Relationships

Question 1

What is sexual selection?

Answer 1

The view that competition for mates between individuals of the same sex affects the evolution of certain traits

Question 2

What is the benefit of animals having specific features?

Answer 2

Survival of the fittest
If it provides a benefit to survival e.g. giraffe long neck eat leaves
Also possess features that make them attractive to members of the opposite sex and to allow them to compete better with members of the same sex

Question 3

What is Anisogamy?

Answer 3

Refers to the differences between m and f sex cells (gametes)

Question 4

What is anisogamy for men?

Answer 4

Males produce millions of sperm as they cannot be sure of paternity and can in theory reproduce with very little cost to their reproductive fitness, mating with millions of women if they had access to them

Question 5

What is anisogamy for women?

Answer 5

Certain of paternity and produce very limited eggs in their lifetime (about 300), many of which will not be used. When they do mate they are left vulnerable during pregnancy and for many years following raising the child which requires a great deal of investment from the female.

Question 6

What is intersexual selection?

Answer 6

Between the sexes
Preferred strategy of the female, quality over quantity
Trivers pointed out that the female makes a greater investment of time, commitment and other resources before, during and after birth of her offspring.
Optimum mating strategy is to produce the most genetically fit partner who is able to provide resources

Question 7

What is the runaway process?

Answer 7

Females would select e.g. the tallest males in each generation and thus that characteristic becomes exaggerated

Question 8

What is Fisher’s sexy son hypothesis?

Answer 8

The genes we see today are those that enhanced reproductive success
A female who mates with a male with a certain characteristic then will then have sons who inherit this ‘sexy’ trait. Then her sons are also more likely to be selected by successive generations of females who will mate with her offspring. Therefore, the preference for this ‘sexy’ trait is perpetuated

Question 9

What is intra-sexual selection?

Answer 9

Within each sex - such as strategies between males to be the one selected
Preferred strategy of the male, quantity over quality
Competition between males to be selected to mate with a female. Winner of competition reproduces and therefore the characteristics that contributed to his victory may be passed on to his offspring

Question 10

What is dimorphism?

Answer 10

‘Two forms’
Males and females end up looking very different because of intra-sexual selection.

Question 11

What are there behavioural consequences of intra-sexual selection?

Answer 11

Characteristics that are favoured and passed on are those that allow a male to outcompete his rivals, including deceitfulness, intelligence and aggression. e.g. males may benefit form behaving aggressively in order to acquire fertile females and protect them from competing males
This leads to the selection of aggressiveness in males

Question 12

Evaluate research support for inter-sexual selection?

Answer 12

One strength - evidence supporting the specific role of female choosiness in heterosexual partner preference
Clark and Hatfield sent male and female psychology students out across a uni campus
They approached other students individually, asking “I have been noticing you around campus. I find you very attractive. Would you go to bed with me tonight?”
No female agreed but 75% of males did
This supports the view that females are choosier than males when it comes to selecting sexual partners and that males have evolved a different strategy to ensure reproductive success

Question 13

Evaluate counterpoint to research support for inter-sexual selection?

Answer 13

The argument from sexual selection that one strategy is adaptive for all males and another is adaptive for all females is simplistic. At the very least it appears that strategies differ according to the length of the relationship
Sexual strategies theory by Buss and Schmitt argues that both male and females adopt similar mating strategies when seeking long-term relationships
Both sexes are very choosy and look for partners who are loving, loyal, kind etc.
This is a more complex and nuanced view of how evolutionary pressures influence partner preferences which takes account of the context of reproductive behaviour

Question 14

Evaluate research support for intra-sexual selection

Answer 14

Another strength is evidence to support the predictions of the sexual selection theory
Buss carried out a survey of 10,000 adults in 33 countries
He asked questions relating to a variety of attributes that evolutionary theory predicts are important in partner preference.
He found that females placed greater value on resource-related characteristics than males did, such as good financial prospects and ambition.
Males valued physical attractiveness and youth (as signs of good reproductive capacity) more than females did
These findings reflect consistent sex differences in partner preferences and support the predictions from sexual selection theory

