Oedipus conflict as boys do. Because the superego develops from the Oedipus conflict, women therefore must be morally inferior because they have a weaker identification with their mother
10
Q
What is beta bias?
A
People may assume that what is true for men will also be true for women and thus minimise the differences between the two genders
The result of beta bias is usually that the needs of one gender are ignored
11
Q
What is an example of beta bias using research?
A
Fight or flight response
Biological research has often been conducted with male animals due to different hormone levels in females that may make the research more difficult
It assumed that the fight or flight response would apply also to females but this was found not the be true by Taylor et al
Their findings suggested females had a different tend and befriend response at times of stress. This is due to more oxytocin in women and women seem to respond to stress by increasing oxytocin production
Shows how research that minimises gender differences may result in misinterpretation of women’s behaviour
12
Q
What is universality?
A
Concerns the aim to develop theories that apply to all people, which may include real differences
13
Q
What was Kohlberg’s theory and what did he do?
A
Theory of moral development
Suggested moral decisions we make are based on an ethic of justice
This theory was based on research with boys and men where they were asked to describe what behaviour would be right in certain situations in relation to fairness
Beta bias was evident here as he assumed that the male responses would also apply to females and all people
14
Q
What did Gilligan do against Kohlberg’s theory?
A
Highlighted that aside from the obvious all male sample, the dilemmas presented by Kohlberg were also biased as the ppts all had male orientation that was concerned with justice
When Kohlberg subsequently tested women, he found they were less morally developed than men according to his study
Good example of alpha bias
Women favoured a care orientation
15
Q
Evaluate how androcentrism can be countered
A
Worrell suggested a number of criteria that would help avoid gender bias in research
For example, suggested women should be studies within meaningful real-life contexts and participate in research rather than be the objects of study
Diversity within groups of women should also be examined rather than comparisons made simply between men and women
A greater emphasis should be placed on qualitative research methods that focus on qualitative data opposed to numerical data
16
Q
Evaluate the criticism of the nature of methods used to test or observe ppts
A
The nature of the methods used to test or observe ppts that are actually biased so males and females appear to be different
Other issues may include the gender of the researcher themselves
Rosenthal found male experiments were more pleasant, friendly and encouraging to female ppts than male ppts
The results found that male ppts subsequently performed less well on the tasks they were assigned
17
Q
Evaluate how feminists have argued that lab experiments are biased against women?
A
That lab experiments have also been notoriously biased against women
For example, findings created withing a controlled setting of a lab would tell us little about the experiences of women outside of such setting
18
Q
Evaluate biological vs social explanations in gender differences
A
Limitation - gender differences are often presented as fixed and endearing when they are not
Macoby et al presented the findings of several gender studies which concluded that girls have superior verbal ability whereas boys have better spatial ability
Macoby et al suggested that these differences are hardwired into the brain before birth
Such findings became widely reported and seen as facts
Daphna Joel et al used brain scanning and found no such sex differences in brain structure or processing
It is possible that the data from Maccoby was popularised as it fitted existing stereotypes of girls as speakers and boys as doers
This suggests that we should be wary of accepting research findings as biological facts when they might be explained better as social stereotypes
19
Q
Evaluate how avoiding beta bias itself has potential negative consequences for women
A
Although equal treatment under the law has allowed women greater access to education and employment opportunities, Hare-Mustin and Marecek have pointed out that this can draw attention away from the special needs of women too
e.g. equal parental leave ignore the biological demands of pregnancy, childbirth and breastfeeding that are placed on women in the name of equal treatment
20
Q
What is cultural bias?
A
The tendency of psychological research, theories, and practices to favour certain cultural groups or values over others
21
Q
What is ethnocentrism?
A
The assumption that one ethnic or cultural group is superior to other cultural groups as we use our own cultural group as a basis for judgement of others
22
Q
How can ethnocentrism lead to alpha bias?
