Khan Academy 300 Page Document Terms and Concepts Flashcards

Question

The ________ \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ is the sensory system that provides the leading contribution to the sense of balance and spatial orientation for the purpose of coordinating movement and balance.

Answer 1

The **_vestibular system_** is the sensory system that provides the leading contribution to the sense of balance and spatial orientation for the purpose of coordinating movement and balance.

Answer 2

The vestibular system comes from both **_inner ears_** and **_limbs_**

Answer 3

The focus of the *vestibular system* is primarily on the inner ear, in particular, the **_semicircular canals_** (posterior, lateral, and anterior; each orthogonal to each other) of the inner ear.

Answer 4

Our semicircular canals are filled with **_endolymph_**, and when we rotate, the fluid shifts in the semicircular canals–allows us to detect what direction our head is moving in, and because we can detect how quickly the endolymph is moving we can determine the strength of rotation.

Answer 5

The *otolithic organs* are the **_utricle_** and **_saccule_**. The otolithic organs (**_utricle_** and **_saccule_**) help us to detect linear acceleration and head positioning. In these are CaCO₃ (Calcium carbonate) crystals attached to hair cells in a viscous gel. If we go from lying down to standing up, they move and pull on hair cells, which triggers an action potential. These would not work very well w/o gravity! Buoyancy can have effects as well, particularly without visual cues on which way is up/down. * The **_utricle_** and **_saccule_** (Otolithic organs) also contribute to dizziness and vertigo (when you or objects around you are moving when they are not) * Endolymph doesn't stop spinning the same time as we do, so it continues moving and indicates to the brain we're still moving when we've stopped –results in feeling of dizziness

Answer 6

**_Signal Detection Theory_** is a means to measure the ability to differentiate between information-bearing patterns (called *stimulus* in living organisms) and random patterns that distract from the information (called *noise*, consisting of background stimuli and random activity of the detection machine and of the nervous system of the operator) At what point are we able to detect a * Origins in sonar–is signal a small fish vs. large whale. * Its role in psychology–Imagine being given a list. Then a second list. Now experimenter asks, which words on the second list were on the first. Person has to have uncertainty as they are not sure whether a certain word is exact or similar than the one in the first list. (Which words on the second list were present on the first list). * Real world example–traffic lights. It’s foggy day & you have to decide when tostart driving. How strong does a signal have to be for you to drive? Signal ispresent or absent (red).

Answer 7

The options in signal detection theory are **_hit_**, **_miss_**, **_false alarm_**, and **_correct rejection_**. * **_Hit_** - the subject responded affirmative when the signal was present * **_False Alarm_** - the subject perceived a signal when there was none present * **_Correct Rejection_** - a correct negative answer for no signal * **_Miss_** - a negative response to a present signal

Answer 8

For any signal, you have a **_noise distriution_** (background) and you alsogeta second graph of the **_signal distribution_**. * The **_difference between_** the middle signal and noise distribution is **_d'_**. If the signal graph is shifted to the right, you get a larger and more detectible signal. * The X-Axis represents intensity * The strategy C can be expressed via choice of threshold –what threshold individual deems as necessary for them to say Yes vs. No. Ex. B, D, C, beta, just diff variables * If we were to use the strategy B, let’s say choose this threshold –\>2. So anything \> 2 will say Yes, anything \<2, say No. So probability of hit is shaded yellow, and false alarm is purple. * D strategy: D = (d’-B), so let’s say d’ in this example is 1, so 2-1=-1. So if we use D strategy, anything above -1 = Yes; anything below -1 = No * C strategy is an ideal observer. Minimizes miss and false alarm. C = B –d’/2. So in our example, it’s 2-½ = 1.5. So anything above a 1.5 is YES, anything below 1.5 is NO * When C = 0, participant is ideal observer. If \<1 àliberal. If \>1 àconservative * Beta strategy: set value of threshold to the ratio of height of signal distribution to height of noise distribution, i.e. lnbeta = d’ x C = 1 x 1.5 = 1.5. So e^1.5 = beta = 4.48

Answer 9

**_Bottom Up Processing_**: Begins with stimulus. Stimulus influences what we percieve (our perception). AKA perception **_directs_** cognition * No preconceived cognitive contructs of the stimulus (never seen it before) * Data driven. And the stimulus directs cognitive awareness o what you're looking at (object) * Inductive reasoning. Always correct.

Answer 10

**_Top-down Processing_**: uses background knowledge to influence perception. Ex. Where's Waldo * Theory driven * Deductive reasoning, also deductive logic, logical deduction is the process of reasoningfrom one or more statements (premises) to reach a logically certain conclusion. * ex. creating a cube when it is not there! Not always correct

Answer 11

The principles of grouping (or **_Gestalt Principles_** or **_Gestalt Laws of grouping_**) are a set of principles in psychology, first proposed by Gestalt psychologists to account for the observation that humans naturally perceive objects as organized patterns and objects, a principle known as Prägnanz. Gestalt psychologists argued that these principles exist because the mind has an innate disposition to perceive patterns in the stimulus based on certain rules. * What are the five main **_Gestalt Principles_**: *similarity* *pragnanz*, *proximity*, *continuity*, and *closure*.

Answer 12

This is a *Gestalt Principle*. **_Similarity_**: items similar to one another are grouped by the brain. Ex: The brain automatically organizes these squares and circles into columns, and not in rows.

Answer 13

**_Pragnanz_**

Answer 14

**_Proximity_**

Answer 15

**_Continuity_**

Answer 16

**_Closure_**

Answer 17

**_Symmetry_**

Answer 18

The **_Law of Common Fate_**: For example, if there are an array of dots and half the dots are moving upward while the other half are moving downward, we percieve the upward moving dots and the downward moving dots as two distinct units

Answer 19

The **_law of past experience_** implies that under some circumstances visual stimuli are categorized according to past experience. If two objects tend to be observed within close proximity, or small temporal intervals, the objects are more likely to be perceived together. For example, the English language contains 26 letters that are grouped to form words using a set of rules. If an individual reads an English word they have never seen, they use the law of past experience to interpret the letters "L" and "I" as two letters beside each other, rather than using the law of closure to combine the letters and interpret the object as an uppercase U

Answer 20

**_Contextual Effects_**:the context in which stimuli are presented and the processes of perceptual organization contribute to how people perceive those stimuli (and also that the context can establish the way in which stimuli are organized).

Answer 21

**_Conjunctiva_**

Answer 22

**_Cornea_**

Answer 23

Which part of the human eye is the space filled with **_Aqueous Homour_**, which provides pressure to maintain the shape of the eyeball and allows nutrients and minerals to supply cells of the cornea/iris? Answer: **_Anterior Chamber_**

Answer 24

**_Pupil_**

Answer 25

**_Iris_**

Answer 26

**_Lens_**

Answer 27

**_Suspensory_** **_Ligaments_**: attached to a **_cillary_** **_muscle_**. These two things together form the **_cillary_** **_body_**. The cillary epithelieum secretes aqueus humor.

Answer 28

**_Posterior Chamber_**

Answer 29

**_Vitreous Chamber_** What and where in the area of the eye **_vitreous humour_** found, a jelly like substance to provide pressure to the eyeball and gives nutrients to inside of the eyeball?

Answer 30

**_Retina_**

Answer 31

**_Macula_**

Answer 32

**_Fovea_**

Answer 33

**_Cones_** These are cone-shaped

Answer 34

**_Rods_**

Answer 35

**_Choroid_** **_Choroid_**

Answer 36

**_Sclera_**

Answer 37

**_Transmission_** is the electrical activation of one neuron by another neuron.

Answer 38

**_Perception_**

Answer 39

**_Processing_** is the neural transformation of multiple neural signals into a perception.

Answer 40

**_Transduction_**

Answer 41

**_Sensation_** requires a physical stimulus to be converted into a neural impulse.

Answer 42

In the case of the eye, light is being converted to a **_neural impulse_** by a **_photoreceptor_**.

Answer 43

**_Light_** is electromagnetic radiation within a certain portion of the electromagnetic spectrum. **_Visible light_** rangesfrom Violet (400 nm) to Red (700 nm). The highest to lowest wavelength is ROYGBIV. The Sun is the most common sources of light. The electromagnetic spectrum contains everything fromgamma ras (low wavelength) to AM/FMwaves (long wavelength). Visible light is in the middle of the EM spectrum.

Answer 44

Light enters the *pupil* and goes to the *retina,* which contains *rods* and *cones*.

Answer 45

There are 120 million rods. Rods are good during night vision. Light comes in, goes through pupil, and hits rod. Normally your rod is turned **_on_**, but when light hits, it causes the rod to turn **_off_**. * When the rod is *off*, it turns **_on_** a bipolar cell, which turns **_on_** a retinal ganglion cell, which goes into the optic never and enters brain.

Answer 46

There are 6-7 million cones in the human eye. Cones are good at detecting in high detail. Cones are what help us find Waldo's bitch ass in a search book. There are three types of cones: *red*, *green*, and *blue*. Almost all the cones are centered in the fovea, which is the center of the macula.

Answer 47

The **_Phototransduction_** **_Cascade_** is what happens when light hits a rod and/or cone. * When light hits rods, the rods turn *off*. This then causes the bipolar cells to turn *on*. The bipolar cell causes the retinal ganglion cells to then turn *on*. This goes to the optic nerve and then goes to the brain. * The phototransduction cascade is the process of the rod turning from ON to OFF.

Answer 48

The **_Phototransduction_** **_Cascade_** makes the brain recognize that there is light entering the eyeball. The process of making the light leads to a neural impulse by turning off a rod. The neral impulse can turn on other cells and eventually be processed by the brain.

Answer 49

The human retina is primarily made of rods and cones.

Answer 50

* Inside the rod are many **_optic disks_** stacked on top of one another * Many protiens are on the *optic disk*. One of those proteins is **_rhodopsin_** (on a cone the same protein is called **_photopsin_**), a multimeric protein with 7 dics, which contains a small molecule called retinal **_(11-cis retinal_**). When there is light, the light comes through the pupil and hits the *retinal* (*11-cis rretinal*), then it rods, some of the light hits *rhodopsin* (which contains *retinal*) and causes the *retinal* to change conformation from bent to straight conformation **_(11-trans retinal)_** * When *retinal* changes shape, *rhodopsin* changes shape (closely linked molecules). This begins the cascade. * Next, there's a molecule called **_transducin_** made of three different parts – **_alpha_**, **_beta_**, **_gamma_** that is attached to the rhodopsin typically. * When the rhodopsin changes shape, transducin breaks from rhodopsin, and the **_alpha_** subunit binds to another disk protein called **_Phospodiesterase (PDE)_** * PDE takes **_cGMP_** and converts it to regular _GMP_. [So when light hits, lower concentration of *cGMP* and increases the concentraion of GMP]. * Lots of **_Na+ channels_** on the rods allow _Na_⁺ ions to come in, * **_cGMP bound to Na+ channel, keeps the channel open_** and hence "on", as cGMP concentration decreases (due to the PDE which converts it into GMP), Na+ channel closes and cell turns "OFF" * When Na+ channels become unbound of cGMP, less Na+ enters the cell, then **_cell hyperpolarization_** and turn "OFF" * Next, bipolar cells (two variants: **_ON CENTER**_ and _**OFF CENTER_**). * When light hits the rod, the rod turns **_off_**, leading to _on center_ bipolar cells to activate and _off center_ bipolar cells to inactivate. * When on center bipolar cells turn on, this activates on center retinal ganglion cells, which send signals to the **_optic nerve_** to the brain. * When dark, Rod turned on, leading to **_on center_** bipolar cells to be inactive and o**_ff center bipolar_** cells to be active * When off center bipolar cells are turned on, this activates off center retinal ganglion cells, which sends signals to the **_optic nerve_** to the brain.

Answer 51

*Photopic Vision* occurs at levels of **_high light_** levels.

Answer 52

*Mesopic Vision* occurs at **_dawn or dusk_** and involves both rods and cones.

Answer 53

*Scotopic Vision* occurs at levels of **_very low_** light.

Answer 54

* A photoreceptor is a **_specialized_** **_nerve_** that can take light and conver and convert it to a neural impulse * Inside rods are **_optic_** **_discs_**, which are large membrane bound structures – thousands of them. In the membrane of each optic disc are proteins that fire action potentials to the brain * Cones are also specialized nerves with the same internal structure as the rod. * Rods contain **_rhodopsin_** (a protein on the membrane of optic discs, which are inside rods); whereas, cones have a similar protein called **_photopsin_**. * Inside **_rhodopsin_** is **_cis retinal_** that gets turned into **_trans retinal_** once light hits it. * If light hits a **_rhodopsin_**, it will trigger the phototransduction cascade. Same process for a cone

Answer 55

Phototransduction Cascade * Retina is made off a bunch of dif cells –rods and cones. * As soon as light is presented to him, he takes light and converts it to neural impulse.Normally turned on, but when light hits it’s turned off. * PTC is set of steps that turn it off. * oInside rod are a lot of disks stacked on top of one another. * A lot of proteins in the disks. One is rhodopsin, a multimeric protein with 7 discs, which contains a small molecule called retinal(11-cis retinal). When light hits, it can hit the retinal, and causes it to change conformation from bent to straight. * When retinal changes shape, rhodopsin changes shape. * That begins this cascade of events –there’s a molecule in green called transducin made of 3 dif parts –alpha, beta, gamma Transducin breaks from rhodopsin, and alpha part comes to disk and binds to phosphodiesterase(PDE). * So bipolar cells turn on. This activates retinal ganglion cellwhich sends signal to optic nerve to brain. * As less Na+ enters the cell,rodshyperpolarize and turn off. Glutamate is no longer released, and no longer inhibits ON bipolar cells (it’s excitatory to OFF bipolar cells).  * PDE takes cGMP and converts itto regular GMP. Na+ channels allow Na+ ions to come in, but for this channel to open, need cGMP bound. AscGMP decreases, Na channels closes.

Answer 56

* There are more rods than cones (each eye has 120M rods vs. 6M cones or 20x more rods than cones.) It is more important to see light than detail initially! * Cones are concentrated in the fovea. * Rods are 1000x more sensitive to light than cones. Rods are better at detecting light – telling us whether light is present. Rods are black and white vision. * Cones detect **color** primarily but cones also detect some light. There are three types of cones: *Red*, *Green*, and *Blue* * 60% of your cones can detect red, 30% candetect green, and 10% can detect blue. * Rods have slow recovery time vs. cones have fast recovery time. Takes a while to adjust to the dark because rods need to be reactivated. Cones adapt to change quickly (fire more frequently)

Answer 57

You *blind spot* is where your optic nerve connects to the retina. It is your *blind spot* because there are no rods or cones in that part of the eye.

Answer 58

* Rods are mostly found in the periphery of the retina. * Cones are found primarily in the fovea, and a few cones are dispersed through the rest of the eye. * At the fovea (dimple in the retina) - there are no axons in the way of light, so you get higher resolution. At the periphery of the retina, light has to get through bundles of axons and some light energy is lost. Therefore, at the fovea, light hits cones directly because there are not axons in the way. At the periphery, less light is able to reach the rods due to axons being in the way of the light trying to reach the rods.

Answer 59

Visual Field Processing is how our brain makes sense of what we are looking at. The right side of our body is controlled by the left side of the brain, and the left side of the body is controlled by the right side of the brain.

Answer 60

All right visual field goes goes to the **_left_** side of the brain; all left visual field goes to the **_right_** side of the brain.

Answer 61

A ray of light that enters your left eye on the nasal side of your head will get interpretted by the **_right_** side of your brain.

Answer 62

**_Optic nerves_** from each eye networks the electrical signal to the brain and converge from each eye at the **_optic chiasm_** and then break off and dig deeper into the brain * All light signals from the nasal passage cross the other side. Therefore, only the nasal nerves pass the optic chiasm. * On the other hand, all axons leading from the temporal side DO NOT CROSS the optic chiasm. * What it effectively does, is the right visual field goes to the left brain and the left visual field goes to the right side of the brain

Answer 63

**_Feature Detection_**: when looking at an object, you need to break it down into its component features to make sense of what you are looking at. There are three things to consider when looking at any object: **_color_**, **_form_**, and **_motion_**.

Answer 64

There are three parts to feature detection: **_color_**, **_form_**, and **_motion_** * **_Color_**: * Uses the cones of the eye * **_Trichromatic Theory_** of color vision, three types of cones * **_Red (60%)_**, **_Green (30%)_**, and **_Blue (10%)_** * Remember red objects reflect red, green objects reflect green, and blue objects reflect blue * If objects reflects red and travels to a red detecting cone, it can then fire an action potential and eventuallty cause the brain to say "OH RED!!". *

Answer 65

There are three parts to feature detection: **_Color_**, **_Form_**, and **_Motion_**. * **_Form_**: We need to figure our boundaries of the object and shape of the object. * **_Parvocellular pathway_**: good at spatial resolution (boundaries and shape – high levels of details), and color. But poor temporal (can't detect motion–only stationary) * **_Cones_** are responsible for form! * Acronym: **_Pink Pyramid_** (a type of form/shape) - **_Parvocellular pathway_**

Answer 66

There are three parts to feature detection: **_Color_**, **_Form_**, and **_Motion_**. * **_Motion_**: * **_Magnocellular pathway_**: has high temporal resolution (think time, motion) resolution [encodes motion]. However, the magnocellular pathway has poor spatial resolution; no color). Rods responsible. * Acronym: Motion = **_Magnocellular pathway_**

Answer 67

There are three parts to feature detection: **_Color_**, **_Form_**, and **_Motion_**. Parallel Processing: detect/focus all information(**_Color_**, **_Form_**, and **_Motion_**) at the same time.