Question 15

Evaluate how social and cultural influences are underestimated

Answer 15

One limitation is that evolutionary theories overlook the influences of social and cultural factors on partner preference
Partner preferences over the past century have been influenced by rapidly changing social norms of behaviour
These develop much faster than evolutionary timescales imply and have instead come about due to cultural factors (e.g. availability of contraception)
Women’s greater role in the workplace mean they are no longer dependent on men to provide for them (despite the ongoing inequality in earning power).
Bereczkei et al argue that this social change has consequences for women’s mate preferences which may no longer be resource-oriented
Therefore, partner preferences today are likely to be the outcome of a combination of evolutionary and cultural influences
Any theory that fails to account for both is a limited explanation

Question 16

What is self-disclosure?

Answer 16

Revealing personal information about yourself
Romantic partners reveal more about their true selves as their relationship develops
These self-disclosures about one’s deepest thoughts and feelings can strengthen a romantic bond when used appropriately

Question 17

Who developed the social penetration theory?

Answer 17

Altman and Taylor

Question 18

What is the social penetration theory?

Answer 18

Gradual process of revealing your inner self to someone else, giving away your deepest thoughts and feelings
In romantic relationships, it involves the reciprocal exchange of information between intimate partners.
As they increasingly disclose more and more, romantic partners ‘penetrate’ more deeply into each other’s lives and gain a greater understanding of each other.

Question 19

Who developed the idea of Breadth and Depth of self-disclosure?

Answer 19

Altman and Taylor

Question 20

What is breadth and depth of self-disclosure?

Answer 20

As both of these increase, romantic partners become more committed to each other.
Altman and Taylor refer to this process having many layers with us disclosing lots of information about ourselves at the start but this being mostly superficial and low risk information that we would normally reveal to to those around our social circle.
The breadth of topics we discuss is narrow at this point as many topics are “off-limits” in the early stages of a relationship.
Revealing too much at this point could threaten the relationship as the other person feels put off before the relationship has any chance to establish itself.
Moderate levels of self-disclosure in the early stages are seen as most effective with Derlaga et al (1979) suggesting the listener should know them better without the information being too personal.

Question 21

What did Reis and Shaver say about self-disclosure?

Answer 21

For a relationship to develop, as well as increase in breadth and depth there needs to be a reciprocal element to disclosure
Once you have decided to disclose something that reveals your true self, hopefully your partner will respond in a way that is rewarding, with empathy and their own intimate thoughts and feelings
So there is a balance of self-disclosure between both partners in a successful romantic relationship, which increases feelings of intimacy and deepens the relationship

Question 22

Evaluate research support for self-disclosure

Answer 22

Hendrick
Predictions about self-disclosure by social penetration theory have been supported with researchers finding strong correlations between several measures of satisfaction and self-disclosure within heterosexual relationships.
Men and women who used self-disclosure reported to believe their partners did the same and rated themselves as more satisfied and committed to their relationships.
Research by Laurenceau (2005) has found the reverse is also true with less intimate couples self-disclosing less often also. This research support for self-disclosure suggests it is important and has validity.

Question 23

Evaluate a counterpoint to Hendrick’s research

Answer 23

Much self-disclosure research is not correlational, including Sprecher and Hendrick’s study
It is usually assumed that greater self-disclosure creates more satisfaction by a correlation does not tell us of this is a valid conclusion to draw
Alternative explanations are just as likely
For instance, it may be that the more satisfied the partners are, the more they self-disclose.
Or perhaps self-disclosure and satisfaction are independent of each other and both are caused by a third variable
This could be the amount of time the partners spend together
Therefore self-disclosures may not cause satisfaction directly, reducing the validity of social penetration theory of self-disclosure

Question 24

Evaluate how research into self-disclosure has real world application

Answer 24

Self-disclosure research does provide us with real-world applications as it can help improve relationships through better communication. If self-disclosure can improve intimacy then partners who are less skilled at communication can be taught to open up and share more about themselves. This can help improve relationships as part of counselling or couples therapy to save relationships to increase satisfaction and commitment.