A
Ones own culture is considered to be better with the consequence being that other cultures practices are devalued
A good example of this is western value of individualism over collectivism and how western society places greater value on independence and dependence is seen as undesirable
In collectivist cultures, dependence and collectivism is seen as more valuable
23
Q
How can ethnocentrism lead to beta bias?
A
If researchers believe that the world view they hold is the only view
A good example of this is IQ testing where American IQ tests are believed to be appropriate to use all over the world because there is an assumption that the American standard was universal and could be cross-culturally applied
24
Q
What is cultural relativism?
A
Opposite of ethnocentrism
The idea that all cultures are worthy of respect and we should try to understand the way in which other cultures see the world
25
How can cultural relativism lead to an alpha bias?
Where assumptions of real differences can lead investigators to overlook universal similarities between cultures
An example of this is research by Mead 1935 in Papua New Guinea. Initially Mead concluded that there were significant differences in gender due to culture only to then later recognise significant universals too such as all men being more aggressive across the cultures
26
How can cultural relativism lead to beta bias?
Cultural relativism is often discussed when applied to diagnosing mental disorders
e.g. one definition of abnormality is statistical infrequency
Behaviours that are statistically infrequent in one culture may be more common in another
Schizophrenia is a good example of this as one of the diagnosis criteria is hearing voices which may be a common experience in other cultures
If it is assumed the same diagnostic rules apply universally, we may incorrectly classify people as mentally ill based on a diagnostic criteria that is only relevant in western cultures
27
Evaluate how ethnocentrism could be countered
Encouraging indigenous psychologies and the development of a different groups of theories in different countries
One example is Afrocentrism which is a movement whose central proposition is that all black people have their roots in Africa and therefore psychological theories be rooted in African-centred values
Afrocentrism disputes the view that European values are universally applicable to non-europeans and suggests that at worst, they devalue non-European people while at best being irrelevant to the life and culture of people of African descent
28
Evaluate one way to tackle cultural bias?
Using studies with samples from different cultural groups
Smith and Bond found that in one European textbook, 66% were American, 32% were European and only 2% came from the rest of the world
In addition, Sears found that 82% of studies used undergraduates with 51% being American psychology students
An American student was calculated to be 4000 times more likely to be a participant in a psychology study than a random non-westerner
This therefore suggests that a significant amount of psychology is based on middle-class, academic young adults who are often male
This would make psychological findings not only unrepresentative on a global scale but also within Western culture
29
Evaluate an example of the consequences of cultural bias and the damage that can be done?
US Army IQ test
First used before outbreak of WWI
Test results showed European immigrants below white Americas and African-Americans as falling at the bottom of the scale with the lowest mental age
This had profound effects in terms of attitudes towards people with enduring stereotypes concerning certain ethnic groups and their intelligence
Gould 1981
30
Evaluate the issue with cross-cultural research of the unfamiliarity with research tradition
Most ppts tend to be western, young students
Within Western culture, the ppts may have some familiarity with the general aims and objectives of the study or it could at least be assumed by them
The same knowledge and 'faith' in scientific testing may not extend to cultures that do not have the same historical experience of being part of such research. Therefore demand characteristics may be exaggerated when working with people from local western cultures (Bond and Smith 1996) and this may impact the validity of the research.
31
What is free will?
Free will is used to describe how an individual is capable of self-determination and controlling their behaviour i.e. they are free to choose and are not acting in response to any internal or external pressures
32
Which approach adopts a free will perspective on behaviour? What did they say?
Humanistic approach
Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers argues that self-determination was an important part of human behaviour and without it, self-development and self-actualisation were not possible
33
What did Rogers argue about free will?
As long as an individual remains controlled by other people or things, they cannot take responsibility for their own behaviour and will struggle to change it
34
How was humanistic psychology central in Roger's CBT?