Answer 68

**_Audition_** is our sense of sound.

Answer 69

For us to hear sound, we need two things (for audition to occur): 1. **_pressurized sound wave_** (a stimuli) 2. **_hair cell_** (a receptor, located in the cochlea) What is a pressurized sound wave? Ex. In between your hands are a bunch of air molecules, and whenhands move towards each other, there is less space so the molecules compress and there is a higher pressure. The air molecules are becoming pressurized

Answer 70

Air molecules are pressurized and try to escape, creating areas of high and low pressure – known as **_sound waves_**. * Sound waves can be far apart or close together * **_Wavelength_**: how close peaks are * Smaller wavelength = greater frequency * Higher wavelength (smaller frequency)= travel farther = penetrate deeper into the cochlea. * Different noises have different sounds * You can listen to different frequencies at same time –if you add diff frequency waves together, get weird frequency. Ear has to break this up. Able to do that because sound waves travel different lengths along cochlea.

Answer 71

Sound (auditory waves) path: 1. First hit outer part of ear, known as the **_pinna_**. 2. Then the sound gets funneled from the **_pinna_** to the **_auditory canal_** (also known as the **_external auditory meatus_**). 3. Then from the auditory canal, they hit the **_tympanic membrane_** (also called the **_eardrum_**). 4. As pressurized wave hits the eardrum, it vibrates back and forth, causing 3 bones to vibrate in this order: i. **_Malleus_** (**_hammer_**) ii. **_incus_** (**_anvil_**) 5. iii. **_stapes_** (**_stirrup_**) \*[acronym: **MIS**] \*Three smallest bones in the body \*These bones combined are also referred to as the **_ossicles_**. 6. The **_stapes_** is attached to the **_oval window_** (aka **_elliptical window_**). The oval window then vibratesback and forth. 7. As it gets vibrated, it pushes fluid and causes it to go in/around the **_cochlea_** (a round structure lined with hair cells). 8. At the tip of the cochlea (inner most part of the circle), where can the fluid go? It can only go back, but goes back to the **_round window_** (**_circular window_**) and pushes it out. 9. The reason it doesn't go back to the oval window, is because in the middle of the cochlea is a membrane –**_Organ of Corti_** (includes the **basilar membrane** and the **tectorial membrane**). 10. As **_hair cells_** (**_cillia_**) move back and forth in the cochlea – electrical impulse is transported by **auditory nerve** to the brain. 11. The above process of fluid going around the cochlea keeps occurring till the energy of the sound wave dissipates and stops moving. Occurs more = more hair cells vibrate

Answer 72

**_Place theory_** is a theory of hearing which states that our perception of sound depends on where each component frequency produces vibrations along the basilar membrane. By this theory, the pitchof a musical tone is determined by the places where the membrane vibrates, based on frequencies corresponding to the tonotopic organization of the primary auditory neurons. Place theory posits that one is able to hear different pitches because different sound waves trigger activity at different places along the cochlea’s basilar membrane.

Answer 73

* **_External/Outer ear_**: from pinna to tympanic membrane * **_Middle ear_**: from malleus to stapes (three ossicles) * **_Inner ear_**: Cochlea and semicircular canals (Start of page 29 of the Khan Academy P/S Document)

Answer 74

**_Stapes_** – moving back and forth at same frequency as stimulus. It pushes the elliptical window back and forth * There's fluid inside the cochlea which gets pushed around the cochlea, and comes back around. The **_Organ of Corti_** splits the cochlea into two.

Answer 75

For a cross section of the Organ of Corti * **_Upper and lower membrane_**, and little hair cells. As fluid flows from around the organ, it causes the hair cells to move back and forth. * The **_hair bundle_** is made of little filaments. Each filament is called a **_kinocillium_**. * The tip of each **_kinocillium_** is connected by a **_tip link_** * The **_tip link_** is attached to the gate of the **_K+ Channel_**, so when the **_kinocillium_** gets pushed back and forth, they stretch and it allows K+ to flow inside the cell. * Ca2+ cells get activated when K+ is inside, so Ca2+ get activated, and causes an action potential in a **_spiral ganglion cell_** which then activates the auditory nerve.

Answer 76

* Our brain relies on the **_cochlea_** to differentiate between two different sounds. * Base drums when hit give off a low frequency sound, and bees when flying give off a high frequency sound. * Humans can hear from **_20 Hz to 20000 Hz_** frequencies.

Answer 77

Brain also uses **_basilar tuning_** – there are varying hair cells in the cochlea. Hair cells at the base of the cochlea are activated by high frequency sounds, and the hair cells at the apex are activated by low frequency sounds. * As sounds of different frequencies reach the ear, they will stimulate different parts of the basilar membrane. * **_apex cochlea_**= 25 Hz (low frequency, HIGH wavelength) * **_Base cochlea_**= 1600 Hz (high frequency, LOW wavelength) * Only certain hair cells are activated and send AP to the brain – **_primary auditory cortex_** recieves all info from the cochlea. * The **_primary auditory cortex_** is also sensitive to various frequencies in different locations * Basilar tuning allows the brain to distinguish between different frequencies – **_tonotopical mapping_**.

Answer 78

**_Cochlear implants_** are an implantable biomedical devices that are inserted into a person in an attempt to restore some degree of hearing to individuals with **_sensory narrow hearing loss_** – aka '**_nerve defness_**' * People who have a problem with conduction of sound waves from the cochlea to the brain get **_cochlear implants_**. * The device has a **_reciever_** that goes to a **_stimulator_** which reaches the cochlea. The receiver recieves information from a **_transmitter_**. The transmitter gets electrical information from the **_speech processor**_. The _**speech processor_** gets information from a microphone. * Entire process of cochlear implant: sound –\> *microphone* –\> *speech processor* –\>*transmitter* (outside the skull) sends information to the *reciever* (inside the skull). Then it sends information to the *stimulator*, into the cochlea, and the cochlea converts the electrical impulse into a neural impulse that goes to the brain. The cochlear implant restores hearing to some degree.

Answer 79

**_Sensory adaptation_** is change over time of a receptor to a constant stimulus – **_down regulation_** of a sensory receptor in the body. **_sensory adaptation_** = **_down regulation_** (IMPORTANT TO KNOW!) * Example: as you push down with your hand, receptors experience constant pressure. However, after a few seconds, the receptors no longer fire. * Sensory adaptation/down regulation is important becuae if cells are overexcited, they can die. For eaxmple, if there is too much of a pain signal in a pain receptor from capsaicin, the recepter or cell can die. **_Amplification_** is **_up regulation_**, and **_amplification_** is the opposite of sensory adaptation. **_Up regulation_** is the same as **_amplification_**. * An example of **_amplification_** or **_up regulation_** is when light hits a photoreceptor in the eye and causes the cell to fire. When the cell fires an action action potential, the AP can be connected to two cells, which also fires an action potential and so on. By the time it the action potential gets to the brain, the signal is amplified.

Answer 80

* **_Somatosensory Homunculus_**: A map of your body in your brain. Information all comes from the "**_sensory strip_**". The **_Somatosensory Homunculus_** is a topological map of the entire body in the cortex. Different areas of the body have signals that go to different parts on this strip. * This part of the cortex/parietal lobe is called the **_sensory cortex_** – contains the homunculus. * Sensory information from all over the body ends up in the somatosensory cortex of the parietal lobe. * If there was a brain tumor, to figure out what part it’s in neurosurgeons can touch dif parts ofcortex and stimulatethem. If surgeon touches part of cortex patients can say they feel it. Do it to make sure they aren’t removing parts in sensation * This creates a topological map of the body in the cortex

Answer 81

Your sense of balance and postion is called **_propioception_**. * Tiny little sensors located in our muscles that goes up to spinal cord and to the brain. It’s sensitive to stretching. * Sensors contract with muscles–so we’re able to tell how contracted or relaxed every muscle in our body is **_Kinaesthesia_** is talking about movement of the body. **_Proprioception_** was cognitive awareness ofbody in space. Kinaesthesiais morebehavioural. * **_Kinaesthesia_** does not include a sense of balance, while **_propioception_** includes a sense of balance. **_Proprioception_** is concerned with your body in space; where as, **_kinesthesia_** is how your body will move or is moving.

Answer 82

**_Nociception_**

Answer 83

**_Thermoception_**

Answer 84

Thermoception and nociception signals are sent slowly.

Answer 85

In order for us to sense temperature, we rely on the **_TrypV1 receptor_**. * Interestingly, this receptor is also sensitive to **_pain_**. * There are thousands of **_TrypV1_** receptors in membranes of cells. Heat causes a conformational change (change in physical structure) in the protein. * When the cell is poked, thousands of cells are broken up, and releases molecules that bind to **_TrypV1_** receptor. This causes a change in conformation, which activates the cell and send the signal to the brain.

Answer 86

There are **_3 types of nerve fibers_**: fast, medium, and slow. {Acronym to remember: the nerve fibers are fast to slowest alphabetically **_A-B_**, **_A-D_**, **_C_**] * **_A-beta fibers_** - fast speed nerve fiber type. These nerve fibers are thick and covered in myeline (leading to less resistance and high conductance) * **_A-delta fibers_** - medium speed nerve fiber type. These nerve fibers have a small diameter and less myelin. * **_C-Fibers_** - slow speed nerve fiber type. These nerve fibers have a small diameter and are unmyelinated. The unmyelination is what causes a lingering sense of pain.

Answer 87

**_Pain_** also changes the conformation of receptors – **_capsaicin_** binds the **_TrypV1_** receptor in your tongue, and triggers the same response.

Answer 88

Smell is known as **_olfaction_**.

Answer 89

Area in nostril called the **_olfactory epithelium_**. Separating the **_olfactory epithelium_** from the brain is the **_cribriform plate_**. Above the plate is an extension from the brain–**_olfactory bulb_**–a bundle of nerves that sends little projections through cribriform plate into the **_olfactory epithelium_**, which branch off. * At end of each connection are receptors, each sensitive to 1 type of molecule. * Molecule travels into nose, binds one of receptors on nerve endings. Zoom in on olfactory bulb * Imagine there’s olfactory cell sending projection to olfactory bulb. There are thousandsof types of epithelial cells, each with dif receptor. Say this one is sensitive to benzene rings. * When it binds to receptor, triggers events that cause cell to fire. AP will end up in **_olfactory bulb_**. All cells sensitive to benzene will fire to one olfactory bulb–called a **_glomerulus_**. * They then synapse on another cell known as a **_mitral/tufted cell_** that projects to the brain. The molecule binds to the GPCR receptor, G-protein dissociates and causes a cascade of events inside the cell. Binds to ion channel, which opens and triggers an AP

Answer 90

Dogs pee on a fire hydrant becuase **_pheromones_** are in a dog's urine, and the dog wants to be sensed by other animals' nose. * The cells that sense **_pheromones_** are specialized olfactory cells. * **_Pheromones_** cause some sort of response in the animal smelling them. * A **_pheromone_** is a chemical signal released by 1 member of the species and sensed by another species to trigger an innate response. * **_Pheromones_** are really inmportant in animals, particularly insects. **_Pheromones_** are linked to mating, fighting, and communication especially among insects. Specialized part of olfactory epithelium in animals–the accessory olfactory epithelium. It sends projections to the accessory olfactory bulb. * Within the accessory olfactory epithelium, you have the vomeronasal system. * In vomeronasal system, there are basal cells and apical cells. They have receptors at tips. * Triangle will come in and activate receptor on basal cell here. Basal cell sends axon through accessory olfactory bulb to glomerulus, which eventually goes to the amygdala. * Amygdala is involved with emotion, aggression, mating etc. * Humans have vomeronasal organ, but no accessory olfactory bulb. Therefore, pheromones do not have much of an impact on humans. * Humans have vomeronasal organ, but no accessory olfactory bulb. Therefore, pheromones do not have much of an impact on humans. * Signal transduction is where signal binds to receptor, which binds to GPCR. Depolarization. Signal goes to brain.oIn humans have vomeronasal organ,but no accessory olfactory bulb. As a result, we rely very little on pheromones

Answer 91

**_Gustation_** is our sense of **_taste_**.

Answer 92

Our five main tastes are **_bitter_**, **_salty_**, **_sweet_**, **_sour_**, and **_unami_** (ability to taste glutamate).

Answer 93

Taste buds are concentrated anteriorly on the tongue. However, taste buds can be **_fungiform_** (anterior on the tongue), **_foliate_** (side on the tongue), and **_circumvallate_** (back of the tongue). Each of these three taste bud types are structurally different. * In each taste bud, there are **_5 receptor cells_** that can detect each individual taste. Each taste can be detected anywhere on the tongue. Each taste bud has cells specialized for each of the 5 tastes. * Most of the taste buds and, therefore, the taste receptors are on the anterior part of the tongue Each taste receptor has an axon, which all remain separate to the brain. They all synapse on different parts of the gustatory cortex. This is known as the **_labelled lines model_**. * Ex. Glucose hits the tongue, activates a sweet cell (because it has sweet sensitive receptors), triggers cascade of events sp cell depolarizes, and travels down the axon to the brain. * Glucose binds the G-Protein Coupled Receptor (GPCR), induces a conformation change, G-protein dissociates, opens ion channels, and causes the cell to depolarize and fire an action potential.

Answer 94

The **_labelled lines model_** is the idea that once a taste receptor is activated, the taste receptor does not interact with the other four taste receptor types. That taste receptor type interacts with on distinct taste area of the cerebral cortex. The yello circle in the picture below represents the brain region associated with taste.

Answer 95

**_Sweet_**, **_unami_**, and **_bitter_** cells have GPCR receptor types on them.

Answer 96

**_Sweet_** and **_salty_** nerve cells rely on ion channels directly for signal transduction. Sour and salty cells rely on ion channels for AP transmission. The sodium ions or sour ion types bind to the receptor directly. For example NaCl binds to a receptor and causes ion channels to open, and + ion outside to flow in. Cell depolarizes and fires an action potential. * What happens if we put salty receptor inside a sweet cell? Receptors in membrane bind to glucose. But let’s insert a salty receptor. Since axon from cell leads to brain, if NaCl comes in, it activates the receptor, + ions go inside, sweet cell depolarizes and fires AP, and brain interprets it as a sweet signal.

Answer 97

**_Consciousness_** is awareness of our self and environment. You can have different levels of consciousness (different levels of awareness) and can be natural or be induced by external factors such as drugs or internal such as mental efforts. The states of **_consciousness_** range from alertness to sleep.

Answer 98

**_Alertness_** – you're awake, aware of who you are, what's going on in the environment, focus your attention, engage in conformation, and code information to your memory. **_Alertness_** is a state of *consciousness*.

Answer 99

**_Daydreaming_** – feel more relaxed, and you are not as focused as you are as when you are *alertness*. **_Daydreaming_** is a state of *conciousness* that can also be self-induced through meditation.

Answer 100

**_Drowsiness_** – just before falling asleep/ after waking up. **_Drowsiness_** is a state of *consciousness* that can also be self-induced in deep meditation.

Answer 101

**_Sleep_** – is a state of consciousness inchich you are not aware of yourself or the worls around you.

Answer 102

**_Electroencephalograms_** (**_EEGs_**) can measure your brainwaves. * The four main types of brainwaves: beta, alpha, delta, and theta. * Each brainwave type oscillates at a different frequency and the different frequency range is associated with different types of consciousness. * **_Beta_** (**_13-30 Hz_**) – associated with awake/concetration state of *concsciousness*. If you are alert for too long, and beta levels get too high, you experience increased stress, anxiety, and restlessness – constant awakened alertness. * **_Alpha_** (**_8-13 Hz_**) – associated with a daydreaming state of *consciousness* Alpha waves are lower in frequency than the beta waves/ Alpha waves disappear in drowsiness but reappear later in deep sleep. * **_Theta_** (**_4-7 Hz_**) – slower/lower frequency than alpha waves. Theta waves occur during the drowsiness state of consciousness or right after you fall asleep or when you are sleeping lightly. * **_Delta_** (**_0.5-3 Hz_**) – Slower/lower frequency than theta waves. Delta waves occur during deep sleep state of consciousness of coma. You might not be aware of shifting from one stage of sleep to another, but your brain knows. You have set of neurons that fire rhythmically) in your CNS , which lead to neural rhythms (also called oscillations and commonly known as brain waves) that can be measured by EEGs.

Answer 103

**_Sleep stages_**: Your brain goes through distinct brain patterns during sleep. The four main stages of sleep occur in **_90 minute_** cycles.

Answer 104

* The first three stages of sleep are categorized by **_non-rapid eye movement sleep_** (**_non-REM_**) – N1, N2, and N3 * N1 (Stage 1): – Dominated by **_theta waves_**. Strange sensations – **_hypnagonic hallucinations_**, hearing or seeing things that aren't there. For example, you may see a flash of light, someone calling your name, a doorbell ringing, etc. Or the **_Tetris Effect_** – if you play tetris right before bed, you might see blocks. During slee pyou may also experience the feeling of falling. This can cause **_hypnic jerks_** - muscle twitches you sometimes get as you fall asleep. **_Theta waves_**! * N2 (Stage 2) – deeper stage of sleep. People in N2 are harder to awaken. We see more **_theta waves_** as well as **_sleep spindles_** and **_k-complexes_**. * **_Sleep spindles_** help inhibit certain perceptions so we maintain a tranquil state during sleep. **_Sleep spindles_** in some parts of the brain are associated with the ability to sleep through loud noises. * **_K-complexes_** surpress cortical arousal and keep you asleep. Also help sleep-based memory consolidation. Even though **_K-complexes_** occur naturally, you can also make them occur by touching someone else. * N3 (Stage 3) – slow wave sleep. Characterized by **_delta waves_**. Where walking/talking in sleep happens. * REM (rapid eye movement) stage. Most of your other muscles are paralyzed. Most dreaming occurs during REM sleep, so paralysation inhibits actions. REM is the most important sleep stage for **_memory consolidation_**. REM is is good for **_episodic memory_**. REM is a combination of **_alpha_**, **_beta_**, and **_desynchronous waves_** similar to beta waves seen when awake. * REM is sometimes called **_paradoxical sleep_** because the brain is active and awake. However, the body prevents you from moving. * Waking up during REM sleep allows you to remember your dream.