Question 25

Evaluate cultural differences of self-disclosure

Answer 25

Limitation Not true for all cultures that increasing depth and breadth of self-disclosure leads to a more satisfying and intimate romantic relationship Tang et al reviewed research into sexual self-disclosure They concluded that men and women in the US self-disclose significantly more sexual thoughts than men and women in China Despite lower levels of disclosure in Chine, levels of satisfaction were no different from those in the US Therefore self-disclosure theory is a limited explanation of romantic relationships because it is based on findings from individualist cultures which are no necessarily generalisable to other cultures

Question 26

What is physical attractiveness?

Answer 26

How appealing we find someone

Question 27

What did Shackleford and Larsen suggest about physical attractiveness?

Answer 27

Suggests we find symmetrical faces more attractive

Question 28

What is the theory behind finding symmetrical faces more attractive?

Answer 28

Symmetry is a signal for genetic fitness as it is difficult to produce and thus can be used by both genders to determine the genetic quality of a possible mate.

Question 29

Why do men find partners who appear physically more pleasing?

Answer 29

Appearance in women is a key sign of fertility for men and therefore they are likely to focus on finding partners who appear physically more pleasing. This could be based on optimum hip-to-waist ratios, youth and appearance of good health (long hair, big childlike eyes, good skin) as this shows they are fertile.

Question 30

Why do women find partners who appear physically more pleasing?

Answer 30

Focus on physical qualities such as strong jawlines, strength, wide backs as this shows good genes which can be passed on to their children.

Question 31

Describe what Walster x2 said about physical attractiveness

Answer 31

Walster and Walster The matching hypothesis suggests we look for partners who are similar to ourselves in terms of physical attractiveness instead of choosing the most appealing people

Question 31

What is the halo effect?

Answer 31

Individuals seen as attractive are also seen to possess more desirable personality traits such as being trustworthy, optimistic and sociable. This is referred to as the halo effect, where a favourable impression is formed of someone based on one characteristic which in this case is physical attractiveness. Dion et al found that physically attractive people were consistently rated as kind, strong and sociable compared to unattractive people suggesting physical attraction can disproportionately influence peoples judgement towards them favourably.

Question 32

Describe the procedure for the computer dance

Answer 32

Male and female students were invited to a dance They were rated for physical attractiveness by objective observers at the start and also completed a questionnaire about themselves They were told the data about themselves and that this information would be used by a computer to decide their partner for the evening (they were paired up randomly)

Question 33

Describe the findings for the computer dance

Answer 33

The hypothesis was not supported The most liked partners were also the most physically attractive rather than taking their own attractiveness into account However, Berscheid et al replicated the study but this time participants tended to choose their own partners who matched them in physical attractiveness

Question 34

Describe the conclusions for the computer dance

Answer 34

We tend to seek and choose partners whose attractiveness matches our own For example, if we judge ourselves a 6 out of 10 then we are likely to seek a mate of a similar level of attractiveness Therefore choice of partner is a compromise - we risk rejection in selecting the most attractive people available so we settle on those who are 'in our league' physically

Question 35

Evaluate research support for the halo effect

Answer 35

One strength is evidence that physical attractiveness is associated with the halo effect Palmer and Peterson found that physically attractive people were rated as more politically knowledgeable and competent than unattractive people This halo effect was so powerful that it persisted even when participants knew that these 'knowledgeable' people had no expertise This findings has implications for the political process - it suggests there are dangers for democracy if politicians are judged as suitable for office just because there are considered physically attractive by enough voters Palmer and Peterson (2015) looked at American election survey data and found that people rated physically attractive people as more knowledgeable and more persuasive, supporting the existence of the halo effect. Further, a meta-analysis from Eagly et al (1991) found subjects were more likely to ascribe positive personality traits to attractive people than unattractive people, but that the halo effect is not as strong as often thought.

Question 36

Evaluate evolutionary explanation for the role of physical attractiveness?