He saw people as being free to effect change in their lives by choosing to see their situation differently
35
Evaluate what Skinner proposed about free will
Free will is an illusion
Being able to decide between different courses of action is not free will but it may simply give us the illusion of having free will according to him
Skinners point was that a person may choose to buy a particular car for example or go to see a particular film, but in fact these choices are determined by previous reinforcement experiences
36
Evaluate how believing we have free will can benefit
Every day experience gives us the impression that we are constantly exercising our free will through all the different choices we make on any given day. This may give face validity into the concept of free will and research suggests that people who have an internal locus of control, which is to believe that they have a high degree of influence over events and their own behaviour, tend to be more mentally healthy. A study by Robert et al showed adolescence with a strong belief in fatalism, which is to say that they believed their lives were decided by events outside their control, were at a significantly higher risk of developing depression
This suggests that even if we do not actually have free will, the fact that we think we do has a positive impact on our mind and behaviour
37
Evaluate neurological studies of decision-making which suggested we have no free will
Studies suggest our behaviour is predetermined
Studies by Libet have demonstrated that brain activity determines the outcome of simple choices we make before we are aware of them
The researchers found that activity related to whether to press a button with the right or left hand occurs in the brain up to 10 seconds before the participants reported to being consciously aware of making the decision
This demonstrated even our most basic experience of free will is determined by our brain before we are even aware ourselves
38
What is determinism?
Opposite of free will
Idea that we have no control or choice in the actions we take
39
What are some examples of determinants of our behaviour?
Biology (i.e. genetic, hormones)
Learning and even thought
40
What is biological determinism?
One viewpoint and research into the human genome is producing increasing amounts of evidence of genetic influences on behaviour
e.g. research into intelligence has identified a particular genes in people with high intelligence such as the IGF2R gene
Genetics in turn influence the structure of the brain and neurotransmitters such as serotonin and dopamine have also been found to influence behaviour in people, including disorders such as schizophrenia
41
What is environmental determinism?
Behaviourists believe all behaviour is due to previous experience and through the processes of classical conditioning and operant conditioning
For example, phobias have been described as developing due to a consequence of condition i.e. a fear of dogs due to previously having been bitten
Treatments such as systematic desensitisation have also shown how phobic responses can be unlearned
Learning theory has also been applied in a variety of different explanations from aggression to eating behaviour too
42
What is psychic determinism?
Based on Freud's psychoanalytical theory of personality and suggests that adult behaviour determined by a mixture of innate drivers and early experience
According to Freud, behaviour is driven by the libido which focuses on erogenous zones such as the mouth and anus
If a child becomes frustrated or overindulged during any stage of their development, then according to this theory, the libido is tied to that specific erogenous zone and the individual is fixated on that area
The method of obtaining the satisfaction that characterised the stage will dominate their adult personality
43
Evaluate a weakness of biological determinism
It is unlikely that 100% of genetic determination will ever be found for any types of behaviour. For example, studies that compare identical twins who have the exact same genetic make up have only found approximately 80% similarity on intelligence or about 40% similarity for disorders such as depression
In other words, if one twin has a high IQ there's only an 80% chance that the other twin will have the same despite being genetically identical
Therefore genes do not determine behaviour entirely and environmental influences are also believed to still play a role
44
Evaluate the view that there is no such thing as total determinism
Dennett
Chaos theory proposes that very small changes in initial conditions can subsequently result in major changes also known as the butterfly effect
Therefore the conclusion is that causal relationships are actually probabilistic rather than deterministic, which means they increase the probability of something occurring rather than being the sole cause
45
Evaluate the weakness that deterministic explanations oversimplify human behaviour
Another issue is determinist explanations have a tendency to oversimplify human behaviour
Deterministic explanations may be appropriate for non-human animals, but human behaviour may be less rigid or influenced by such innate drives
For example, cognitive factors such as thinking, values, beliefs systems may all play a role in overriding biological impulses
46
Evaluate the risk of deterministic explanations in criminals
People may use them as an excuse for their behaviour
For example, in criminal cases in the US murderers may claim that their behaviour is determined by inherited aggressive genetics or tendencies and therefore should not be punished or held accountable for the behaviours
One such case is Steven Mobley, who killed a pizza shop manager in 1981, but claimed this happened because he was "born to kill" and this was evidenced by his family history of violence
This defence was rejected and Mobley was sentenced to death, however it highlights the problematic nature of a deterministic person
47
What is the nature-nurture debate?