Answer 105

* Sleep cycles through these stages approximately four or five times throughout the night. * A sleep cycle takes 90 minutes to complete. * How long each stage lasts depends on how long you’ve been asleep and your age (babies spend more time in REM sleep). * Sleep begins in stage 1 and progresses into stages 2, and 3. After stage 3 sleep, stage 2 sleep is repeated before entering REM sleep. Once REM sleep is over, the body usually returns to stage 2 sleep.

Answer 106

A **_circadian rhythm_** is a natural, internal process that regulates the sleep-wake cycle and repeats roughly every 24 hours. It can refer to any biological process that displays an endogenous, entrainable oscillation of about 24 hours. These 24-hour *rhythms* are driven by a *circadian* clock, and they have been widely observed in plants, animals, fungi, and cyanobacteria. * Circadian rythms are controlled by melatonin, which is produced in our brain's pineal gland. * Circadian rythms control our body's temperature and sleep cycle, etc * Light can inhibit melatonin production and, therefore, change our circadian rythm. * Older people go to bed early, and younger people tend to be night owls.

Answer 107

Everybody dreams during REM sleep. You can tell someone is dreaming because the person's eyes are moving rapidly under their eyelids and the individual's brainwaves look like they are completely awake. During dreaming, the activity in the **_prefrontal cortex_** during REM sleep is decreased – partly responsible for logic. The decreased activity in the prefrontal cortex is the reason things in our dream can defy logic and don't seem weird.

Answer 108

Sigmund Freud's interpretation of dreams was that our dreams are our unconcious thoughts and desires that need to be interpretted. There is little scientific support for Freud's interpretation.

Answer 109

Evolutionary Psychology states that dreams are a threat simulation to prepare for real world, useful for problem solving, or no purpose and occur as a bunch of random neurochemical processes.

Answer 110

The other possible theories for why we dream are to * maintain brain flexibility * consolodate thoughts to long term memory, and cleaning up thoughts. People who learn + sleep retain more than those who do not sleep. But role of REM is unclear. * preserve and develop neural pathways, Because infants constantly develop new neural networks spend most of their time in REM sleep.

Answer 111

Sigmund Freud's theory of dreams says dreams represent our unconscious feelings/thoughts. Like an iceberg. * What occurs during your dreams is what Freud labels as **_manifest content_**. For example, this could be a monster chasing you. * What is the hidden meaning of your dream is what Freud would label as latent content. For example the meaning behind the monster is that your job is pushing you out * Freud believes dreams help us resolve and identify hidden conflict.

Answer 112

The Activation Synthesis Hypothesis states that the brain get much neural impulses in the brainstem (activation), and this neural impulse can be interpretted by the prefrontal cortex (synthesis). We try to make meaning from thee random impulses, meaning that dreams do NOT have any meaning!

Answer 113

People with **_sleep deprivation_** might be more irritable and have poorer memory. This could be dangerous when it comes to flying airplanes or driving cars. * People with **_sleep deprivation_** are also more susceptible to obesity because the body makes more **_cortisol_** and more **_hunger hormone ghrelin_**. * **_Sleep deprivation_** can also increase your risk for **_depression_**. REM sleep helps the brain process emotional experiences, which can help protect us against depression (link is uncertain). * You can get back on track by paying back "sleep debt".

Answer 114

7-8 hours for adults. Varies with age and individual. Babies need a lot more. * An infant (age 4 months to 11 months) should get at least 12 hours. * A preschooler (age 3 to 5 years old) should get at least 10 hours of sleep a night. * A school age child (age 6 to 13 years old) should get at least 9 hours of sleep a night. * Older adults = at least 7 hrs

Answer 115

**_Isomnia_** is a more serious form of sleep disorder. **_Isomnia_** is a persistent trouble falling asleep or staying asleep. There are various medications for this sleep disorder, but taking those medications can lead to dependence and tolerance. Exercising 5 hours or more or relaxing before bed can help with **_Isomnia_**.

Answer 116

**_Narcolepsy_** is a sleep disorder in which the individual can't help themselves from falling asleep. People with **_narcolepsy_** have various fits of sleepiness and will periodically go into REM sleep for 5 minutes. They can fall asleep at anytime. **_narcolepsy_** effects 1 in 2000 people. * Research shows that this condition is genetic, and **_narcolepsy_** is linked to the abscence of an alertness neurotransmitter.

Answer 117

**_Sleep apnea_** is a sleep disorder that effects 1 in 20 people. People with **_sleep apnea_** are often unaware they have it. People with **_sleep apnea_** stop breathing while sleeping. Your body then realizes that you are not getting enoguh oxygen and wakes up long enough to gasp for air and fall back asleep without being aware this occurred in the night. Waking up and going back to sleep can occur 100 times per night in individuals with **_sleep apnea_**. * People with **_sleep apnea_** do NOT get enough N3 (slow-wave) sleep. * Snoring or fatique in the morning is often an indication of having **_sleep apnea_**.

Answer 118

**_Sleepwalking/sleep talking_** is mostly genetic and occurs during N3 (stage 3;slow wave) and is a harmless condition. It occurs more often in children (partly becuase they have more N3 stage sleep than adults).

Answer 119

Sleeping problems can come from the *brain*, *airways*, *lungs/chest wall*.

Answer 120

* Obstruction to airways causes problems breathing at night * Air going into nose/mouth reaches the lungs. Tissues around neck may block this airflow – snoring/gasping/pauses in breathing. Called an **apnea** (absence of airflow). * Called **obstructive sleep apnea**, very common and gets worse as people get older. * People are tired/sleepy and unrefreshed when they wake up. * 5+ apneas an hour (measured by polysomnography

Answer 121

* In the brain, called **_central sleep apnea_**. Presence of apneas without obstruction. Problem with the control system for ventilation. * **Cheyne-Stokes breathing** (period of oscillations, then flat, etc.) pattern in polysomnography * In lungs or chest wall, hyperventilation can occur (high pCO2, low pO2). Caused by medication/obesity. Chronically elevated pCO2 can lead to right-sided heart failure.

Answer 122

**_Hypnotism_** usually involves getting an individual to relax and focus on breathing, and a person undergoing **_hypnotism_** becomes more suscptible to suggestion in this state – but only if the individual chooses to become more suggestable. There are more **_alpha waves_** in a state of **_hypnosis_**. This means the individual is in an awake but relaxed state. * Some use **_hypnosis_** to retrieve memories, very dangerous because memories are malleable. Can create **_false memories (False memory)_**- memories that incorporate **_hypnotizer's_** expectations even when not intended. * There are two theories that discuss how **_hypnosis_** works. The first one is **_Dissociation Theory_** – **_hypnotism_** is an extreme form of divided consciousness, and the second one is **_Social Influence Theory_** – people do and report what's expected of them, like actors caught up in their roles. * **_Hypnotism_** is refocused attention, so sometimes it's used to treat pain. There is reduced activity in areas that process sensory input. Although it does not block out pain, it might inhibit attention being brought to pain.

Answer 123

**_Meditation_** – training people to self-regulate their attention and awareness. **_Meditation_** can be guided and focused on something in particulat, like breathing, but **_meditation_** can also be unfocused – mind wanders freely. * In light **_meditation_**, there are more alpha waves than in normal relaxation * In deep **_meditation_**, you have increased theta waves in the brain. * In people who regularly go to deep **_meditation_**, there is increased activity in their prefrontal cortex, right hippocampus, and right anterior insula – increased **_attention control_** (goal of **_meditation_**). * **_Meditation_** can be helpful for people with ADHD or in aging brains.

Answer 124

**_Psychoactive Drugs_**: Drugs that can alter our consciousness, and perceptions. They can alter our perception, increase our mood, calm us down, make us feel more alert, etc. Classified by action and effects they have on our bodies.

Answer 125

The four main categories of psychoactive drugs are **_depressants_**, **_stimulants_**, **_opiates_**, and **_hallucinogens_**.

Answer 126

**_Depressants_** are drugs that lower your body's basic functions and neural activity. **_Depressants_** also lower you CNS (decrease arousal/stimulation in areas of our brain). For example, if I take a **_depressant_**, I will get a decrease in heart rate, drease in blood pressure, decreased processing and reaction time (makes us act/think slowly), etc. There are three categories of depressants: **_alcohol_**, **_barbituates_**, and **_benzodiapines_**.

Answer 127

The most popular depressant is **_alcohol_**. **_Alcoho_**l causes: * Decreased inhibitions, so decreasing cognitive control * Lack of coordination, slurring of speech * Think more slowly, disrupt REM sleep (and form memories)

Answer 128

**_Barbiturates_** are depressants. **_Barbiturates_** are used to induce sleep or reduce anxiety. **_Barbiturates_** are used to **_depress_** your central nervous system. * The side effects of **_barbiturates_** are reduced memory, poor judgement, and lack of concentration. If you mix **_barbiturates_** with alcohol, you can literally die.

Answer 129

**_Benzodiazepines_** are the most commonly prescribed suppressant. Subscribed for same things as barbiturates - sleep aids (to treat insomnia) or anti-anxiety or seizures (anticonvulsant) * Enhance your brain’s response to GABA. They open up GABA-activated chloride (Cl-) channels in your neurons, and make neurons more (-) charged. * 3 types: short, intermediate, and long-acting. Short and intermediate are usually for sleep, while long acting is for anxiety. * -zelam, -zolam * **_Benzodiazepines_** and alcohol bind to a site on the GABAa receptor complex that regulates the sensitivity of the receptor complex

Answer 130

**_Opiates_** are used to treat pain and anxiety. For example, heroine and morphine. **_Opiates_** are not a depressant. * **_Opiates_** are used to treat pain becuase they act at the body's receptor sites for endorphins * **_Opiates_** are in a different class than depressants even though they are overlapping for anxiety, rest act on GABA receptors while **_opiates_** act on endorphin Rs. * **_Opiates_** lead to euphoria. The euphoria is the primary reason people take **_opiates_** recreationally.

Answer 131

**_Stimulants_** are drugs that excite your CNS, increase heart rate and blood pressure, increase alertness, more awake, more energetic. **_Stimulants_** can cause people to feel jittery. * Examples of **_stimulants_** include: Caffeine, amphetamines (Adderall), Methamphetamines (Meth), MDMA (Molly/Ecstasy), Cocaine, Nicotine, THC (Marijuana/Cannabis –also a hallucinogen/depressant) * Cocaine: blocks dopamine reuptake. * Amphetamines both block dopamine reuptake and stimulate presynaptic dopamine release * Caffeine inhibits the enzyme that breaks down cAMP (cyclic adenosine monophosphate). * Nicotine acts on acetylcholine * THC works on anandamide. increases dopamine and GABA activity **_Stimulant_** and depressants are functionally opposites but don't actually work on the same things at a neurochemical level. Drinking coffee after drinking alcohol won't make you sober; it will just make you an alert drunk person. **_Stimulants_** are a vasoconstrictor.

Answer 132

Psychoactive Drugs: **_Stimulants_** * Stimulate or intensity neural activity/bodily functions. * Range from caffeine to cocaine, amphetamines, methamphetamines, and ecstasy. In between is nicotine. * (inhibits adenosine receptors) can disrupt your sleep. **Nicotine** also disrupts sleep and can suppress appetite. * At high levels, nicotine can cause muscles to relax and release stress-reducing neurotransmitters (to counteract hyper alertness). * Both physiologically addicting. * Withdrawal symptoms from both. Like anxiety, insomnia, irritability. * is even stronger **_stimulants_** – releases so much dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine that it depletes your brain’s supply. Intense crash and very depressed when it wears off. * Regular users can experience suspicion, convulsions, respiratory arrest, and cardiac failure. * **Amphetamines and methamphetamines** also trigger release of dopamine, euphoria for up to 8 hours. * Highly addictive * Long-term addicts may lose ability to maintain normal level of dopamine

Answer 133

**_Hallucinagens_** are drugs that cause haullucinations– altered perception. There are many types of **_hallucinagens_**. Some **_hallucinagens_** even have medical uses. **_Ecstasy_** – synthetic drug that is both a stimulant and **_hallucinogen_** * **_Ecstasy_** increases dopamine and serotonin and euphoria. **_Ecstacy_** also stimulates the body's NS. **_Ecstasy_** can damage neurons that produce serotonin, which has several functions including moderating mood. * **_Ecstasy_** causes hallucinations and heightened sensations, ex. artificial feeling of social connectedness. **_LSD_** – interferes with serotonin, which causes people to experience hallucinations. * Under the influence of **_LSD_**, hallucinations are visual instead of auditory. **_Marijuana_** is also a mild **_hallucinogen_**. The main active ingredient in **_marijuana_** is THC, which heightens sensitivity to sounds, tastes, and smells. * **_Marijuana_** is like alcohol becuase it reduces inhibition and impairs motor and coordination skills. * **_Marijuana_** disrupts memory formation and short-term recall. * **_Marijuana_** stays in the body for up to a week. * **_Marijuana_** is used as a medicine to relieve pain and nausea Some **_hallucinagens_** are used for PTSD treatment. **_Hallucinaogens_** allow people to access painful memories from past that's deteched from strong emotions – so they can come to terms with it.

Answer 134

**_Homeostasis_** is how you maintain temperature, heartbeat, metabolism, etc. **_Homeostasis_** even occurs when you are resing. **_Homeostasis_** takes place when you take drugs.

Answer 135

Topic of homeostasis. * If you take amphetamines (stimulant that increases your heart rate), your body quickly tries to lower your heart rate and get it back to normal. The brain is smart about this. * If you are a regular drug user, you might take it at the same time of day or at the same location. * If you're a cocaine addict, your brain starts to recognize external cues like a room, needles, etc. and knows it's about to get a big dose of drug. The brain tells the body to get a head start and the body then lowers your heart rate before you take drugs. This is the reason you need a higher dose as time progresses * What would happen if you get those cues and don’t get the drug? You get a crash. Your body is below homeostasis (lower HR/metabolism). No high (which would occur if you took the drug) to counteract the slowing down your body has created. * If you’re in a new location but take same level of drugs, you might get overdose. This is because in the new location your body has not prepared by reducing HR/metabolism.

Answer 136

**_Oral_** is a route of drug entry. **_Oral_** is ingesting something. **_Oral_** is one of the *slowest* routes of drug entry becuase it goes through the GI tract, and the **_oral_** route of drug entry takes about a half hour.

Answer 137

**_Inhalation_** is a route of drug entry. **_Inhalation_** is breathing, snorting, or smoking. Once you **_inhale_** a drug, it goes straight to the brain. It takes roughly 10 seconds to reach the brain. **_Inhalation_** is one of the *faster* routes of drug entry.

Answer 138

**_Injection_** is a route of drug entry. **_Injection_** is the most direct and fastest route of drug entry. Intravenous means it goes right to the brain. When a drug gets injected, it takes effect within seconds. **_Injection_** can be very dangerous. It can be very dangerous because you are likely to **_inject_** bacteria or unexpected toxins) especially when using an infected needle.

Answer 139

**_Transdermal_** is a slow route of drug entry. **_Transdermal_** form of drug entry is absorbed through the skin, ex Nicotine patch. The drug in the patch has to be pretty potent, released into the blood stream over several hours.

Answer 140

**_Intramuscular_** is a route of drug entry into the human body. **_Intramuscular_** is stuck into the muscle. **_Intramuscular_** can deliver drugs into your system slowly or quickly. It is quick for an Epipen, but it can also be slow like with vaccines.

Answer 141

As far as routes of drug entry is concerned, a faster route of drug entry implies there is more addictive potential for that drug.

Answer 142

When you experience pleasure, your brain releases a neurotransmitter called **_dopamine_**. **_Dopamine_** is produced in the **_ventral tegmental area (VTA)_**, in the midbrain. * The **_VTA_** sends **_dopamine_** to the **_amygdala_** (controls emotions), **_nucleus accumbens_** (Nacc, controls motor functions), **_prefrontal cortex_** (focus attention and planning), and **_hippocampus_** (part of the temporal lobe, involved in memory formation). * NAcc, **_amygdala_** and **_hippocampus_** are part of the **_mesolimbic pathway_**. Different stimuli activate the reward pathway circuit differently in the brain to different degrees.

Answer 143

**_Tolerance_** means you get used to a drug so you need more of it to achieve the same effect. * Ex. Albert just takes cocaine, this reults in lots of dopamine in the synapse. The post-synaptic neuron has receptors for dopamine. Long-term stimulation can lead to the brain shutting down some receptors on the post synapse; therefore the same amount of drugs won't cause the same high. This is called **_tolerance_**. * **_Tolerance_** is a shift in the dose-response curve that causes decreased sensitivity to a drug due to exposure.