Answer 36

Another strength is that the role of physical attractiveness is research support for evolutionary processes Cunningham et al found that women who has features of large eyes, prominent cheekbones, small nose and high eyebrows were rated as highly attractive by white, Hispanic and Asian men The researchers concluded that what is considered physically attractive is remarkable consistent across different societies Attractive features (symmetry) are a sign of genetic fitness and therefore perpetuated similarly in all cultures (sexual selection) Therefore the importance of physical attractiveness makes sense at an evolutionary level

Question 37

Evaluate evidence against the matching hypothesis

Answer 37

Walster et al’s own study did not support the matching hypothesis, as the participants preferred partners who were more attractive than them rather than equally attractive. Further evidence against the matching hypothesis is found in Taylor et al (2011), who found that participants using online dating services did not consider their own attractiveness when seeking dates and instead sought partners more attractive than themselves

Question 38

What is the filter theory and who created it?

Answer 38

Kerckhoff and Davis Says that we select partners by narrowing down the available options using three filters

Question 39

What are the three filters of the filter theory?

Answer 39

Social demography Similarity of attitudes Complementarity

Question 40

What is social demography in the filter theory?

Answer 40

These are the basic facts that determine whether a relationship is even practical. For example, if someone lives really far away it is likely to decrease the attractiveness of a relationship with them because you will never see them. Examples: Same town, same social class, same religion.

Question 41

What is similarity of attitudes in the filter theory?

Answer 41

People tend to be attracted to people with similar values to them. Within the first 18 months of a relationship, partners self-disclose information that enables them to suss out each others’ values and attitudes. If there are few similarities in attitudes, relationships tend not to last beyond 18 months. E.g. Both partners believe family is really important.

Question 42

What is complementarity in the filter theory?

Answer 42

When each partner has traits that the other lacks. This makes couples feel like they ‘complete’ each other, and that they fulfil each other’s needs. E.g. One partner has a caring nature, the other likes to be cared for.

Question 43

Evaluate face validity as a strength of the filter theory

Answer 43

Many aspects of filter theory seem to be common-sense reasons for attraction. For example, it seems obvious that a person would pursue a relationship with someone nearby so that they can actually meet up with them. Similarly, common-sense might suggest that pursuing a relationship with someone you disagree with on fundamental values and attitudes is not a good idea.

Question 44

Evaluate evidence supporting filter theory

Answer 44

Winch (1959) found that similarity of attitudes was important for couples in the early stages of a relationship and that complementarity becomes more important in long-term relationships. This supports two of the three filters (similarity of attitudes and complementarity) of filter theory as factors in attraction.

Question 45

Evaluate cause and effect as a weakness of filter theory

Answer 45

Some research suggests similarity of attitudes is an effect of being in a relationship, rather than a filter through which we select partners. For example, Davis and Rusbult (2001) found that partners’ attitudes change over time to become more aligned (rather than that partners select each other because their attitudes align).

Question 46

Evaluate questions of temporal validity as a weakness of filter theory

Answer 46

The growth of online dating may have reduced the importance of social demography as a filter. For example, people may be more likely to interact with and date people outside their social class or religion.

Question 47

What is social exchange theory?

Answer 47

The name for a range of theories that view romantic relationships economically in terms of costs vs. benefits. If the benefits outweigh the costs, the relationship is ‘profitable’ and there is a desire to maintain it. However, if the costs outweigh the benefits for one of the partners, that partner will break the relationship off as it is no longer profitable to them.

Question 48

What is comparison level in SET?

Answer 48

Profitability of the current relationship

Question 49

What is comparison level for alternatives in the SET?

Answer 49

Potential profitability of alternative relationships If a partner judges an alternative relationship to be more profitable than the current one, they may break off the current relationship – even if it is profitable – to pursue a more profitable alternative relationship.

Question 50

Describe Thibaut and Kelley's model of the stages of relationships

Answer 50

Sampling: Thinking about the costs and benefits of entering into a relationship with someone. Bargaining: The relationship is tested out and the partners negotiate costs and benefits to see if the relationship is worth pursuing further. Commitment: The relationship is established and the costs and benefits are predictable. Institutionalisation: The couple are settled and stable because the norms of the relationship are established.

Question 51

Evaluate evidence supporting the SET

Answer 51

Rusbult (1983) conducted a longitudinal study and found that increases in the rewards associated with a relationship led to increased satisfaction with that relationship, supporting social exchange theory. However, Rusbult also found that increases in the costs associated with a relationship did not decrease relationship satisfaction, weakening support for social exchange theory.