Concerns the question as to how much of our behaviour is down to biology or the environment
48
What is nativism?
Term used to describe the stance that is in agreement with the nature side of the argument
49
Who introduced nativism and what did he say?
Descartes suggested that when born, the human soul is already equipped with an understanding of certain key concepts such as time
50
Genetic explanations for the nature side
Family, twin and adoption studies have shown that the closer people are genetically, the more likely they are to develop similar behaviours
This has shown true for disorders such as schizophrenia and criminal behaviours
e.g. concordance rates between genetically identical twins is 40% while non-identical twins have concordance rates of 7%
51
Evolutionary explanations for the nature side
Suggest that a behavioural characteristic that promotes survival and reproduction will be naturally selected
This is based on Darwin's theory of natural selection and proposes that behaviours and characteristics that are adaptive will be passed on the subsequent generations as they aid survival production
e.g. Bowlby proposed that attachment was adaptive as it meant that an infant was more likely to be protected and therefore survive
Bowlby also proposed that attachment promoted close relationships which would foster successful reproduction, thus attachment behaviours are naturally selected through genetic mechanisms
52
What did philosopher John Locke describe newborn infants as?
A blank slate on which experience is written
53
Describe behaviourism in the role of nurture
Take the view that all behaviour can be explained in terms of experience with Pavlov using the concept of classical and operant conditioning to explain how learning occurred
Attachment is explained by behaviourists in terms of classical conditioning, for example, the mother is associated with food which brings pleasure, or operant conditioning as food reduces the discomfort of hunger and is therefore rewarding
54
Describe social learning theory in the role of nurture
Proposed by Bandura, this behaviour has acquired through the learning and added the new dimension of indirect (vicarious) reinforcement
Bandura acknowledged that biology did have a role to play, for example, he acknowledged that the urge to behave aggressively might be biological, but the important point regarding social learning theory was a person learns to express anger through environmental influences whether through direct or indirect reinforcement
55
What is the interactionist approach?
Sits between nature and nurture
Argues the true answer is both genetics and the environment play a part in behaviour
This approach proposes that genetics give us a predisposition and potential to act in a certain way however the expression of these genetics is moderated by the environment
An example is intelligence where it argues that we have a genetic predisposition to attain a certain level of intelligence and we can only reach this potential if the environment is ideal
56
Evaluate the diathesis-stress model for the nature-nurture debate
One way in which the nature-nurture debate has been conceptualised is via the diatheses-stress model.
The diatheses-stress model is often used to explain mental disorders such as schizophrenia or phobias and suggest that people may be born with certain genes that predisposition them to develop a certain order. Through identical twin studies research has shown that both twins may not develop a disorder even if one already has such which suggests that the expression of a gene depends on experience or psychological stressors that trigger the condition. This means that a persons predisposition will only be expressed if triggered through sufficient environmental stressors.
57
Evaluate the suggested explanation that nature may affect nurture with genes exerting an influence in a number of ways
For example a child who is more aggressive due to the genetics may in turn evoke an aggressive response from those around it. This response then becomes part of the child's environment and affects the child's development and upbringing causing it to become even more aggressive. Another view point is it may be nurture that affects nature. Maguire et al (2000) studied London taxi drivers and showed that the region of the brain is associated with spatial memory is bigger than in control groups. This is not because they were born this way but because the hippocampus had responded to increased use. This demonstrates how environmental factors may intern affect biological elements.
58
Evaluate the issue in attempting to identify whether it is nature or nurture that is causing behaviour
It is incredibly difficult to separate the two and how they have influence and individual
For example, even in identical twin studies it can be argued that both twins having an almost identical upbringing and environment may be causing the higher concordance rates. Identical twins may be treated exactly the same by friends and family where as non-identical twins may be treated as more individuals which would explain the lower concordance rates among them.
59
What is holism and reductionism about?
Explaining behaviour at different levels
60
What is reductionism?