Answer 144

Let's say Albert goes through a period of not having the cocaine he is somewhat used to taking, Albert will then go through **_withdrawal symptoms_**. * Things less strong as cocaine won't give you as strong of an effect, so dopamine levels will decrease and you will feel depressed, anxious, etc. (varies). * Albert will do whatever it takes to ge that high. * Once you built up a tolerance, you need the drug to feel normal again. * However, with time and effort, the brain can reverse back to normal. * Once you’ve built up tolerance, need drug to feel “normal” again, not euphoric. This is a sign you are **_addicted_**.

Answer 145

* **_Drugs_** are substances (substances = formal way to refer to a **_drug_**) that include alcohol, tobacco, cannabis, opioids (heroin/morphine), stimulants (cocaine/amphetamines), hallucinogens (LSD), inhalants, sedatives, caffeine * We have to consider what happens when drugs enter the body and when they exit the body. There are two different processes that can take place: **_intoxication_** and **_withdrawal_**. * **_Inoxication_** refers to behavioral and psychological effects on the person, drug-specific. Ex. "drunk" or "high" * **_Withdrawal_** is when you stop using the drug after a prolonged period of time. We get **_withdrawal_** symptoms. We can become sick or ill, or it can be fatal (depending on the substance/drug) Two stages: acute and post-acute. Can result in **_substance-induced disorders_** – conditions that are caused by substance. Can be substance induced mood disorders (high mood -mania/low mood - depression), or disorders related to anxiety, sleep, sexual function, psychosis (loss of contact with reality, characterized by seeing things, hearing voices, becoming paranoid).

Answer 146

I think *substance-induced disorders* can lead to **_substance use disorders_**. This can cause a real degree of impairment in life, at work, school, or home. * How do you know if someone has a **_substance use disorder_**? You can tell if a person has a **_substance use disorde_**r by looking at their **_usage_**. Are they using increasingly large amounts, do they have stronger cravings, do they take longer time to recover from it, are they failing to cut back, is the drug effecting their obligations at work/home/school? * Second factor to determine if **_substance use disorder_** is the presence of withdrawal. * Also tolerance is a good indicator for **_substance use disorders_**. For some reason, according to shill science, we can not develop a **_substance use disorder_** with **_caffeine_**.

Answer 147

* Drug Addiction is a medical problem that has a physiological or psychological component * Treatments for a drug addiction address both physiological + psychological symptoms. * For serious addictions, hospitalization might be needed as the patient goes through withdrawal, to ensure patient doesn’t hurt themselves, and the patient gets used to operating w/o drug

Answer 148

To adequately treat a drug addiction, you have to undergo **_detoxification (detox)_** –separating the addict from the drug. Somes **_detoxification_** requires strong medications for strong addictions (have to break the addiction cycle). We often have to address symptoms such as vomiting, nausea, pain, etc. * For example, opiates such as heroine acts at neural receptors, but acts more slowly, so it dampens the high. **_Methadone_** reduces cravings, eases withdrawal, and the user can't experience the high becuase the receptors are already filled by **_methadone_**. * For stimulants like tobacco, medications replace nocotine by delivering low levels of nicotine through a patch, or deliver chemicals that act on nicotine receptor in the brain. In this case prevents release or reuptake of dopamine. This helps to reduce cravings. * For alchoholics, meds block receptors in the reward system of alcohol. It also reduces symptoms of withdrawal. It is important to prevent relapse during this early stage by minimizing negative symptoms.

Answer 149

A treatment for substance use disorders can be **_inpatient_**. **_Inpatient_** treatments require residence at a hospital or treatment facility. **_Outpatient_** means they can live at home and come in for treatment.

Answer 150

**_Cognitive behavioral therapy_** is a way to treat substance use disorders. **_Cognitive behavioral therapy_** (**_CBT_**) addresses both cognitive and behavioral components of addiction. **_Cognitive behavioral therapy_** makes the person recognize problematic situations and develop more positive thought patterns and coping strategies, and monitor cravings. * **_Cognitive behavioral therapy_** is good because it is long lasting.

Answer 151

**_Motivational interviewing_** is a method to treat substance use disorders. **_Motivational interviewing_** involves working with a patient to find intrinsic motication to change. **_Motivational interviewing_** involves very few sessions and can be a doorway for patients to engage in another treatment.

Answer 152

**_Group meetings_** are a method to treat substance use disorders. **_Group Meeting_**s such as AA involve a 12-step program–acceptance, surrender, and active involvement in meetings. * There is strong evidence to show that **_group meetings_** are helpful.

Answer 153

**_Relapse_** is when patient can slip and go back. Depends on environmental triggers and drug they were addicted too. More addictive substances make **_relapse_** more likely. Encountering anything that one used to associate with the drug makes relapse more likely as well. This is why it’s hard for people to stay clean (same situation, group of friends, apartments, etc – these cues can trigger **_relapse_** ...why CBT can be helpful).

Answer 154

**_Divided Attention_**: attention is a limited resource. Can’t split it very well. Doing 2x at once you end up switching between tasks rather than doing them simultaneously. **_Divided attention_** occurs when an individual must perform two tasks which require attention, simultaneously.

Answer 155

When you divide your attention on one task between 2 (ex: watch TV and studying together) you’re exercising your **_selective attention_**: you are selecting one at a time (either TV or studying – can’t do both). It’s like a flashlight on your attention –you can move it around at any spot. At any given moment illuminating one area of interest. Only have ability to focus on one thing at the exclusion of everything else.

Answer 156

There are two types of cues that direct our attention: **_exogenous cues_** and **_endogenous cues_** * **_Exogenous cues_** (or external cues) are cues in which we don't have to tell ourselves to look for them in order for them to capture our attention. For example, these could be bright colors, a loud noise, "pop out effect". * **_Endogenous cues_** (or internal cues) are cues that require internal knowledge to understand the cue nd the intention to follow it. For example, a mouse arrow. We would need to an internal arrow to know what an errow is to follow it and know it is not just a random line. The **_cocktail party effect_** is the ability to concentrate on one voice amongst a crowd. Or when someone calls your name.

Answer 157

**_In-attentional blindness_** – aka **Perceptual Blindness** - we aren’t aware of things not in our visual field when our attention is directed elsewhere in that field. “miss something right in front of you”

Answer 158

**_Change blindness_** – fail to notice changes from a previous to a current state in environment. (Different from in-attentional blindness, a subtle but importance difference) ex: don’t notice when your mom gets a haircut. * Ex. Famous study done where a person asks a stranger in a big city to give directions. The person is swapped with another person and the direction giver does not notice that this was a different person that they were now giving directions too

Answer 159

**_Selective attention_** is the ability to focus on task at hand while ignoring other information.

Answer 160

**_Shadowing task_** – Experiment that studies selective attention. In this task you are wearing headphones and they have two different sounds in each. Left ear hear one thing, right ear another thing. Told to repeat everything said in one ear and ignore the other. Focus on one ear and ignore the other (selective attention). Based on the unattended information that we do and don’t end up comprehending - we can learn about how selective attention works by seeing what they filter out in other ear. 3 theories: Broadbent's Early Selection Theory, Deutch & Deutch's Late selection Theory, and Treisman's attenuation Theory. (Note there is still debate on which theory is best).

Answer 161

1) **_Broadbent’s Early Selection Theory_** o All information in environment goes into **sensory register** (which briefly registers/stores EVERYTHING/all sensory information you receive such as words, clicks, sirens, etc) then the info gets transferred to **selective filter** right away which identifies what you are supposed to be attending too via basic physical characteristics and filters out stuff in unattended ear based on things you don’t need to understand to identify (based on voice, pitch, speed, accents, etc) and finally information moves to **_perceptual processes_** identifies friend’s voice and assigns meaning to words. Then you can engage in other cognitive processes such as deciding how to respond. Sensory register –\>selective filter–\>perceptual process–\>Conscious. * Some problems – if you completely filter out unattended info, shouldn’t be able identify your own name in unattended ear –\>but, you can as explained by Cocktail party effect.

Answer 162

2) **_Deutch & Deutch’s Late Selection Theory_** * Places Broadband selective filter after perceptual processes. This means that you DO register and assign everything meaning but then selective filter decides what you pass on to conscious awareness. * Deutsch and Deutsch’s late selection theory moved the selective filter from before perception to after the perceptual process. * Sensory register–\>perceptual process–\>selective filter–\>Conscious * Some problems – This whole process has to occur quickly, but given limited resources of attention and knowing are brains are super-efficient it seems wasteful to spend all that effort assigning meaning to things first which you won’t ever need. o Acronym: The Dutch pay attention (perceptualize) to EVERYTHING!

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3) **_Treisman’s Attenuation Theory_** * Instead of complete selective filter, have an attenuator – weakens but doesn’t eliminate input from unattended ear. Then some gets to perceptual processes, so still assign meaning to stuff in unattended ear, just not high priority. Then switch if something important. * Treisman’s Attenuation theory replaced the selective filter with an attenuator, which selectively allows the attended message to be processed to a greater extent than the unattended message. * Sensoryregister–\>attenuator–\>perceptual process–\>–\>Conscious § Acronym: Triessman is SHARP as a T. He is smart enough to only attenuate and then perceive. NOTE: Still debate about which theory is best, but the three theories are pivotal in our understanding of selective attention. Important to consider because attention is important in all other cognitive functions we perform

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**_Selective Attention_**: We take information from our environment, but we don’t consciously process all of it. You probably see everything, but don’t attend to it consciously. We can attend to only a small amount of info @ a time, but we see a lot of info!

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**_Spotlight model of attention_**. Selective attention – takes info from 5 senses, but don’t pay attention to everything. * Aware of things on an unconscious level – ex. **_Priming_**, where exposure to one stimulus affects response to another stimulus, even if we haven’t been consciously paying attention to it. * We’re primed to respond to our name. Why it’s a strong prime for pulling our attention. **_Resource model of attention_** – we have limited resources in attention. Resources that are easily overtasked if we try to pay attention to multiple things @ once. * Both models say something about our ability to multitask – not very good at it. * Supported by research study: ex. Dichotic listening task, you aren’t able to focus on both the “attended channel” and the “unattended channel”. You are able to recall info from the attended channel, but not the unattended channel.

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1. **_Task similarity_** – ex. Listening to the radio while writing a paper. It is better to listen to classical music, becuase it is harder to multitask with similar tasks. 2. **_Task difficulty_** – harder tasks require more focus. 3. **_Practice_** – activities well practiced become automatic, or things that occur without need for attention. Whether task is automatic or controlled (harder)

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The **_information processing model_** proposes our brains are similar to computers. We get input from the environment, process it, and output decisions. * The **_information processing model_** assumes serial processing; however, the human brain has the capacity for parallel processing * The first stage is getting the input – occurs in sensory memory (sensory register). The sensory register is a temporary register of all the senses you are taking in. These two are part of the sensory register. * You have **_iconic_** (what you see, lasts half a second) and **_echoic_** (what you hear, lasts 3-4 seconds) memory

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**_Working memory_** is what you are thinking about at the moment. **_Working memory_** is memory that is stored while it is held in attention. The magic number is 7– your brain can hold 7 +/- 2 pieces of information at a time. The government knew this. This is the reason phone numbers are 7 digits long. * Explains the **_serial position effect_** (**_primacy_** and **_recency_** effects) * Visual + spatial info are processed in the **_visuo-spatial sketchpad_**, and verbal information (any words + numbers in both iconic and echoic memory) is processed in the **_phonological loop_**. * What about visual + verbal information? We need a coordination of the two – the **_central executive_** fills that role. The **_central executive_** creates an integrated representation that stores the combined and sythesized information in the **_episodic buffer_** to be stored into long-term memory. * The **_dual coding hypothesis_** says it's easier to remember words associated with images than either one alone. The **_method of loci_** encorporates the **_dual coding hypothesis_** idea to help people remember things better. The **_method of loci_**–imagine moving through a familiar place and in each place leaving a visual representation of the topic to be remembered.

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The final stage is **_long-term memory_**. The capacity of the **_long-term memory_** is unlimited. There are two main catagories of **_long term memory_**: **_explicit_** (**_declarative_**) and **_implicit_** (**_non-declarative_**).

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**_Explicit Memory_** /Declarative are facts/events you can clearly/explicitly describe. **_Explicit memory_** is a type of long term memory that focuses on recalling previous experiences and information. **_Explicit memory_** can be divided into two categories, **_episodic_** and **_semantic_**. * Anytime you take vocabulary test or state capitals you’re using **_semantic memory_** (has to do with words/facts). So remembering simple facts like meanings of words. * Second type is **_episodic memory_** (event-related memories...like your last birthday party.).

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**_Implicit memories_** are long term memories that involve things you may not articulate – such as riding a bicycle, **_procedural memories_**. Other is **_priming_** – previous experiences influence current interpretation of an event.

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**_Encoding_** is transferring information from the temporary store in working memory into the permanent store in long-term memory. **_Encoding_** is more successful when more cognitive effort is actively used. Combining encoding strategies is more useful than using only one. **_Encoding Specificity_**: Enhanced memory when testing takes place under the same conditions as learning.

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**_Rote rehearsal_** – Say the same thing over and over remember. least effective technique. Ex. Remembering someone’s name is bob that you just met, and you can’t after a while. Doesn’t require you to process the information. More successful techniques involve tying in the new information to previously known information. * **_Rote rehearsal_** is simply repeating information. It requires the least amount of cognitive effort.

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**_Chunking_** – we group info we’re getting into meaningful categories we already know to ease memorization. * o Ex: Chunk the following list : bananas, oranges, blueberries, bread, rice, chicken, peanuts, baking soda, flour, eggs, butter * Bananas, orange, blueberries = fruits * Bread, rice = grains * Chicken , peanuts = proteins * Baking soda, flour, eggs, butter = baking supplies * Example Illustrates that it’s easier to remember things if they are chunked/tied together in some way.

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**_Mnemonic Devices_** – Link what you are trying to learn into previously exist long-term information that is already in your memory. Types of mnemonics: * **_Imagery_** - crazier the better * **_Pegword system_** - Verbal anchors link words that rhyme with the number – EX.1 is bun, 2 is shoe, 3 is tree, 4 is door, 5 is skydive, 6 is sticks, 7 is heaven, etc. Then you pair list to each of the words you are trying to remember using imagery (another mnemonic technique) like Broccoli looks like a tree so it’s 4th on the list. * **_Method of loci_** - good for remembering things in order, link info to locations. Tie information you need to remember to certain stops along a route that you already know. Ex. Bananas raining down on bus stop you get on, next stop there are oranges being thrown at, and the final stop you have a cat eating blueberries. Again, this method also ties imagery. * **_Pegword + Method of Loci_** (two methods that are good for remembering things in order that you already know. Verbally anchors and links words). * **_Acronym_** – each of the letter of a popular word you know stands for the first letters of a set of words you need to remember. [ex. HOMES to remember Great lakes of the US – Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie and Superior]

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**_Self-referencing_** – think about new info and how it relates to you personally. Ex: Imagine learning something about history, you then learn the information by talking to the general. * Related idea: preparing to teach – idea that you are learning this material in order to teach it to someone else. You learn it a lot better because you put more effort into organizing it and understanding the information the best you can. (involves great deal of processing)

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**_Spacing_** – spreading out study sessions overtime in shorter periods rather than cramming them into one study session. [spacing effect] * Ex: Most people think if they have 5 hours to study they should study immediately before so it is “fresh in your mind” but if you put in 5x 1 hr sessions you will learn the information in the long term far better. One reason it is thought to be helpful is it lets you know what you don’t know while you start your studying and it also introduces a form of self-testing so you are able to prepare yourself. Most mnemonic devices/encoding techniques = greater likelihood of remembering information later. Do require more effort, but make studying quicker/more effective.

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**_Retrieval_**: Trying to remember/call up a memory of something you learned before. Successful retrieval depends on being able to use cues around you and to recognize the association between cues present at encoding and cues present at retrieval. Best types of cues are the associations that form when you are actually encoding. **_Retrieval_** - Anytime you pull something out of long-term memory, and bringing it into conscious memory (working memory) you’re engaging in retrieval. o Ex: Process is occurring every time you need to remember a name, bday, directions, etc.

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**_Priming_** – prior activation of nodes/associations, often without our awareness. Ex. hearing a story about apple and asked to name word starting with A. Then you say the word apple for that word. Ex: reading a story that is about rabbits and then hearing the word hair/hare – you are more likely to think of the word as hare.

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**_Context_** is the environment you encode and take the test. Scuba divers who learned and tested on the sam eplace scored better than learned in one place and took the test in another. But not always the case, if you can't take the test in the same place studying in different places gives you different cues for retrieval –so multiple cues that will help you.

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**_State-dependent_** is your state at the moment. For example, if you leanr something while drunk you'll remember it the next time you are drunk. You could also combine your mood with an advertisement – next time you are in that moodm you will remember the product.

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Free recall (hardest), cued recall (medium), and recognition (easiest)

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**_Free recall_** ( this is a retrieval cue) - no cues in recalling. A person is better at recalling first items on a list (**_primacy_**) as well as the last few (**_recency_**). It is harder for an individual to recall items on a list in the middle. The curve is called the **_serial position curve/effect_**.

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**_Cued recall_** ( this is a retrieval cue)– having extra clues to remember the workds. Still have to produce an answer but still get more cues to help you. The added cues help you retrieve the information from your long term memory. The more retrieval cues you get, the more you tend to do better than free recall. For example, giving you the cue of "Pl\_\_\_\_\_" and asking for what word was on a list and you answer "planet". This would be very easy.