Question 52

Evaluate how SET forms the basis of other theories

Answer 52

Other relationship theories, such as equity theory and Rusbult’s investment model, build on social exchange theory.

Question 53

Evaluate the weakness of SET that it does not consider other factors

Answer 53

Social exchange theory may miss other factors that are important in relationships. For example, Hatfield et al (1984) found equity to be an important factor in relationship satisfaction – a factor not included in social exchange theory. Similarly, Rusbult (1983) and Lin and Rusbult (1995) found evidence to support investment in a relationship to be an important factor but again this factor is not included in social exchange theory.

Question 54

Evaluate questions of external validity as a weakness of SET

Answer 54

Much of the data supporting social exchange theory comes from artificial tasks (e.g. two people are put together for the purposes of the study to see how they act in a game with rewards and costs) and so the findings may not apply to real-life relationships. Further, when studies do use partners in real-life relationships, the results often fail to support social exchange theory.

Question 55

What is the equity theory?

Answer 55

According to equity theory, relationships are successful if each partner equally bears the same amount of costs and benefits. If one partner is benefiting from the relationship more than the other, this is seen as unfair and leads to relationship dissatisfaction on both sides: The under-benefiting partner may feel angry that they are making all this effort and getting little in return, whereas the over-benefiting partner may feel shame and guilt. So, whereas social exchange theory sees people as selfishly trying to maximise their own benefits in a relationship, equity theory sees people as trying to maximise equity (fairness).

Question 56

What does the equity theory predict about inequity?

Answer 56

Inequity is correlated with relationship dissatisfaction

Question 57

Evaluate evidence supporting equity theory

Answer 57

Hatfield et al (1984) conducted surveys of newlywed couples to find out the perceived level of equity in the relationship as well as the happiness with and stability of that relationship. They found couples in equitable relationships were more likely to be happy with their relationship and considered their relationship more stable in comparison to couples in inequitable relationships. This supports the prediction of equity theory that equity in relationships is correlated with relationship success and vice-versa

Question 58

Evaluate conflicting evidence as a weakness of equity theory

Answer 58

Huseman et al (1987) found that equity is not an important factor in all relationships because some partners are less sensitive to equity than others. This weakens the theory as it provides examples of people who are happy being in inequitable relationships. Further, in a longitudinal study of couples, Berg and McQuinn (1986) found that equity did not increase in many happy relationships (as equity theory would predict) and that factors such as self-disclosure were more important for maintaining a happy relationship than equity.

Question 59

Evaluate questions of cross-cultural validity as a weakness of equity theory

Answer 59

Aumer et al (2007) found different cultures had different attitudes towards the importance of equity in relationships. The researchers found that equity was more important for relationships in individualist cultures than collectivist cultures, and that partners in collectivists cultures were most satisfied in relationships when they were over-benefitting rather than equal.

Question 60

What is Rusbult's investment model?

Answer 60

Rusbult’s (1980, 1983) investment model of relationships includes elements of social exchange theory but also considers each partner’s investment in the relationship.

Question 61

What are the three factors that commitment in a relationship depends on according to Rusbult's investment model?

Answer 61

Satisfaction level Comparing with alternatives Investment size

Question 62

What is satisfaction level in Rusbult’s investment model?

Answer 62

This is similar to social exchange theory in that it is the weighing of costs vs. benefits of being in the relationship. If benefits outweigh costs and the partner’s needs are being met, then satisfaction is high. Satisfaction increases commitment to the relationship.

Question 63

What is comparison with alternatives in Rusbult's investment model?

Answer 63

Also similar to social exchange theory, this is the weighing of the benefits of the current relationship against the benefits of the best possible alternative relationship. If the benefits of the current relationship are greater than alternatives, comparison with alternatives is high. This also increases commitment to the relationship.

Question 64

What is investment size in Rusbult's investment model?

Answer 64

The amount of resources – time, money, effort, etc. – invested into the relationship. Investment also covers things like children, shared friends, shared possessions. These things represent an investment in the relationship that would either suffer or be lost if the relationship were to end. High investment in a relationship also increases commitment to that relationship.