Analysing behaviour and breaking it down into its individual parts and it is based on the scientific principle of parsimony: the view that all phenomena can be explained using the basic principles
61
What is holism?
The whole is greater than the sum of its parts
Proposes that the idea or attempt to break up behaviour is inappropriate as it can only be understood by analysing the person or behaviour as a whole
62
What is biological reductionism?
Looks to explain behaviour using biological systems which could include genetics, physiology of the body and brain, biochemistry such as hormones and neurotransmitters and even evolution
It is referred to as biological reductionism because in terms of the level of explanation it is as reductionist in psychology goes as you are breaking behaviour down to the fundamental basics
e.g. it has been suggested that schizophrenia is caused by excessive amounts of the neurotransmitter dopamine and because drugs block dopamine, this in effect reduces the symptoms of the disorder
63
What is environmental reductionism?
Linked to the behaviourist approach
Proposes that all behaviour can be explained in terms of simple stimulus-response relationships between behaviour and events and the environment.
For example the behaviourist explanation offered for attachment is reduced to a set of probabilities where the mother is likely to provide food which is reinforcing (reduces discomfort) hence she is seen as a rewarding individual which becomes conflated with being 'loved'.
64
What viewpoint do humanists take in holism reductionism?
Holism
Believes individuals react as an organised whole rather than a set of stimulus response machines
65
What are the levels of explanation?
Socio-cultural level
Psychological level
Physical level
Environmental/behavioural level
Physiological level
Neurochemical level
66
Apply levels of explanations to OCD
Socio-cultural level: e.g. OCD interrupts social relationships
Psychological level: e.g. the person's experience of anxiety
Physical level: e.g. washing one's hands
Environmental/behavioural level: learning experiences
Physiological level: e.g. abnormal functioning in the frontal lobes
Neurological level: e.g. underproduction of serotonin
67
Evaluate the limitation of practical of the holistic approach
Holistic accounts of human behaviour tend to become hard to use as they become more complex
This can present researchers with a practical dilemma
If we accept, from a humanist perspective, that there are many different factors contribute to depression then it becomes difficult to know which is most influential
It is then difficult to know which to prioritise as the basis of therapy
This suggests that holistic accounts may lack practical value whereas reductionist accounts may be better
68
Evaluate the strength of the reductionist approach forming the basis of a scientific approach
In order to conduct well-controlled research we need to operationalise the variables to be studied - to break target behaviours down into constituent parts
This makes it possible to conduct experiments or record observations in a way that is objective and reliable
For example, research on attachment operationalised component behaviours such as separation anxiety
The scientific approach gives psychology greater credibility, placing it on equal terms with the natural sciences
69
Evaluate the counterpoint to reductionism forming the basis of a scientific approach
Reductionist approaches have been accused of oversimplifying complex phenomena, leading to reduced validity
Explanations that operate at the level of the gene or neurotransmitter do not include an analysis of the social context within which the behaviour occurs - and this is where behaviour may derive from its meaning
For instance, the physiological processes involved in pointing ones finger will be the same regardless of the context, but an analysis of these will not tell us why the finger is pointed
This suggests that reductionist explanations can only ever form part of an explanation
70
Evaluate the limitation of reduction of how behaviours can only be understood at a higher level
Often, there are aspects of social behaviour that only emerge within a group context and cannot be understood in terms of individual group members
For instance, the effects of conformity to social roles in prisoners and guards in the Stanford prison study could not be understood by observing the participants as individuals
It was the interaction between people and the behaviour of the group that was important
There is no conformity gene so social processes like conformity can only be explained at the level at which they occur
This suggests that, for some behaviours, higher level explanations provide a more valid account
71
What is the idiographic approach?
An approach to research that focuses on the individual case as a means of understanding behaviour, rather than aiming to formulate general laws of behaviour
72
What is the nomothetic approach?
Aims to study human behaviour through the development of general principles and universal laws
73
What is the idiographic approach to psychological explanation?