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**_Recognition_** ( this is a retrieval cue) – best out of the three tests, meaning the word is the easiest to recall using this method. You present two words, and you say which one you heard. The retrieval of the correct word is highly likely. For example, you can ask what is on that list. Fork or spoon, and then you answer fork because it was on the list intially presented and it is in front of you now.

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Brain doesn't save memories exactly how it was recorded into your brain. Every time we retrieve a memory, we change it in small ways, according to our goals/mood/environment. Or due to our own desires. If gap exists, the brain will fill it in with something desireable.

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**_Schema_** (plural schemata or schemas) describes a pattern of thought or behavior that organizes categories of information and the relationships among them.[1] It can also be described as a mental structure of preconceived ideas, a framework representing some aspect of the world, or a system of organizing and perceiving new information.[2] Schemata influence attention and the absorption of new knowledge: people are more likely to notice things that fit into their schema, while re-interpreting contradictions to the schema as exceptions or distorting them to fit.

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Sometimes humans recollections of event contain **_false information_** in them. **_False information_** is inaccurate recollections of an event.

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**_Misleading Information_** – observed video of a car crash, and asked how fast cars were going. Some people got the word hit, and some people go the word "smash". If people recieved the word "smashed", the people were mor elikey to say there was glass on the ground. * When people recall information they often forget the information's source – an error in **_source monitoring_**, ex. angry with someone but you forgot it happened in a dream. Or recognize someone but don't know from where.

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**_Emotional memories_** can be positive or negative, but highly vivid memories are called **_flashbuld memories_**. Even if **_flashbulb_** or **_emotional memories_** seem as real as life, they are still susceptible to reconstruction.

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The brain doesn't grow new cells to store memories – connections between neuron strengthen. The strengthening of neurons and neuron connections is called **_long-term potentiation_**. **_Long term potentiation_** is one example of of *synaptic plasticity*.

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Neurons communicate using electrochemical signals –through synapse. Presynaptic neurons release neurotransmitters on on post-synaptic neurons, allowing Na and Ca to flow in. The difference in charge between the outside and inside is called the **_potential_**.

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With repeated stimulation, the same pre-synaptic neurn converts into greater post-synaptic neuron –stronger synapse, and when it lasts longer called **_long-term potentiation_**. This is learning!

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**_Decay_** – when we do not encode something well or don't retrieve it for a while, we can't at all anymore. The connections will become weaker over time. The initial rate of forgetting is high but levels off over time. * **_Ebbinghaus_** was the first investigator of decay. He found this rate of forgetting was very fast, but if he remembered it after the initial stage, it then levelled out.

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Just because you can't retrieve something doesn't mean it's completely gone. How long it takes you to **_relearn_** something is an indicator of how well you learned it initially. This foundation is called **_savings_**. This means that some foundation of the memory still existed even if he couldn't reproduce it. * Works with procedural skills too! ex. piano

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Sometimes there is an interference to learning. There are two types of interference: **_retroactive_** and **_proactive_**. * **_Retroactive interference_** occurs when new learning impairs old information. It refers to the later information interfering with memory for earlier information * ex. Writing new address makes it difficult to recall your old address. * **_Proactive interference_** - something you learned in the past impairs learning in the future. Earlier information interferes with later information. * ex. New password learning – prior w learning impairs ability to learn new one.

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Aging is a natural process and with it come changes in memory. Most people associate aging with declines in cognitive performance, but some abilities decline, some remain stable, and some improve.

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Some cognitive abilities remain **_stable_** throughout the aging process. These include **_implicit memory_** (aka procedural memories such as riding a bike) and **_recognition memory_** (being able to pick something out of a list).

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Some cognitive abilities **_improve_** throughout the aging process. Semantic memories improve till around age 60, so older adults have better verbal skills (they are great at crossword puzzles!). Also, **_crystallized IQ_** (ability to use knowledge and experience) is improved. **_Crystallized IQ_** is typically tested with analogy tests and reading comprehension tests. Aging individuals are also better at emotional reasoning.

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Some cognitive abilities **_decline_** throughout the aging process. Recall becomes more difficult (although recognition is stable), episodic memories are imparied (forming new episodic memories is difficult, old memories are stable), processing speed (older peolpe have a harder time outputting a response), and divided attention (becomes harder to switch attention between task and becomes easily distracted). Also **_prospective memory_** (remembering to do things in the future) is decreased.

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* Excessive forgetting can be problematic * **_Dementia_** is forgetting to the point of interfering with normal life – results from excessive damage to brain tissue, ex. From strokes. * The most common form of **_dementia_** is **_Alzheimer's Disease_**. Under this disease condition neurons die off over time. The earliest symptoms are memory loss, lack of attention, bad at planning, loss of semantic memory, and loss of abstract thinking. As it progresses, there becomes a more severe language difficulties and greater memory loss, loss of emotional stability, and loss of bodily functions. The cause of the disease is unknown, but there is a build up of **_amyloid plaques_** in the brain.

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**_Korsakoff's Syndrome_** is caused by lack of vitamin B1 or thiamine. **_Korsakoff's syndrome_** is caused by malnutrirtion, eating disorders, and especially alcoholism. * **_Thiamine_** converts carbohydrates into the glucose cells need for energy. **_Thiamine_** is important for normal functioning neurons. * At the start of **_Korkasoff's syndrome_**, damage to certain areas causes poor balance, abnormal eye movements, mild confusion, and/or memory loss. At this stage, it is called **_Wernicke's Encephalopathy_** – precursor to K**_orsakoff's Syndrome_**. If **_Wernicke's Encephalopathy_** is diagnosed in time it can reverse the damage or at least prevent further damage. If untreated, it will progress to **_Korsakoff's syndrome_**, which has a main symptom of severe memory loss, accompanied by confabulation ( patients make up stories, sometimes to fill in memories). * **_Korsakoff's syndrome_** is not progressive, unlike Alzheimer's Disease. If people are diagnosed and treated, they can get better. * The main symptom is severe memory loss, accompanied by confabulation for **_korsakoff's syndrome_**. * To treat **_Korsakoff's Syndrome_** you have to be put on a healthy diet, abstain from alcohol, take vitamins, and relearn things.

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**_Retrograde amnesia_** is the inability to recall information previously encoded, and **_anterograde amnesia_** is the inability to encode new memories.

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**_Piaget_** argued children weren't miniature adults. Beleived they actively construct their understanding of the world as they grow.

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Piaget's stage of cognitive development. 0-2 years – children are said to be in the **_sensorimotor stage_** (smell, hearing, tough etc. +active). During this stage, they develop **_object permanence_**. Initially, they do not realize objects still exist if they can't see them. Then, they develop **_object permanence_** and realize the object still exists if it can not see the object. You can also use accomodation to acquire knowledge about novel experiences. Baby ants riding a motorcycle.

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2-7 years (approx.) – **_Preoperational stage_**. When children are going to develop/engage in **_pretend play_**. They are very **_egocentric_** in this stage, and they have no empathy.

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7-11 years – **_concrete operational stage_**. In this stage, they learn the idea of **_conservation_**. Can do test to find out if they are in this stage – take 2 glasses with the same amount of water, pour one into short fat glass and other into tall skinny glass, and ask the child which one has more. Before this stage will say tall glass, but once they reach the concrete operational stage, have same amount of water. Also begin to learn **_empathy_**.

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12+ Formal operational stage – reason abstract consequences, and reason consequences. Where sophisticated moral reasoning begins to take place. * Later, developmentalists have come and figured out that children don’t necessarily develop these abilities in certain age brackets, but they do tend to progress in a predictable fashion and thanks to Piaget now we know that children are more than just miniature adults.

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We are excellent problem solvers. Well-defined (clear starting and ending point) and ill defiend (more ambiguous starting/ending point and no obviously stated goals) problems.

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**_Problem Solving_**: moving from a current state to a goal state. This is called solving a problem. * Can be something as simple as starting a YouTube video

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A method of problem solving: **_Trial + error._** **_Trial + error_** is taking random guesses until something finally works. It is not efficient.

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A method of problem solving: **_Algorithm_** – methodical approach. A logical step-by-step procedure of trying solutions until you hit the rigth one. It is not efficient, but you are guaranteed to find the correct solution enventually.

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A method of problem solving: **_Heuristics_**. A **_heuristic_** is a mental shortcut to find a solution quicker than the other 2, ex. Focusing on one category of solutions. * **_Means-end analysis_** – we analyze the main problem and break it down into smaller problems, and reduce differences between the problem and goal. * **_Working backwards_** – start with goal and use it to suggest connections back to the current state. It is used in mathematical proofs.

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A method of problem solving: **_Intuition_**. Using **_intuition_** as a method of problem solving has a high chance of error becuse you are relying on **_instinct_**.

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**_Fixation_** – Getting stuck on a wrong approach to a problem. * If we can start solving the problem, it typically occurs through an **_insight_** – that aha moment. **_Insight_** is hard to predict and hard to encourage, particularly when you are **_fixated_** on seeing a problem from the same inefficient approach. * Or we can let problem **_incubate_** – insight comes after some time.

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**_Type 2 Error_** = False Negative, and a **_Type 1 Error_** = False Positive

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**_Decision making_**: We make a judgement of the desirability/probability of a certain outcome You use **_heuristic_** – a mental shortcut to make a decision, a quick decision rule/rule of thumb. Lots of kinds of heuristics used for decision making. Help us make decisions. * o Ex.. What has a higher risk- Shark attack vs firework accident?

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**_Availability Heuristic_** – using examples that come to mind. Helpful, but our easily rememberable experiences don't match the real state of the world. * The **_availability heuristic_** is a decision making heuristic where choices are based on quick, easily accessible examples.

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**_Representativeness Heuristic_** – a heuristic where people look for the most representative answer, and look to match the prototype – a given concept to what is typical/representative. * Ex: Linda is outspoken and very bright, majored in philosophy and as a student she participated in antinuclear demonstrations and organizations that fought discrimination. What is more likely? Linda is a Feminist bank teller or a bank teller. Most people will say she is more like a feminist bank teller even if they don’t know feminists or anyone like Linda. She fits you prototype of how a feminist would act (she is representative of a feminist). * This can lead to **_conjunction fallacy_**, which means occurrence of two instances is more likely than a single one (ex. Feminist Bank Teller vs. bank teller – actually more likely she is just a bank teller, but peole tend to think the probability of 2 events occuring together is higher than the probability of one occurring alone).

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**_Availability Heuristic_** vs. **_Representativeness Heuristic_** – **_availability heuristic_** = actual memories in mind, and **_representativeness heuristic_** = not thinking of exact memories, but thinking of a prototype of idea.

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**_Biases_** are things that prevent us from making the correct decision or from changing decisions once they are made. Here are three **_bias_** types below. * **_Overconfidence_** – ex. Going into th etest without knowing lot of information.It could be due to fluency (ease of processing) during studying. Ex. Can happen in a test if you never tested yourself to see if you really knew the answers. You can over estimate the ability to produce answerswhen you need too. You can also experience overconfidence in an argument. * **_Belief Perseverence_** – ignore/rationalize disconfirming facts, ex. During the elections you leanred about and then ignored facts about someone you like. * **_Confirmation Bias_** – actively seek out only confirming facts. Ex. Only read stories about how wonderful a candidate was.

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**_Framing Effects_** – how you present the decision or data can affect decisions as well. For example, There is a disease that willkill 600 people. Option A states that there is a 100% chance 200 people will be aved, and option B states that there is a 33.3% chance that all 600 people will be saved. Which one would you pick? OR There is a A. 100% chance 400 people will die vs. B. 1/3 chanve no one dies and 2/3 chance 600 will die. * In the first you'd pick A. In the second, you would pick B. * Basically, you would pick the option that is presented in a way that primarily focuses on the positive.

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* To solve problems, you have to acess information already stored in your brain. * **_Semantic Networks_** are concepts that are organized in the mind in terms of connected ideas. Parallel to how info might be stored in a computer. Links can be shorter for closely related ideas, or longer for less related ideas.

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The first idea of a **_semantic network_** model that was proposed was **_hierarchal_** –higher order to lower order categories * Ex. Animal -\> bird -\> ostrich * More specific characteristics like sings, long legs, stored at lower nodes. Can breathe at higher nodes. * The longer it takes us to verify the connection between nodes, the longer it takes for us to make that link or the farther away that link is).

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The first model of a semantic network was **_hierachal_**. However, later studies showed that a **_hierarchal semantic network_** was NOT true for all animals/categories. For example, people verify that a pig is an animal faster than it takes people to verify that a pig is a mammal. Therefore, a man proposed a **_modified semantic network_**. * Rather than **_hierarchal_**, the **_modified semantic network_** says every individual semantic network develops based on experience and knowledge. * The **_modified semantic network_** means all ideas in the head are connected together. When you activate one concept, pulling related concepts with it, it is called **_spreading activation_**. ( This can explain false memories, or remembering the wrong but related information).

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* IQ is Intelligence Quotient * What is intelligence? Inelligence is a mental quality that allows you to learn from experience, solve problems, and use your knowledge to adapt t new situations. IQ tests use numerical scores to meaure aptitude for those tasks and compare them to how ell others do.

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One theory for what intelligence is is that there's **_1 general intelligence_**. * Evidence comes from the fact that people who score well on one test also tend to score well on other types of tests. For example, a person with really good math skills will likely also have really good verbal skills. * The factor underlying these consistent abilities is called **_g factor_** (g = general intellgence)

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There is also support for IQ theories on there being **_3 intelligences_** – analytical (Academic), creative (generate novel ideas and adapt), practical (solve ill-defined probems). * IQ tests only measure analytical intelligence

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Another psychologist proposed **_emotional intelligence_**, which is the ability to percieve, understand, and manage emotions in interactions with others.

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Intelligence can also be separated an conceptualized in two major categories: **_fluid_** and **_crystallized_** intelligence. **_Fluid_** is the ability to reason quickly and abstractly. **_Crystallized_** refers to accumulated knowledge and verbal skills. * **_Fluid_** intelligence tends to decrease a we move into older adulthood, and **_crystalized_** intelligence increases or stays the same as we grow older.

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On what makes or forms one intelligence, there is the question of **_nature vs. nurture_**. How much of intelligence is due to genes and how much is due to the environment/experiences * Study heritability by looking at correlational scores of twins who grew up in different homes, identical twins raised together, and fraternal twins raised together. * What e know is of the 3 groups, the strongst correlation is between identical twin raised together. identical twins raised apart is not as high, suggesting there is an environmental component. Fraternal twins are even lower, suggesting also a genetic component.

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As of right now, there is no recipe for structuring an environment to make a genius, even though we know environments that would impair intelligence.

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Some people have a **_fixed mindset_** (intelligence is biologically set and unchanging), and others have a **_growth mindset_** (intelligence is chageable if you learn more). Those with the **_growth mindset_** accomplish more.

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There are generally four ideas on intelligence: 1. Spearman's idea of general intelligence – single g factor responsible for intelligence that underliesperformance on all cognitive tasks 2. Gardner's idea of 8 intelligences– differentiates intelligenceintodifferent modalities. 3. Galton's ideaof hereditary genius – human ability is hereditary 4. Binet'sidea of mental age – how a child at a specific age performs intellectually compared to average intellectual performance for that physical age in years.

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There are many ideas on language and cognition. The spectrum of what they try to explain ranges from explaining that langugage influences your thought to the thought influences your language. I guess there are theories on language and language development. * Behaviorists– are empiricists that believe language is just conditioned behavior. Nativists – rationalists that believe language must be innate. Materialist – look at what happens in the brain when peope think/speak/write.

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Some languages only have 2 words for color. But does that mean we think about color differently? Great Language Debate * **_Universalism_** - thought determines language completely. * **_Piaget_** – he believed once children were able to think a certain way, and then developed language to describe those thoughts. * **_Vygotsky_** (middle) – language and thought are both independent, but converge through development. Eventually learn to use them at the same time. * **_Linguistic Determinism_** – weak and strong hypothesis * Weak: language influences thought (reading right to left vs. left to right influences what direction youamagine girl pushing boy) * Strong (aka **_Sapir-Whorfian hypothesis_**): people understand their world through language, nad language in turn shapeshow we experience the world. For example, there is a tribe called the Hopi tribe without grammatical sense – they could not think about time in the same way as us. * Of the four theories out there, no one really knows which one is correct.

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**_Nativist_** (innatist) perspective – children are born with the ability to learn language. The nativist perspective is associated with **_Naom Chomsky_**. **_Naom Chomsky_** thought humans had a **_language aquisition device_** (**_LAD_**, later renamed univeral grammar) that allowed them to learn language. Idea that is ability is exists has support from languages sharing the same basic elements like nouns, verbs, etc. So this allows children to pick up on that. It goes along with the idea of a "critical period". The critical period is thought to be from birth to age 9, which is the period of time a child is most able to learn a language.

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**_Behavioral Learning Theory_** of Language Development – children aren't born with anything, only acquire language through reinforcement. The child learns to say "mama" because everytime they say that, the mom reinforces the child. However, it doesn't explain how they can produce words they've never heard before.

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The **_interactionist theory_** or approach to language development believe biological and social factors have to interact in order for children to learn language. Children's desire to communicate with adults makes them learn language. The **_Interactionist Theory_** of Language Development is associated with **_Vygotsky_**.

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* **_Behaviorists_** – BF Skinner's behaviourist model says infants are trained in language by operant conditioning. * The **_linguistic relativity hypothesis_** asserts that congition and perception are determined by language one speaks.