Question 65

Evaluate evidence supporting Rusbult's investment model

Answer 65

A meta-analysis of 52 studies conducted by Le and Agnew (2003) found relationship commitment was positively correlated with all 3 elements of Rusbult’s investment model, supporting the theory.

Question 66

Evaluate cross cultural validity as a strength of Rusbult's investment model?

Answer 66

Lin and Rusbult (1995) surveyed 155 American students and 130 Taiwanese students. They found feelings of relationship commitment were strongest among couples with high satisfaction, high comparison with alternatives, and high investment, supporting all 3 elements of Rusbult’s investment model. Van Lange et al (1997) found similar results among Dutch students. These findings suggest Rusbult’s investment model has cross-cultural validity, as students from multiple different countries felt greater commitment to their relationships when the 3 elements of Rusbult’s investment model were present.

Question 67

Evaluate explanatory power as a strength of Rusbult's model

Answer 67

Rusbult’s model can explain various behaviours in relationships. For example, a person may stay in an abusive relationship – even though satisfaction is low – due to the resources invested in that relationship. Another example is cheating: Rusbult’s model can explain a lack of commitment as a result of low satisfaction and low comparison with alternatives.

Question 68

Evaluate methodological concerns as a weakness of Rustbult's investment model

Answer 68

Much of the data supporting Rusbult’s investment model comes from self-report techniques such as questionnaires. These methods may not produce valid findings, as participants may give answers that are socially desirable rather than honest. Further, many of the studies supporting Rusbult’s investment model are correlational and so do not establish that the 3 elements of Rusbult’s investment model cause relationship commitment. For example, it could be that being in a committed relationship causes one to invest more into that relationship, rather than the other way round.

Question 69

What is Duck's phase model?

Answer 69

Unlike the other theories, Duck’s phase model is not a model of relationships but a model of relationship breakdown (dissolution). According to Duck’s phase model, relationship breakdown is not a one-off event but a process that happens in four stages. Each stage marks a ‘threshold’ at which point the perception of the relationship changes. If the partner does not feel there has been enough change, they may cross the threshold of the next stage, increasing the likelihood of a break-up.

Question 70

What are the four stages of Duck's phase model?

Answer 70

Intrapsychic Dyadic Social Grave-dressing

Question 71

What is the threshold for and describe the intrapsychic phase?

Answer 71

Threshold: I can't stand this anymore Thinking you are dissatisfied with the relationship. Focus on partner’s behaviour. Consider the costs of ending the relationship. Weigh up whether to express the dissatisfaction or repress it.

Question 72

What is the threshold for and describe the dyadic phase?

Answer 72

Threshold: I would be justified in withdrawing Discussing your dissatisfaction with the relationship with your partner. Confront them about their behaviour. Possible attempts to resolve the problem and repair the relationship.

Question 73

What is the threshold for and describe the social phase?

Answer 73

Threshold: I mean it Discussing the relationship with other people outside the relationship. Seek support from friends, family, etc. Negotiate the terms of the break-up with the partner.

Question 74

What is the threshold for and describe the grave-dressing phase

Answer 74

Threshold: It is now inevitable Break up and move on. Come up with stories/explanations of the break-up to tell other people that place blame on the partner and make you look good.

Question 75

Evaluate face validity as a strength of Duck's phase model

Answer 75

Duck’s phase model has face validity as many people who have been through a relationship break-up will have experienced the various stages described.

Question 76

Evaluate practical applications as a strength of Duck's phase model

Answer 76

Rollie and Duck (2006) describe how communication at each of the four stages of the model can revert the relationship to a previous stage and avoid progression towards relationship breakdown. This is a practical application of the model that can produce the positive psychological outcome of avoiding relationship breakdown.

Question 77

Evaluate the weakness of Duck's phase model that it doesn't explain why relationships break down

Answer 77

Duck’s model only describes what the process of relationship dissolution is, but it does not explain why it happens in the first place. A complete psychological model of relationship breakdown would need to include explanations of why the relationship broke down in the first place.