Number of ppts is small, often a single case
Some research might include information from family, friends or others, but the focus is on detail - what can we learn about this individual case?
This does not mean generalisations are not made - but the initial focus is understanding the individual
74
What type of research is idiographic research?
Qualitative
75
Explain how qualitative research is used for the idiographic approach?
Research on depression would be based on first-hand accounts from a small number of people
Participants would be interviewed in depth and focus may be on a particular facet of human behaviour, such as how the participants coped with their experiences (using a fairly unstructured interview)
Such data is then analysed and emergent themes are identified
Conclusions may help other people going through similar experiences, or more widely, may help mental health professionals determine best practice
76
Give an example in psychology of the idiographic approach being used to psychological investigation
Most associated with the humanistic and psychodynamic approaches
Carl Rogers sought to explain the process of self-development including the role of unconditional positive regard
This was derived from in-depth conversations with clients in therapy
Sigmund Freud's careful observations of individuals were the basis of his explanations on human nature, for example the case of Little Hans who used to explain how a phobia might develop
77
What is the nomothetic approach to psychological explanation?
Main aim of the approach is generalisation in order to create 'laws' i.e. create general principles of behaviour which then could be applied to individual situations such as drug therapy
78
What research type does nomothetic research use?
Quantitative research
79
How is quantitative research used for the nomothetic approach?
Nomothetic research most closely fits traditional models of 'scientific method' in psychology
Hypotheses are formulated, sample of people are assessed in some way (perhaps via a structured questionnaire or using psychological tests) and the numerical data produced is analysed for its statistical significance. Nomothetic approaches seek to quantify human behaviour
80
Provide examples in psychology of how the nomothetic approach is used for psychological investigation
The behaviourist and biological approaches are nomothetic despite sometimes using small samples
B.F. Skinner studied animals to develop the general laws of learning. His research looked at one aspect of behaviour in a few animals but the main aim was to establish general laws
Similarly, biological psychology may use a small sample, such as Roger Sperry's split-brain research which involved repeated testing and was, in part, the basis for understanding hemispheric lateralisation
81
Is the nomothetic approach objective or subjective?
Objective
Laws of behaviour are only possible if methods of assessment are delivered in a standardised and objective way
This ensures true replication occurs across samples of behaviour and removes the contaminating influence of bias
82
Is the idiographic approach objective or subjective?
It is people's individual experience of their unique context that is important, rather than some underlying reality 'out there' that is waiting to be discovered
83
Evaluate the strength of the idiographic approach that it contributes to the nomothetic approach
Uses in-depth qualitative methods of investigation and this provides a global description of one individual
This may complement the nomothetic approach by shedding further light on general laws or indeed by challenging such laws
For example, a single case may generate hypotheses for further study (patient HM) - the pebble that starts an avalanche
Cases like HM may reveal important insights about normal functioning which may contribute to our overall understanding
84
Evaluate the counterpoint of the strength of the idiographic approach that it contributes to the nomothetic approach
Supporters of the idiographic approach should still acknowledge the narrow and restricted nature of their work
Meaningful generalisations cannot be made without further examples, as this means there is no adequate baseline with which to compare behaviour.
In addition, methods associated with the idiographic approach, such as case studies, tend to be the least scientific in that conclusions often rely on the subjective interpretation of the researcher and, as such, open to bias
This suggests that it is difficult to build effective general theories of human behaviour in the complete absence of the nomothetic approach
85
Evaluate how both approaches have the strength of having scientific credibility
Both fit in with the aims of science
The processes involved in nomothetic research are similar to those used in the natural sciences, for example establishing objectivity through standardisation, control and statistical testing
However, the researchers using the idiographic approach also seek to objectify their methods
E.g. triangulation is used whereby findings from a range of studies using different qualitative methods are compared as a way of increasing their validity
Also, modern qualitative researchers are careful to reflect upon their own biases and preconceptions as part of the research process
This suggests that both the nomothetic and idiographic approaches raise psychology's status as a science
86
Evaluate the limitation of the nomothetic approach has a loss of understanding of the individual
The fact that the nomothetic approach is preoccupied with general laws, prediction and control means it has been accused of 'losing the whole person' in psychology.