Answer 241

For 90% of people, anguage is in the **_left_** hemisphere. In whatever hemisphere is dominant, there are two main areas associated with language: **_Broca's area_** (speak) and **_Wernicke's area_** (understand) * When **_Broca's area_** is damaged, people have trouble producing speech. **_Broca's aphasia_** * **_Wernicke's aphasia_** is a different pattern of behavior –words they make do not make any sense. Can't understand what others say. * When both broca's area and wernicke's area are damaged, there is **_global aphasia_**. * 2 areas are connected by a bundle of nerves **_arcuate fasciculus_**, also found in deaf people who knowsign language. Not specific to spoken language, but brain adapts to whatever modality is needed for communication. * When this is damaged, **_conduction aphasia_** – ability to conduct between listening and speaking is disrupted.

Answer 242

* **_Agraphia_** (inability to write), and **_anomia_** (inability to name things). * Language is an example of big tasks brokeb into small takss, spread into other parts of the brain. Good thing becuase if you have localized brain damage, you won't completely lose everything. When functionsare divided, it is easier for your brain to adapt – ex. When stroke affects the left hemisphere, and you can't speak, over time with therapy some can retrain other speech parts of the brain by creating new connections – **_neural plasticity_**. Can speak again with some fluency.

Answer 243

If you sever the **_corpus callosum_**, it will disrupt communication in your brain. Disrupting the **_corpus callosum_** will create a **_split-brain patient_**. This surgery creates side effects with language – right side of brain can't communicate with the language side. * The left side of the brain is needed for language, and the right side of the brain is needed for action/perception/attention. * If you see the object on the left, you won't be able to name it. Can pick it up with you left hand (since right side controls the left), but the object has to be in the right visual field beforethe brain can name it. * For example, showing colors on the left side of the visual field, information is sent to the right hemisphere, which is responsible for perception/attention, but can't speak it, because left brain is needed for language.

Answer 244

**_Limbic System_**: A set of structures in the brain, and many structures play an important role in regulating emotions. Experts can’t agree on what structures make up the entire **_limbic system_**. * The **_limbic system_** is responsible for the storage/retrieval of memories, especially ones tied to emotions. * Structure of the **_limbic system_**: acronym: hippo wearing a HAT (HAT Hippo). Mnemonic: hippo wearing a HAT. Hypothalamus, amygdala,

Answer 245

**_Thalamus_** – sensory relay station, everything you hear/taste/etc. end up in the **_thalamus_**, which directs them to appropriate areas in the cortex. Emotions can be contigent on senses. **_Smell_** is the only sense that bypasses the **_thalamus_** – goes to areas closer to the amygdala.

Answer 246

**_Amygdala_**–aka aggression center. If you stimulate the **_amygdala_**, it produces anger/violence and fear/anxiety. If you destroy the **_amygdala_**, you get a mellowing effect. **_Kluver-Bucy syndrome_** – bilateral destruction of the **_amygdala_**, can result in **_hyperorality_** (put things in mouth a lot), **_hypersexuality_**, and disinhibited behavior. This is also part of the limbic system.

Answer 247

**_Hippocampus_** – key role in forming new memories. The **_hippocampus_** converts STM (short term memory) into LTM (long term memory). If your **_hippocampus_** is destroyed, you still have your old memories intact, you just can't make new memories (**_anterograde amnesia_**). This is part of the limbic system.

Answer 248

**_Hypothalamus_** (hypo – below, thalamus, tiny structure) – for limbic system, it regulates the Autonomic nervous system (ANS) - (fight or flight vs. rest and digest). The **_hypothalamus_** controls the endocrine system by triggerring hormones like epinephrine/norepinephrine.; responsible for hunger, sleep, thirst, and sex. This is part of the limbic system.

Answer 249

Role of cerebral cortex in emotions. One way to view the brain is in terms of left and right hemispheres. * Positive emotions evoke more activity on the **_left side_** of your head, and negative emotions evoke more activity on the **_right side_** of your head. * People who are more positive and cheerful have more activity on the **_left side_** of their brain, and people who are more depressed and timid have more activity on the **_right side_** of their brain.

Answer 250

If you divide the brain into functional divisions, you can focus on the **_prefrontal cortex_**. * The **_prefrontal cortex_** is responsible for many higher order functins, everything that makes humans humans. The **_prefrontal cortex_** is responsible for executive control - solving problems, making decison, and how you act in social situations. * Phineas Gage had an iron rod penetrate his **_prefrontal cortex_**. After the incident, he became rude, rought, and generally behaved inappropriately.

Answer 251

The **_autonomic nervous system_** is involved in your emotional response. The physiological changes that occur which aren't under your control are due to the **_autonomic nervous system_** (**_ANS_**). * The **_autonomic nervous system_** has two branches – **_sympathetic_** (fight or flight) and **_parasympathetic_** (rest and digest). Each branch reults in different actions that occur in your body.

Answer 252

The **_sympathetic nervous system_** is one of the branches of the autonomic nervous system. The **_sympathetic nervous system_** is involved in the fight or flight response. * **_Sympathetic_**: "results due to fear" – effects: * pupils dilate (want to be able to see better/bring in more light), * Decrease in salivation (nervous when you are doing public speaking) * increase in repiration rate (more O2) * increase in heart rate (more O2) * Increase in glucose release (more energy) * Increase in adrenaline (epinephrine) and norepinephrine * Decrease in digestion (takes too much energy, want to divert the energy to other areas)

Answer 253

The **_parasympathetic nervous system_** is one of the branches of the autonomic nervous system. The **_parasympathetic nervous system_** is involved in the "rest and digest response; it has the opposite effects of the **_sympathetic nervous system_**. * pupils constrict * Increased salivation * Decreased respiratory rate/decreased heart rate (back to normal) * Increased glucose storage (digesting food) * Decreased adrenaline * Increased digestion.

Answer 254

Emotions are subjective experiences accompanied by **_physiological_**, **_behavioral_**, and **_cognitive_** changes. Each of these things are interrelated. Every emotion produces different physiological changes in the body which can include changes in patterns of brain activation, neurotransmitter production, autonomic nervous system activity * **_Physiological_** components – when surprised, your heart rate might increase, muscles will tense, and your temperature will increase. * **_Cognitive_** – vay fromperson to person, they're mental assessments that can include appraisal of what is happening, thoughts and expectations about a situation. Cognitive experiences result from emotions, and can cause emtions. Ex. Someone might hate a surprise party. * **_Behavioural_** – emotions produce different behavioral responses evident from body language or facial expression. Expressions vary by individual and are interpretted differently from culture to culture. Emotions are temporary (unlike moods which can last much longer, example of mood: anxiety). Emotions can be positive or negative. Can vary in intensity. Emotions can be involuntary (why we use phrases such as falls in love, explodes with range, overwhelmed w/ excitement)

Answer 255

**_Paul Ekman_** found **_6 main universal emotions_** which can be identified by everyone around the world – **_happiness_**, **_sadness_**, **_fear_**, **_disgust_**, **_anger_**, and **_surprise_**. Consistent facial expressions across culture and easily recognizable. (acronym: 6 universal emotions are: FAHDSS) * Darwin hypothesized ability to understand emotion is an innate ability that allowed them better survival.

Answer 256

Emotion is made of 3 components: cognitive, physiological, and behavioural responses. However, we are not sure which of these three components come first to an emotion. There are four different theories on the order of the three components of emotion or how the emotion comes about. * The **_James–Lange Theory_** of emotion states that the experience of emotion is due to the perception of physiological responses. For example, holdin a pet cat leads to increased heart rate/neurotransmitters/smile, then happiness. When you are sad, you don't cry becuase you are sad, you're sad because you cry. * Event –\> Physiological response (PR) –\> Interpretation of PR –\>Emotion

Answer 257

Emotion is made of 3 components: cognitive, physiological, and behavioural responses. However, we are not sure which of these three components come first to an emotion. There are four different theories on the order of the three components of emotion or how the emotion comes about. * **_Cannon-Bard Theory_** – disagreed with James-Lange, noticed many different emotions had the same physiological responses. **_Cannon-Bard_** believed a physiological response and emotion occurred simultaneously. * Simultaneously experience arousal and aggression. * An event leads to a physiological response and emotion at the same time.

Answer 258

Emotion is made of 3 components: cognitive, physiological, and behavioural responses. However, we are not sure which of these three components come first to an emotion. There are four different theories on the order of the three components of emotion or how the emotion comes about. * **_Schachter-Singer_** (two factor theory of emotion) – physiological and cognitive responses occur simultaneously form the experience of emotion. If we become physiologically aroused, we don't feel a specific emotion until we're able to label/identify a reason for the situation. * Event–\>PR + Identify reason for the situation (PR) (consciously)–\>Emotion

Answer 259

Emotion is made of 3 components: cognitive, physiological, and behavioural responses. However, we are not sure which of these three components come first to an emotion. There are four different theories on the order of the three components of emotion or how the emotion comes about. * **_Lazarus Theory_** – experience of emotion depends on how the situation is appraised (labelled). Ex. Event –\> labelling situation (cognitive) –\> emotion + physiological response. How we label an event is based on cultural/individual differences. * The interpretation of the event leads to arousal and aggression.

Answer 260

**_James-Lange_**: physiological –\> emotion **_Cannon-Bard_**: physiological +emotion **_Schatcher-Singer_**: physiological + cognitive –\> emotion **_Lazarus: cognitive_** –\>emotion +physiological

Answer 261

The limbic system is involved in emotion: the **_amygdala_** is the conductor of emotional experiences, communicating between the **_hypothalamus_** (physiological) and prefronatl cortex (behavioural). The **_amygdala_** plays a hey role in fear and aggression. * Emotions that are associated with memories are stored in the **_hippocampus_**. * The prefrontal cortex is involved in decision making, and reducing emotions. It also has executive functions – higher order processes such as planning/organizing/inhibiting/etc.

Answer 262

People perform best when they are moderately aroused – the **_Yerkes-Dodson Law_**, a bell shaped curve. * The relationship between long term memory and fear follows a **_Yerkes-Dodson_** curve. * This means that extreme emotional responses usually impact memory negatively. * Moderate emotions, like mild fear, are associated with optimal memory recall.

Answer 263

**_Stress_** is the process by which we appraise and cope with the environmental threads and challenges. It encompasses both the stressor and the stress reaction.

Answer 264

There is a **_stressor_** (dog) and the **_stress reaction_** (bunny's physical and emotional response). Stress is the process encompassing both.

Answer 265

Stress arises less from actual events and more from our interpretation of events – **_appraisal theory of stress_**. There are two stages to the cognitive stages of stress – the **_primary appraisal_** and the **_secondary appraisal_**. * **_Primary appraisal_** – assessing stress in the present situation. 3 categories of the response to this primary appraisal – irrelevant, benign/positive, stressful. If **_primary appraisal_** is negative, you then move forward with the **_secondary appraisal_** * **Secondary appraisal** – what is material preparedness to deal with the stressor. Appraisal of harm, threat, and challenge (how to overcome it). Humans can have a stress reaction and also anticipate stressors! Makes the whole process a bit more interesting/complicated.

Answer 266

There are four main categories of stressors. * **_Significant life changes_** – changes in your personal life. Ex. Death of loved one, marriage, loss of job, having children, leaving home, etc.

Answer 267

There are four main categories of stressors. * **_Catastrophic events_** – A large scale event that everyone considers threatening. Ex. wars, natural disasters etc.

Answer 268

There are 4 main categories of stressors. * **_Daily hassles_** – Seemingly minor events/hassles of daily life Ex. long store lines, forgetting car keys, aggravating roommates, email spam, car engine burns out, finding dog poop on your carpet, and tire punctured, expectations not communicated well b/w you and your spouse, inability to let go of an unobtainable goal etc. * **_Daily hassles_** often accompanies low SES- inadequate income or unemployment * For minorities **_Daily hassles_** might include racism. * Many consider (like Mike Lazarus and Connor McDonald) the most important form of stress.

Answer 269

There are 4 main categories of stressors. * **_Ambient stressors_** – Global stressors that are integrated into the environment. Perceivable, but hard to control. Can negatively impact us without us being aware of them. Stuff we just put up with in our lives. Ex. Pollution, noise, crowding

Answer 270

Stressors like threats and dangers trigger our **_fight or flight_** system – the **_sympathetic nervous system_**. * See increased heart rate and respiration (more energy + oxygen), increased peripheral vasoconstriction (push more blood to our core area – harder to live without blood), and turn off digestion/immune/etc. * **Endocrine response** - adrenal glands release epinephrine and norepinephrine, and cortisol * **_Tend and befriend_** response -sometimes better response to stress is to have support systems. Oxytocin is important for this – peer bonding. Oxytocin is strongly linked to estrogen, so this is the reason the oxytocin response is stronger in women.

Answer 271

There are three distinct stages of stress – **_General Adaptation Syndrome_** (**_GAS_**), The three phases are by **_Hans Salye_** * The first stage is the **_Alarm phase_** – stress reaction kick in, heart races, resources mobilized –"ready for the fight or flight:

Answer 272

There are three distinct stages of stress – **_General Adaptation Syndrome_** **_(GAS)_**, The three phases are by Hans Salye * The second stage is the **_resistance phase_** – fleeing, huddling, temperature elevated, BP high, breathing rate high, and your body is bathed in cortisol

Answer 273

There are three distinct stages of stress – **_General Adaptation Syndrome_** (**_GAS_**), The three phases are by Hans Salye * The third stage is the **_exhaustion stage_** – if resistance isn't followed by recovery, our body's stress resources are depeleted, our tissues become damaged, and our dampened immunity can make ussusceptible to illness. It is a negative impact of long term stress. We are equipped to short-term stress. But if we have them daily, but there will be serious negative consequences if they are maintained daily/long term.

Answer 274

There are physical effects from stress. Stress has damaging effects on our **_heart_**. * Increased blood pressure, blood vessels distend, so they build up more muscle and become more rigid. This can lead to **_hypertension_** and **_vascular disease_** (disease of blood vessels – get damaged with higher force of blood movement). Spots attract fat and narrow blood vessels. The worst place to experience this is the coronary arteries –**_coronary artery disease_**.

Answer 275

There are physical effects from stress. During stress, our body secretes cortisol and **_glucagon_**, which converts glycogen to glucose. If stress is psychosocial, we don't need all this extra glucose, which can exacerbate metabolic conditions like diabetes.

Answer 276

There are physical effects from stress. Stress has damaging effects on our reproductive health. * Reproduction is a huge energy expense in women, so this gets shut down during the stress response. Impotence is often caused by stress.

Answer 277

There are physical effects from stress. Stress has damaging effects on our immune function. * Stress causes inflammation – acute stress can lead to overuse of the immune system. You immune cells can attack your own body.

Answer 278

The sturcture of the nervous system is divided into two general categories: the **_Central Nervous System_** and the **_Peripheral Nervous System_**. * The **_Central Nervous System_** equals the brain and spinal cord * The brain includes the cerebrum, cerebral hemispheres, brain stem (midbrain, pons, and medulla), and cerebellum. * The brain in development can be divided in to three general categories: the **_forebrain_**, **_midbrain_**, and **_hindbrain_**. * The **_forebrain_** becomes the cerebrum. * The **_hindbrain_** becomes the pons/medulla/cerebellum * The **_midbrain_** becomes the midbrain.

Answer 279

The sturcture of the nervous system is divided into two general categories: the **_Central Nervous System_** and the **_Peripheral Nervous System_**. * The **_Peripheral Nervous System_** = everything else. Cranial (12 pairs) + spinal nerves (31 pairs) * Nerves, ganglia. Afferent and efferent neurons

Answer 280

There are two main and general functions of the nervous system: **_Basic_** and **_Higher Order Functions_**. * The **_basic_** functions of the nervous system include **_motor_** (control of the skeletal muscle), **_sensory_** (the senses), **_automatic_** (reflexes) * The **_higher order functions_** of the nervous system include **_congnition_** (thinking), **_emotions_** (feelings), and **_consciousness_**.

Answer 281

**_Lower motor neurons_** – efferent neurons of the PNS, controls skeletal muscle. skeletal muscle cells it contacts is the other end of the motor unit. The muscle and axon terminals form a **_neuromuscular junction_**.

Answer 282

* Abnormalities can occur in the motor unit – weakness. * Abnormalities of the lower motor neurons can cause the **_lower motor neuron signs_** (**_LMN signs_**) which can happen in addition to weakness. * **_LMN signs_** include **_atrophy_** of the skeletal muscle, **_fasciculations_** (involuntary twitches of the skeletal muscle), **_hypotonia_** (decrease in tone of the skeletal muscle – how much muscle is contracted when a person is relaxed), **_hyporeflexia_** (decreased muscle stretch reflex).

Answer 283

For peripheral somatosensation, somatosensation includes 5 main ones - position sense, vibration, touch, pain, and temperature. * Position + vibration + touch = **_mechanoreceptors_**, pain = **_nociceptors_**, temperature = **_thermoreceptors_** * One of the differences between the two types is how big their axons are – **_position/vibration/touch_** receptors have large diameter axons. They have a thick myelin sheath. Fast transduction travelling * The rest have small diameter axons and less myelin, so the signal transduction travels much slower. * **_Touch_** is both. Fine touch travels in fast neurons, less precise info travels in slower neurons

Answer 284

There are many receptors found in the skin. Ex. Mechanoreceptors, one type close to the skin, another type lower. Also some in deep tisse, deep in muscle that detects stretch. Ones in **_muscle_** are important for position, and ones in **_skin_** are important for vibration/touch. * **_Pain and temperature receptors_** end in uncovered terminals, don't have big structures like mechanoreceptors. Receptors send info down **_afferent_** axons.