Question 78

Evaluate exceptions as a weakness of Duck's phase model

Answer 78

Although many relationship breakdowns follow Duck’s model, the four stages are not universal. Some relationship breakdowns skip some of the stages and others may go through them in a different order.

Question 79

What are virtual relationships?

Answer 79

Virtual relationships are relationships between people who are connected virtually rather than physically. The internet – social media in particular – enables people to form these relationships, which differ from ordinary physical relationships in terms of self-disclosure and the absence of gating.

Question 80

Describe self-disclosure in virtual relationships

Answer 80

Differences between virtual and face-to-face communication may lead to greater levels of self-disclosure in virtual relationships than in face-to-face interactions

Question 81

What is anonymity in virtual relationships?

Answer 81

Anonymity in virtual relationships may increase self-disclosure. Unlike face-to-face interactions, virtual relationships may be conducted anonymously (e.g. via anonymous forums and burner accounts). This anonymity may increase self-disclosure compared to real-life, as anonymity protects the individual from potential negative social consequences of self-disclosing private or intimate information.

Question 82

What is lack of non-verbal cues in virtual relationships?

Answer 82

Unlike face-to-face interactions, many forms of virtual communication (e.g. direct messaging, email) do not include cues such as body language and tone of voice. This may lead to increased self-disclosure.

Question 83

What model did Walther create?

Answer 83

Hyperpersonal model

Question 84

What did Kiesler and Sproull propose?

Answer 84

That the reduction in non-verbal cues from virtual interactions may make individuals less likely to self-disclose.

Question 85

What is the hyperpersonal model?

Answer 85

Non-verbal cues distract from the content of the communication and so removing them in virtual contexts enables the sender to focus more on how they present themselves, enabling superior (‘hyperpersonal’) communication. The hyperpersonal model is further supported by Jiang et al (2010), who found that disclosure and intimacy were higher in text-based virtual interactions than in face-to-face ones.

Question 86

Evaluate self-disclosure in virtual relationships of the importance of different virtual context

Answer 86

The level of self-disclosure is likely to be very different depending on the context. For example, a post on a public profile linked to your real name and photos (e.g. Instagram) is likely to be curated in order to present the best version of yourself and not disclose embarrassing or intimate information. In contrast, a post to an anonymous forum is likely to involve more self-disclosure because anonymity protects the person from the negative social effects of self-disclosure. This shows that research into self-disclosure in virtual contexts is not one-size-fits-all and must take account of the different virtual contexts.

Question 87

Evaluate the strength of self-disclosure in a mixture of face-to-face and virtual interactions

Answer 87

Many relationships have both a virtual and face-to-face dimension to them. For example, you might meet up with a romantic partner for a date (face-to-face) and then message them later that evening (virtual). Explanations that assume only a virtual or a face-to-face dimension may lack ecological validity as both virtual and face-to-face interactions are likely to have an impact on self-disclosure.

Question 88

What is absence of gating?

Answer 88

This means that factors that might have prevented a relationship forming in real life (i.e. gates to that relationship) are not present in the virtual context.

Question 89

What examples do McKenna and Bargh give of gates?

Answer 89

Facial disfigurement, a stammer, or extreme shyness of social anxiety. However, in the virtual context, these gates do not exist and so a person may be able to form relationships with people who might otherwise reject them because of these reasons.

Question 90

Evaluate positives to the absence of gating

Answer 90

The absence of gating means people are able to overcome barriers that might otherwise prevent them from forming close relationships. For example, McKenna (2002) found that people who are socially anxious in face-to-face settings are better able to express their true selves online, leading to close relationships online. This is further supported by Baker and Oswald (2010), who found that among highly shy people Facebook use was correlated with higher friendship quality. This suggests that shy people are able to use social networks to overcome their shyness, which might otherwise have served as a gate in face-to-face encounters.

Question 91

Evaluate negatives to the absence of gating

Answer 91

However, the absence of gates in virtual settings means people can lie about themselves or create fake personas in order to deceive people into relationships (catfishing).

Question 92

What are parasocial relationships?

Answer 92

One-sided relationships where a person gets attached to someone they don’t know in real life. For example, someone might engage in a parasocial relationship with a celebrity or social media star.