For example, knowing that there is a 1% lifetime risk of developing schizophrenia tells us little about what life is like for someone who has been diagnosed with the disorder
understanding subjective experience of schizophrenia might well prove useful when devising appropriate treatment options
This means, in its search for generalities, the nomothetic approach may sometimes fail to relate to 'experience'
87
What are ethical implications?
The consequences of any research in terms of the effects on individual participants or on the way in which certain groups of people are subsequently regarded
There may also be concern on a wider societal level
88
What is social sensitivity?
Sieber and Stanley define socially sensitive research as, 'studies in which there are potential consequences or implications, either directly for the participants in the research or for the class of individuals represented by the research'
89
Describe the research question for implications for dealing with participants
Issues such as informed consent, confidentiality and psychological harm may be especially important for socially sensitive research
For example, in a study on domestic abuse participants may worry that an ex-partner will find out about the study and also it is likely to be extremely stressful for participants to describe their experiences
Such participants may provide informed consent at the start of the study but not fully understand the effect of the research
89
Describe the research question for implications for the research process
Sieber and Stanley warn that the way in which research questions are phrased and investigated may influence the way in which findings are interpreted
For example, Coyle et al note how research into relationships has been guilty of a form of 'heterosexual bias' within which homosexual relationships were compared and judged.
90
Describe the research question for implications for the way findings are used
Researchers should consider in advance how research findings may be used
It may impact on what data they actually collect
This is especially important because findings from research may be seen as giving scientific credence to existing prejudices, such as studies examining the impact of early IQ testing
Furthermore, sensitive information is exactly what the media tend to be interested in and will publicise
For example, Adrian Owen's research on people in a minimally conscious state received enormous media attention at the time, as it appeared he has made contact with patients who were thought to be 'unreachable'
91
Evaluate the strength of how socially sensitive research can have benefits for the group who have been studied
One example of this is homosexuality
In 1952, the DSM-1 listed this as 'sociopathic personality disorder' nut finally removed it in 1973
This change has been credited to the Kinsey report which was based on anonymous interviews with over 5000 men about their sexual behaviour
The report concluded that homosexuality is a typical expression of human sexual behaviour
The report also included data on interviews with 6000 women and caused outrage at the time as these were topics that no one discussed
This illustrates the importance of researchers tackling topics that are sensitive
92
Evaluate a limitation that poor research design may lead to erroneous findings
Once these findings are in the public arena, continue to have an impact
This was the case in relation to Burt's research because, even after the fraud was exposed, the 11+ continues to be used
The 11+ is still used as a selection tool in many parts of the UK today
Similarly, access to many independent schools is based on a child's performance in an entrance exam taken in year 6 and is likely based on the same reasoning - the genetic potential has revealed itself by this age
Therefore any research on socially sensitive topics needs to be planned with the greatest care to ensure findings are valid because of enduring effects on particular groups of people
92
Evaluate the counterpoint to the strength of how socially sensitive research can have benefits for the group who have been studied
However, in some studies there could be negative consequences to the groups being studied, which in some cases could have been anticipated
For example, research investigating the genetic bases of criminality found that there is a criminal gene
If this is true does it mean that someone could be convicted on the basis that they have such a gene or should they be excused as they cannot be help responsible for any wrongdoing?
This suggests that, when researching socially sensitive topics, there is a need for very careful consideration of the possible outcomes and their consequences
93
Evaluate the strength that certain groups rely on research related to socially sensitive issues as real-world application
The government looks to research when developing important social policies, for example decisions related to child care, education, mental health provision, crime and so on
It is clearly preferable to base such policies on scientific research rather than politically-motivated views
For this reason in the UK there are independent groups such as the ONS who describe themselves as being responsible for collecting, analysing and disseminating objective statistics about the UK's economy, society and population
Such data is used in psychological research
This means that psychologists have an important role to play in providing high quality research on socially sensitive topics