Answer 285

The muscle stretch reflex topic. * Reflexes have 2 parts – **_afferent_** (stimulus) and **_efferent_** (response)

Answer 286

The **_muscle stretch reflex_** causes a muscle to contract after it's stretched, as a protesctive response. Ex. Knee jerk response – involuntary response of leg kicking out. The hammer hits the tendon right below the knee cap, which hooks onto the loower leg bone on one end, and a large group of upper muscles on the other. Muscles are called **_muscle spindles_**. * **_Somatosensory neurons_** (afferent) in muscle spindles form excitatory synapse in the spinal cord with another neuron in th espinal cord, which sends the axon out back to the same muscle that was stretched, and excite skeletal muscle cells to contract – **_lower motor neurons_** (efferent) * The muscle on the underside of the leg is inhibited when the top side of the leg is excited. This is necessary for the reflex to occur.

Answer 287

* **_Gray matter_** contains most of the neuron somas. * **_White matter_** contains myelinated axons * In the spinal cord, **_grey matter_** is on the inside and **_white matter_** is on the ourside * For the brain, **_white matter_** is on the inside and **_grey matter_** is on the outside. Axons also go down tracts of **_white matter_**.

Answer 288

* **_Lower Motor Neurons_** (**_LMN_**) control the muscles of the lower limbs and trunk, while **_LMNs_** that pass through cranial nerves control muscles of the head and neck * **_Upper Motor Neurons (UMN)_** control the **_LMNs_**. **_Upper Motor Neurons_** are found in the cerebral cortex, and synapse on the **_LMNs_** in the brainstem or spinal cord. * Can divide them into tracts depending on if they go to the brainstem, or spinal cord. * **_UMN_** starts in the cerebral cortex, axon travels down through the brainstem, and where it meets the spinal cord most of these axons cross and travel down the other side until they reach the **_LMN_**. This collection of axons is called the ***_corticospinal tract_***. * If it goes to the brainstem, it is called the ***_corticobulbar tract_***.

Answer 289

Signs that your **_Upper Motor Neurons_** (**_UMN_**) are damaged: * **_Hyperreflexia_** – increase in the muscle stretch refleses. The cause is unclear, but when the muscle spindle receptors are activated, without periodic stimulation of the LMNs by UMNs, they become hypersensitive and you get a bigger reflex. * **_Clonus_** – rhythmic contractions of antagonist muscle. Ex. foot goes involuntarily up and down. Cause is hyperflexia, because if your doctor pullson foot, it activates the muscle stretch reflex, so it triggers the antagonist muscles. * **_Hypertonia_** – increased tone of skeletal muscles. * **_Extensor Plantar Response_** – if you take a hard object and scrape along the bottom of a foot, the normal response is a flexor response – meaning toes will come down on the object. But with extensor, toes extend up. (I am not sure if this is a sign of UMN damage....)

Answer 290

* Somatosensory tracts. Somatosensory information travels in different pathways. In general, there are two big categories: 1. position sense, vibration sense, and fine touch and 2. pain, temperature, gross touch * Somatosensory tracts deliver information to the spinal cord. * The spinal cord carries information to the brain in one of the tracts. Crosses other side immediately, then goes to the cerebrum * Why injury to one side of the brain often results in damage to the other side

Answer 291

**_Frontal Lobe_** – motor cortex (body movements), prefrontal cortex (executive function, surprise/ direct other areas of the brain), Broca's area (speech production)

Answer 292

**_Parietal lobe_** – somatosensory cortex (touch/pressure/pain), spatial manipulation (orient in 3D) * Somatosensory cortex: motor cortex (frontal) + somatosensory cortex (parietal). Somatosensory cortex - involved in receiving sensory signlas from the skin.

Answer 293

**_Occipital Lobe_** – vision, "striate cortex" (striated cells)

Answer 294

**_Temporal Cortex_** – sound, Wernicke's area

Answer 295

These are the functions of the **_cerebellum_**: * The **_cerebellum_** coordinates movement: ***_motor plan_*** information is sent to the cerebellum. The **_cerebellum_** also recieves ***_position sense_*** information (ex. muscle stretch fibers), and sends feedback to the **_cerebellum_** and motor areas of the motor cortex. * The middle of the **_cerebellum_** coordinates middle body movement and walking, while the sides are involved in movements of the limbs – arms and legs. Also speech and movement of the eyes

Answer 296

* The **_brainstem_** connects all parts of the brain together, including the cranial nerves. * The **_brainstem_** is comprised of the midbrain, pons, and medulla. * **_Long Tracts_** – collections of axons connecting the cerebrum and **_brainstem_**. There are two long tracts that are important: **_motor_** (UMNs), and **_somatatosensory_**. * **_Cranial nerves_** – most of the cranial nerves are attached to the **_brainstem_**, doing many thing. 12 pairs. All sorts of functions.

Answer 297

There are neuron somas scattered throughout **_brainstem_** is the **_reticular formation_** – big role in autonomic functions, and controlling things like respiration, digestion, and lower/higher functions.

Answer 298

There are specific and important parts of the subcortical cerebrum. * There are subcortical cerebral nuclei that are located deep in the subcortical cerebrum * **_Internal capsule_** (part of the subcortical cerebrum) – contains many important pathways, including the corticospinal tract * The **_corpus callosum_** (part of the subcortical cerebrum) – connects the right and left cerebral hemispheres.

Answer 299

**_Basal ganglia_** (part of the subcortical cerebrum)– major role in motor functions, don't have UMNs but help motor area to perform proper movements. Also cognition + emotion.

Answer 300

**_Thalamus_** (part of the subcortical cerebrum)– Sensory functions, becuase all senses have pathways that travel to the **_thalamus_**. Also higher functions of the brain such as cognition and emotion.

Answer 301

**_Hypothalamus_** – controls the pituitary gland, the master gland that controls all other glands in the body.

Answer 302

**_Glutamate_** – most common excitatory neurotransmitter. **_Reticular activating system_** (required for consciousness – midbrain structures) has diffuse projections of glutamate to the cerebral cortex. (GLU is exciting) * **_Glutamate_** is associated with increased cortical arousal.

Answer 303

**_GABA_** (brain neurotransmitter) and **_Glycine_** (spinal cord) – most common inhibitory NTs [TWO other G's are inhibitory]

Answer 304

**_Acetylcholine_** (neurotransmitter) – nuclei (Basilis and septal nuclei) in the frontal lobe [**_frontal lobe = start so A_**] that releases it to cerebral cortex, released for LMNs, and the autonomic nervous system.

Answer 305

**_Histamine_** (neurotransmitter) – from hypothalamus sends to the cerebral cortex

Answer 306

**_NorePinephrine_** – area in the Pons called teh **_locus coeruleus_** that releases it to the cerebral cortex. Also, ANS, but less so than Ach.

Answer 307

**_Serotonin_** – released by lots of nuclei from all over the brainstem (midbrain, pons, and medulla) called raphe nuclei to cerebral cortex release **_serotonin_**. The raphe nuclei also sends **_serotonin_** to other parts of the nervous system. [Like Sex = messy. From everywhere down low (brain stem)]

Answer 308

**_Dopamine_** – VTA and substantia nigra

Answer 309

Lesion studies and experimental ablation is deliberately making brain lesions in order to observe changes on animal's behavior. Not done with humans! * Tissue removal: surgical removal, surgical aspiration (sucking out brain tissue), or nerve cuts.

Answer 310

Radiofrequency lesions – used to destroy tissue on surface of the brain and deep inside the brain. A wire is inserted into the brain to determine the area. Then pass a high frequency current which heats up and destroys tissue. It can vary current to change size, but destroys cells and axons.

Answer 311

**_Neurochemical lesions_** – excitotoxic lesions, cause influx of calcium that it kills the neuron and excites it to death. * One example is **_kainic acid_**. Destroys cell bodies but doesn't influence axons by passing by. * Also **_oxidopamine_** (**_6-hydroxydopamine_**) selectively destroys dopamine and NE neurons. Can model parkinson's disease.

Answer 312

**_Cortical cooling_** (**_Cryogenic blockade_**) - involves cooling down neurons until they stop friing. * **_Cryloop_** – surgically implanted between skull and brain. Most important part is it's temporary and reversible, unlike other brain studying techniques.

Answer 313

There are modern ways to study the brain. The modern ways or machines that are used to study the brain *structure* is * **_CAT scans (CT scan)_** * **_MRI_**

Answer 314

here are modern ways to study the brain. The modern ways or machines that are used to study the brain *function* is * **_EEG_** (**_electroencephalogram_**) external, can't tell us about activity of individual/groups of neurons. Can only look at sum total. Can tell us about seizures, sleep stage, cogntive tasks. * **_MEG_** (**_Megnetoencephalogram_**) (aka SQUIDS - Superconducting quantum interference device) – better resolution than an EEG, but more rare because it requires a large machine and special room to shield it.

Answer 315

There are modern ways to study the brain. The modern ways or machines that are used to study the brain *function* AND *structure* is * **_fMRI_** – same image from MRI but can look at which structures are active * **_PET scans_** – can't give us the detail of the structure, but can combine them with CAT scans and MRIs. Inject glucose into cells and see what areas of the brain are more active at given point in time.

Answer 316

**_Phenylketonuria (PKU)_** is an inborn error of metabolism that results in decreased metabolism of the amino acid phenylalanine.[3] Untreated, **_PKU_** can lead to intellectual disability, seizures, behavioral problems, and mental disorders.[1] It may also result in a musty smell and lighter skin.[1] A baby born to a mother who has poorly treated **_PKU_** may have heart problems, a small head, and low birth weight.[1]

Answer 317

**_Between-subjects_** (or **_between-groups_**) study design: different people test each condition, so that each person is only exposed to a single user interface.

Answer 318

**_Within-subjects_** (or **_repeated-measures_**) study design: the same person tests all the conditions (i.e., all the user interfaces).

Answer 319

**_Temperament_** – broader than personality. It’s their characteristic emotional reactivity, intensity, - their shyness and their sociability. **_Temperament_** seems to be established before babies are exposed to environment. **Persistent** as person ages.

Answer 320

**_Heredity_** – passing traits from parents/ancestors to offspring through genes. * **_Traits_**: distinguishing qualities and characteristics that compus us. Our attributes. Ex. Our temperament or our eye color.

Answer 321

**_Personality_**, unlike psychological characteristics/abnormalities is believed to be **constant** over a person's lifetime. * Is our personality hard-wired and persistent as we age? What about our gender identity? or intelligence?

Answer 322

**_Twin studies_** and **_adoption studies_** are important in behavioral, social, and health sciences. * **_Twin studies_** and **_adoption studies_** are good because they allow us to tease apart nature (what we inherit from our parents, DNA) and nurture (our environments – our surroundings, peers, and where we live)

Answer 323

* _Classical twin study_ – compare monozygotic + dizygotic raised in the same household. * Monozygotic (edentical) vs. dizygotic twins (fraternal) * Monozygotic – egg splits into 2 after fertilization. Share 100% of the genes * Dizygotic – develop from 2 separately fertilized eggs. Share 50% of genes, like regular siblings * Share same environment in womb, and also share the same parents, so both can be said to share 100% environment * Regular sibling don't share 100%, similar, but can vary depending on parenting/age.

Answer 324

Twin studies and adoption studies allow us to tease apart **_nature_** (what we inherit from our parents' DNA) and **_nurture_** (our environments – our surroundings, peers, and where we live) * For example, what causes schizophrenia? * Nature – genetic component * Nurture – environmental component * Monozygotic twins vs. dizygotic twins – can hold environment constant. * If schizophrenia was caused by genes, we would expect to see different rates in identical vs fraternal twins. Higher in identical twins * But if **_environmental_**, similar rates of disorder in both sets of twins. Wouldn't matter if they were identical vs fraternal.

Answer 325

**_Problems with twin studies_**: identical twins are treated more similarly than fraternal twins are. This would mean that monozygotic twins share even "more" of the same environement than fraternal twins.

Answer 326

**_Adoption studies_** – adopted child is compared to biological family and their adopted family. If no relation between individual and biological parents, but there is relation between individual and adoptive parents, then we can assume environment was a factor. If opposite, then genetic factor. * Problems: incomplete info about biological families. Also adoption isn't random, adoptive family sometimes matched to biological family. Identical twins adopted by different family – genetically similar, different environments. But families who adopt are usually similar.

Answer 327

**_Heritability_**: variability of traits can be attributed to differences in genes. * percentage of variation of traits due to genes. * **_Heritability_** estimates define the amount of variance that can be attributed to genes in specific subgroups of individuals

Answer 328

Assume we say heritability of intelligence is 50%. NOT saying that intelligence is 50% genetic, saying the **_difference_** in intelligence is 50% attributable by genes. * For example, control boys environment 100%, but IQ is not the same. Difference couldn't be attributed to environment, so we'd say their IQ differences are heritable because their environement was 100% the same. So h^2 = 99%. Close to 100%. * Alternatively you can say 4 identical quadruplets (genetically identical), but completely different environments. Since variability can't be due to genes, it must be environmentally caused so h^2 is 0%. h^2 = heritability

Answer 329

Gener Environment Interaction * Nature vs. Nurture. * **_Gene-Environment Interaction_**: Gene + environments effect our behavior, and the role of genes + environments on behavior is dependent on each other. [Explains nature through nurture] * For example, an attractive baby vs. a hideous baby. As a result, the attractive baby recieves more attention and is more sociable and well adjusted. But say both have genes that predispose them for depression, that are triggered/activated by environement (stressors). Beautiful baby's genes are not activated because it has reduced transmitters, while the ugly baby's genes are making proteins all the time since his life is tougher. Both DNA/genes play a role in genetic disposition but also environment plays a role.

Answer 330

Another example of gene environment interaction is **_phenylketonuria_** (**_PKU_**). **_Phenylketonuria_** is caused by mutations to a gene that encodes a liver enzyme phenlylalanine hydroxylase (PAH). But becuase the enzyme is missing, amino acid phenylalanine doesn't get converted into tyrosine. A genetic condition that causes a build up of phenyl alanine which then causes brain problems. (1 in 15k babies effected, but most babies are unaffected). * During infant screening, placed on phenylalanine-free diet, and most grow up without major problems.

Answer 331

**_Molecular Genetics_** – a new field of science that looks at the molecular structure and fucntin of genes. As we study gene and environemtns interaction we are getting to understand specific gene that is regulating our behavior. We are looking at specific parts of DNA.

Answer 332

Watson and Crick discovered the structure of DNA, and gave rise to the **_Central Dogma_** of genetic. DNA codes for RNA, which code for 1 of 20 amino acids, and eventually become the building blocks of proteins, which affects our behavior.

Answer 333

Greatest achievements in clarifying the modulatory factors we have had mapped our entire genome - **_gene mapping_** of all genes on the 46 chromosomes. Because of genome now we can look at populations which share traits and not have to rely on twin/adoption studies to narrow down heritability of traits. Now, we can look at population of shared traits and look at genes that code for those traits and compare/contrast those genes.

Answer 334

Called **_epigenetics_** – changes to gene expression resulting from changes other than to gene/ DNA sequence. Ex. Addition of methyl groups to the gene, which make it more difficult for TFs to come in and activate a gene. [Methylation inhibits activation of certain genes.]. **_Epigenetics_** can override our behavior. * **_Epigenetics_** is the study of changes in gene expression that results in something other than changes to a DNA sequence. One **_epigenetic_** change is methylation, which can make it more difficult for a gene to be expressed.

Answer 335

There is adaptive value to behavioral traits. * **_Function of Behavior_** – to keep **_homeostasis_** - a maintained of a constant interanl condition. Behavior is the coordinated internal and external response of an organism/groups of organisms to their environment. Functioning in the realm of **_adaptation_** to help maintain our homeostasis.

Answer 336

There is adaptive value to behavioral traits. * **_Ethology_** focuses on the observation of animal behaviours, call these overt behaviours (not necessarily obvious, just means observable). * I believe **_Ethology_** can be divided into *innate behavior*, *learned behaviour*, and *complex behaviours*.

Answer 337

There is adaptive value to behavioral traits. One of the three behaviours under under Ethology is **_innate behavioruoural traits_**. * **_Innate behavioural traits_** – genetically programmed behaviour. Present at birth and requires no experience with the environment. Innate behavioural traits have the following characteristics: * **_Inherited_** – innate behaviours are encoded by DNA * **_Intrinsic_** – present even if you're raised in isolation. Ex. pooping, peeing, etc. * **_Stereotypic_** – performed the same way each time * **_Inflexible_** – not modifiable by experience. * **_Consummate_** – fully developed right away, at first perfromance. Not influenced by experience. * Subject to change through mutation and recombination, natural selection, etc (just like all other physical traits) * Ex. Nausea in women during pregnancy helps them avoid toxic foods/novel-strongly flavored food in critical period of development. Throught of as programmed.

Answer 338

There is adaptive value to behavioral traits. One of the three behaviours under under Ethology is innate behavioruoural traits. Even further, there are three main types of innate behaviour: * **_Reflexes_** – sensory and motor nerve loop response w/o thinking. (ex. Knee-jerk response). * **_Orientation Behaviors_** – regualting specially in our environments * Ex. Kinesis, our change in speed (orthokinesis), change in rate in turning (klinokinesis). Can be in response to a stimulus (like tripping on a sidewalk – your body would change speed/kinesis). * Ex. Positive taxis and Negative taxis - movement towards/away from a stimulus respectively. E. Insects and light. Insects have positive taxis towards light (phototaxis) * **_Fixed-action pattern (FAP)_** – sequence of coordinated movement performed without interruption. Similar to a reflex, but more complicated. Ex. Praying mantis. Any prey-sixed movement praying mantis experiences elicits a strike response, once strike is initiated – can't be changed/altered at all.