Question 93

Who devised the celebrity attitude scale?

Answer 93

McCutcheon et al

Question 94

What is the celebrity attitude scale?

Answer 94

A questionnaire designed to identify parasocial relationships

Question 95

Who identified three levels of parasocial relationships using the celebrity attitude scale?

Answer 95

Maltby et al

Question 96

What are the three levels of parasocial relationships?

Answer 96

Entertainment-social Intense-personal Borderline-pathological

Question 97

What is the entertainment-social stage of parasocial relationships?

Answer 97

The least extreme form of parasocial relationship. The person sees the celebrity as a source of entertainment and something to discuss socially. E.g. “Reading the news about celebrity X is fun.”

Question 98

What is the intense-personal stage of parasocial relationships?

Answer 98

More intense. The person is personally invested in the celebrity’s life and may have obsessive thoughts about them. E.g. “If some gave me £1000, I would spend it on a personal possession used by celebrity X.”

Question 98

What is the borderline-pathological stage of parasocial relationships?

Answer 98

The most extreme form of parasocial relationship. The person has delusional fantasies about a celebrity and may exhibit irrational behaviour that prevents them living a normal life. E.g. “Celebrity X is my soulmate, I’m going to marry them.”

Question 99

Who proposed the absorption-addiction model?

Answer 99

McCutcheon et al

Question 100

What is the absorption-addiction model?

Answer 100

According to this model, people engage in parasocial relationships to compensate for deficiencies in their lives. For example, a person whose life is boring may follow a celebrity’s life in order to ‘absorb‘ some of the fun they experience. Or similarly, a person who feels unsuccessful in their own life may follow a famous person’s life and absorb the feeling of their success. However, the person may become addicted to these vicarious feelings. When this happens, the person may need to increase the ‘dose’ in a manner similar to physical addiction in order to get the same positive feelings as before. This can lead to the irrational behaviour and delusional fantasies typical of the borderline-pathological level of parasocial relationship.

Question 101

Evaluate practical applications as a strength for the absorption-addiction model of parasocial relationships

Answer 101

Research into the absorption-addiction model has found that teenagers are particularly likely to form parasocial relationships and that stressful life events (e.g. death of a loved one) can trigger these relationships to become more intense (e.g. the borderline-pathological level). These observations can be used to treat and provide support for those most at-risk of developing dangerous parasocial relationships.

Question 102

Evaluate methodological concernes as a weakness for the absorption-addiction model of parasocial relationships

Answer 102

Much of the research into parasocial relationships uses self-report techniques such as questionnaires. These methods may not produce valid findings, as participants may give answers that are socially desirable rather than honest. For example, someone who has thoughts about stalking a celebrity may be embarrassed to admit so in a questionnaire.

Question 103

What is the attachment theory of parasocial relationships

Answer 103

Explains parasocial relationships as a consequence of issues in early attachment.

Question 104

How do individuals behave in parasocial relationships if they had an insecure-resistant attachment in infancy?

Answer 104

Are most likely to engage in parasocial relationships when they grow up. The reasoning behind this is that insecure-resistant infants still desire to form emotional connections (unlike insecure-avoidant infants) but do not want to risk the possibility of rejection that comes with ordinary social relationships. Parasocial relationships thus provide a way for people with insecure-resistant attachment styles to experience the positive emotions of a relationship without the risk of rejection that comes with typical social relationships.

Question 105

Evaluate evidence against the attachment explanation

Answer 105

McCutcheon et al (2006) measured attraction to celebrities and attachment styles in 299 students. Although they found that students with insecure attachment styles were more likely to condone stalking and obsessive behaviours, they found no correlation between insecure attachment styles and attraction to celebrities. This contradicts the prediction of attachment theory that those with insecure attachment styles (particularly insecure-resistant) are more likely to form parasocial relationships.

Question 106

Evaluate methodological concerns in the attachment theory of parasocial relationships

Answer 106

Much of the research into parasocial relationships uses self-report techniques such as questionnaires. These methods may not produce valid findings, as participants may give answers that are socially desirable rather than honest. For example, someone who has thoughts about stalking a celebrity may be embarrassed to admit so in a questionnaire.