Answer 339

There is adaptive value to behavioral traits. One of the three behaviours under Ethology is **_Learned Behaviooural Traits_** – persistent changes in behavior that result from ur experiences. **_Learned Behavioral Traits_** have these following characteristics: * **_Non-inherited_** –acquired only through observation/experience * **_Extrinsic_** – absent when animals are raised in isolation, ex. social skills * **_Permutable_** – pattern/sequence that is changeable * **_Adaptable_** – capable of being modifid in response to changing conditions * **_Progressive_** – subject to improvement or refined through practice over time

Answer 340

There is adaptive value to behavioral traits. One of the three behaviours under Ethology is **_complex behavior_** – combination of innate and learned behavior. Relationship between genes and the environment in adaptation. Can be a spectrum, most behaviours fit between innate and learned. * Ex. ability of insects to fly, starts off as innate but through learning become more fficient in their ability to fly. Genes/environments forms behavior and they also contribute to the adaptive role of these behaviors! **_Covert behavior_** - Covert behavior is behavior that is not observable.

Answer 341

**_Positive Feedback_** – process that increase production of product. One product stimulates production of another product. Ex. Domino or chain effect

Answer 342

**_Negative feedback_**– rate or process that needs to be controlled to decrease product. Ex. in our body! * **_Negative feedback_** is put into place to inhibit production of product

Answer 343

* **_Positive_**, increase production of product. * **Negative**, works to decrease product.

Answer 344

Complex human experiences involve *motivation*. Motivation asks the question why? Why do we do we think and feel the way we do? Motivation has 5 schools of thought/approaches. One of these approaches is the **_Evolutionary Approach_** – role instincts play in motivation. What do humans do to survive? What is not learned and just instinct. * Ex. Think about baby. The baby cries, sleeps, and eats. Basic instinct that all humans have

Answer 345

Complex human experiences involve motivation. Motivation asks the question why? Why do we do we think and feel the way we do? Motivation has 5 schools of thought/approaches. One of these approaches is **_Drive Reduction Theory_** / Drive Theory – focuses on **_drives_** vs **_needs_**. * **_Need_** is the lack or deprivation that will energize the drive, or aroused state. * That **_drive_** is the aroused state. Fulfulling the drive will reduce the need. This **_need-drive_** balance is what maintains homeostasis. Typically basic, essential, and physiological * Ex. You are at the gym and the need for water. Trainer says you need to do more exercise. In this example, **_need_**: water, **_drive_**:thirst. Doing pushups is a means to fulfull **_drive_** for water.

Answer 346

Complex human experiences involve motivation. Motivation asks the question why? Why do we do we think and feel the way we do? Motivation has 5 schools of thought/approaches. One of these approaches is **_Optimum Arousal Theory_** – people want to reach full arousal/alertness. Drive to get full arousal, and natural high – a state we enjoy. Ex. Why people go to amusement parks.

Answer 347

Complex human experiences involve motivation. Motivation asks the question why? Why do we do we think and feel the way we do? Motivation has 5 schools of thought/approaches. One of these approaches is **_Cognitive_** – (rational and decision making ability) - thought processes drive behavior. Ex. Light bulb going off in one's head.

Answer 348

Complex human experiences involve motivation. Motivation asks the question why? Why do we do we think and feel the way we do? Motivation has 5 schools of thought/approaches. One of these approaches is **_Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs_** – we want to satisfy needs in a particular order. Why we use a pyramid. * In reality, all approaches/schools of thought of motivation are related and help us learn motivation a bit better.

Answer 349

**_Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs_** - A pyramid. We have needs that must be fulfilled from bottom to top. These needs must be fulfilled in a specific bottomàtop order. * Basic needs are most fundamental and at bottom. o There are 5 needs. * Acronyms: Please Stop Liking Stupid Shit * Please Safely Love (OR) Else Suffer

Answer 350

One of the five Need categories in Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs: **_1.Physiological_**. **_1.Physiological_** – food, water, breathing, sleep. Essential to survive. Basic need

Answer 351

One of the five Need categories in Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs: **_2. Safety_**. **_2.Safety_** – **_safety_** of employment, health, resources, property. Can only be fulfulled after physiological needs are met. Basic Need * **_Safety_** needs are associated with stability, security, protection, and freedom from threats.

Answer 352

One of the five Need categories in Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs: **_3. Love_**. **_3.Love_** – need to belong, acceptance from friends/family intimacy, **_love_**. *Social* *needs*/*Belonging*

Answer 353

One of the five Need categories in Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs: **_4. Self-esteem_**. **_4. Self-esteem_** – feel confident and a sense of achievement, recognition, and competence of skill. *Respect*

Answer 354

One of the five Need categories in Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs: **_5. Self-actualization_**. **_5. Self-actualization_** – one reaching their maximal potential, achieving the most one can be. They were moral to their own principles and mastered the other needs. Differs from person to person. Different from person to person. Maximum Potential * One can want to be an ideal parent, or ideal athlete or ideal artist

Answer 355

**_Incentive Theory_** – Reward, intangible or tangible is presented after the occurrence of an action w/intention of causing the behavior to occur again. This causes a positive association and meaning toward a behavior. Focuses on conditioning/incentive to make a person happier. **_Incentive theory_** argues that individuals are motivated to engage in behaviors that produce rewards or incentives * Ex. doing well at work and getting promotion (tangible). Or intangible - job satisfaction. * Ex. **_Incentive_** for football team is winning a game and getting recognition.

Answer 356

**_Incentive Theory_** Topic * Studies have shown that if a reward is given immediately, the chance of the action happening again is higher. * If the person is not rewarded for the action, the action is less likely to be done again. * **_Positive Reinforcement_** is done through continous positive stimulation * Removal of a punishment would be **_negative reinforcement_**, not what **_incentive theory_** is focused on. * Skinner, the most distinguished **_incentive theory_** psychologist, said a person is more likely to do an action that's positively recieved, and less likely to do an action that is negatively recieved

Answer 357

Biological and Sociocultural Factors – Food, Sex, and Drugs * There are many factors that regulate our intake of food, sex, and drugs * Furthermore, these factors can be grouped into 2 categories: **_biological_** and **_socio-culture_**

Answer 358

Biological and Sociocultural Factors – Food, Sex, and Drugs * Food * **_Biological_**: Hypothalamus sends positive signal to the stomach, and when the stomach is full, leptin tells us we are full. Another one is insulin. The brain can detect the level of insulin to see the amount of sugar and fat store in the blood. Matabolism rate. Genetic predspostion to our weight, influenced by parents * **_Socio-culturally_**: Eat for different occasions, time, desire, appeal, and availability

Answer 359

Biological and Sociocultural Factors – Food, Sex, and Drugs * Sex – Investigated by MAster & Johnson. * **_Biological_**: Sexual response cycle. The first part of the cycle is the excitement phase, marked by increased heart rate, BP, etc. Second is plateau. Then orgasm. 4th is resolution. They noticed activity was related to testosterone for women and men. Also have genetic predisposition to sexuality, found by looking at homosexuality. * **_Socio-culturally_**: age, cultural, stimulus, emotions, and desires to procreate or not.

Answer 360

Biological and Sociocultural Factors – Food, Sex, and Drugs * Drugs * **_Biological_**: family history/genetic predisposition, withdrawal and cravings, biochemical factors, dopamine – affects our limboc system and leads to feeling of euphoria * **_Socio-culturally_**: curiosity, rebel, poor control, cope with stress, low self-esteem, relief from fatigue, feel good, and more prevalent in area of higher poverty.

Answer 361

**_Attitude_** – a learned tendency to evaluate things in a certain way. To evaluate people, issues, events, and objects. (We think of **_attitude_** as a moody teenager, or someone having a certain **_attitude_** towards a certain topic.

Answer 362

There are three components to attitude – **_affective_** (emotional), behavioural (how we act or behave towards object/subject), cognitive component (form thoughts/beliefs, and our knowledge) * Called the ABC model of attitude

Answer 363

Identify the Affective, Behavioural, and Cognitive compenents of these attitudes! * “I love yoga because I get to mediate and I believe it helps me relax so I will go to class each week.” – **_‘I love yoga’ is emotional,’ I believe it helps me relax’ is cognitive, and behavioural is ‘I will go to class each week’_** * “I am frightful of rollercoasters and believe they are stupid so I will be on the carousel.” **_Affective – ‘I am frightful’, behavioural is ‘I will be on the carousel’, and cognitive is ‘I believe they are stupid’_**

Answer 364

Attitudes certainly influence our behavior, and there are _four_ theories that answer the question on how our attitudes influence behavior. * 1. **_Theory of Planned Behavior_** * We consider the **_implications_** of our **_intentions_** before we behave. * Intesions are based on 3 things – our **_attitudes_** toward a certain behavior (ex. I like studying), **_subjective norms_** (what we think others think about our behavior), and **_percieved behavioural control_** (how easy/hard we think it is to control our behavior)

Answer 365

Attitudes certainly influence our behavior, and there are _four_ theories that answer the question on how our attitudes influence behavior. * 2. **_Attitude to Behavior Process Model_** * An event triggers our attitude (something that will influence our perception of an object) * Then attitude + outside knowledge together determines behavior * Ex. Tommy has attitude that junk food is unhealthy, becuase many of his relatives have diseases, so when he is at home, he does not eat chips/soda/candy.

Answer 366

Attitudes certainly influence our behavior, and there are four theories that answer the question on how our attitudes influence behavior. * 3. **_Prototype Willingness Model_** (**_PWM_**) * Behavior is a function of 6 things: past behavior, attitudes, subjective norms, our intentions, our willingness to engage in a specific type of behavior, **_prototypes_**/**_models_** – a lot of our behavior is carried out from **_prototyping_**/**_modeling_**.

Answer 367

Attitudes certainly influence our behavior, and there are _four_ theories that answer the question on how our attitudes influence behavior. * 4. **_Elaboration Likelihood Model for Persuasion_** * More cognitive approach – focuses on the why/how of persuasion. * There are two ways information is processed: **_central_** (depends on the quality of arguments of the persuader), and **_peripheral_** (superficial/non-verbal persuasion cues, such as attractiveness/satus of persuader). * People are more like to be honest when social influences are reduced (ex. secret ballot), when general patterns of behavior are observed versus a single one (**_principle of aggregation_**), when specific actions are considered, and when attitudes are made more powerful through self reflection. * The **_principle of aggregation_** states that the sum of a set of multiple measurements is a more stable and representative estimator than any single measurement. This greater representation occurs because there is inevitably some error associated with measurement. By combining numerous exemplars, such errors of measurement are averaged out, leaving a clearer view of underlying relationships. The usefulness of this principle is illustrated in 12 major areas of developmental research in which the issue of negligible correlations figures prominently.

Answer 368

**YES**, it is possible for our behaviors to influence our attitudes?

Answer 369

Strong social attitudes can cause our attitudes to follow our behavior.

Answer 370

There are two primary or major ways behavior influences attitude. However, there are other major ways behavior influences your attitude. * 1. **_Foot In The Door Phenomenon_** * We have a tendency to agree on small actions first. Eventually over time comply with much larger actions. * Basic concept of how people are brainwashed too. Door is eventually pushed completely open.

Answer 371

There are two primary or major ways behavior influences attitude. However, there are other major ways behavior influences your attitude. * **_Role-playing_** * Everyone plays roles in life. Picture yourself in a new role. First few day are a bit fake – we're trying to follow social quota in that role. Trying to sound professional. But over time, what feels like acting starts to feel like you. * Changed attitude as a result of our behavior and carrying out that role. * Ex. Zimbardo's prison experiment

Answer 372

There are two primary or major ways behavior influences attitude. However, there are other major ways behavior influences your attitude. * Also **_public declarations_** (more likely to follow through if you've told everyone), and **_justification of effort_** (people do something they don't want to justify effort they put into it, such as going to med school after working so hard)

Answer 373

**_Cognitive Dissonance_** is the discomfort experienced when holding 2 or more conflicting cognitions (ideas, beliefs, values, and emotional reactions). * These conflicting ideas lead to feelings of discomfort which we want to alleviate. These conflicting ideas can be alleviated by alterations in our beliefs/behaviours. We want to reduce the discomfort by minimizing the dissonance/inconsistencies/ CONTRADICTIONS

Answer 374

There are 4 things we do to reduce our cognitive discomfort or cognitive dissonance: * 1. **_Modify our cognitions_** – ex. smoker might ay I really don't smoke that much. * 2. **_Trivialize_** – make less important, ex. evidence is weak that smoking causes cancer. * 3. **_Add_** – adding more cognitions, ex. I exercise so much that it doean't matter * 4. **_Deny_** – denying the facts, ex. smoking and cancer are not linked. People strive for harmony in our thoughts, actions, words. As soon as our cognitions, attitudes and behaviours don't align, we have cognitive dissonance.

Answer 375

**_Situational Approach to Behavior_**: we are placed in new situations everyday. These situations affect our behavior. Under the branch of social psychology. * **_Social Psychology_** – a branch of psychology that analyzes the situational approach to behavior and emphasizes influence of social phenomena and people interactions with each other on influence. It focuses on interaction between individual and the changing external environmental (situational) circumstances over internal traits/internal motivations/ stable personality traits. * Focuses on interactions between individual and their environment. * One situation is not predictive of how someone will act in another situation. Depending on situation the behavior might change.

Answer 376

Situational Approach * People behave differently depending on their situation – _________ instead of internal. * As human we judge person on just one instance of behavior (internal). * Hard to predict behavior based off 1 situation. Have to acknowledge we sometimes behave differently. CANT JUDGE A BOOK BY ITS COVER

Answer 377

Situational Approach **_Attribution_** is the process of inferring *causes of events/behaviors*. * 3 main parts of external attribution: **_consistency_**, **_distinctiveness_**, and **_consensus_** * **_Consistency_** (does person usually behave this way), * **_Distinctiveness_** (does person behave differently in different situations), and * **_Consensus_** (do others behave similarly in situation?). * If person behaves different in different situations (**_distinctive_**) and others behave similarly in the same situation (**_consensus_**) then we know the behavior is due to the situation (external). Situation is effecting behavior. * If person is **_consistent_** in all situations, then maybe not external/environment, and more internal. Their behavior is not dependent on situation. * Ex. Situation matters. Your friend behaves differently to snakes at a zoo (where snakes are caged) than to a snake in her living room (where snake might be a danger). * If we see someone in more circumstances, we find out more about them as a person.

Answer 378

**_Sigmund Freud_** was a neurologist and went to study hypnosis, but this turned him to medical psychopathology. Psychiatry/psychology as we knew it was unknown before his work.

Answer 379

**_Psychoanalytic Theory_** says peronality is shaped by a person's *unconscious thoughts/desires*, feelings, and past memories (particularly in childhood) * Personality has memories, beliefs, urges, drives, and instincts that we are not always aware of that make up the unconscious. Says childhood experiences and unconscious desires * 2 instinctual drives motivate human behavior: **_libido_** (motivation for survival. growth, pleasure, etc.) and **_death instinct_** (drives aggresive behaviours fuelled by unconscious wish to die or hurt oneself/others.

Answer 380

Psychoanalytic Theory * Individual influences on behavior: **_projection_** (projecting own feelings of inadequacy on another), **_reaction formation_** (defence mechanism where someone says or does exact opposite of what they actually want/feel), **_regression_** (defence mechnism where one regresses to the position of child in problematic situations), **_sublimation_** (defence mechanism where unwanted impulses are transformed into something less harmful).

Answer 381

Psychoanalytic Theory * Central to Freud's Theory is **_libido_**. **_Libido_** is the natural energy source that fuels the mechanisms of the mind. * When this energy is stuck/fixated at various tages of psychosexual development, conflicts can occur that have lifelong effects. * **_Fixation_** at a partcular stage is what predicts adult personality. * Ex. Someone **_fixated_** at the oral stage (first stage) might have oral personality characteristics, such as smoking habits/overly talkative when they grow up.

Answer 382

Freud said there were 3 parts of the mind: These three parts are the **_id_**, **_ego_**, and **_superego_** (ACRONYM: Immature Entertainer Sydney). They exist in either the unconscious or conscious mind. * Conscious mind: top of iceberg is the conscious part of mind (small, tip of the iceberg), These are the mental functions you are aware of. * Unconscious mind is the bottom part of the iceberg is the larger part of the mind (most of the mind is unconscious just like most of an iceberg is beneath water). Consists of primitive, instinctual wishes and information that cannot be accessed. * **_Id_** is at the bottom of the iceberg; it's part of the unconscious mind. It develps after birth and demands immediate gratification. * **_Ego_** – part of conscious and unconscious. Involved in our perceptions, thoughts, and judgements, and seeks long-term gratification. * **_Superego_** – develps around age 4, and it's our moral conscience. Also part of the conscious and unconscious mind.

Answer 383

Our libido impulses are what want to be gratified – when overgratified or partially/not gratified at all, fixation occurs at a certain stage. Face conflict/anxiety. It’s a conflict between these 3 mental structures – ego, id, and superego. They’re all competing for demand, so in conflict. * Id is on one shoulder and it’s not getting immediate gratification, then we have superego on other shoulder, preaching to id about what’s moral, and ego is in middle. * Id wants gratification, and is going back and forth with superego, so ego here is trying to gratify the id but it also has to take into account what the superego is saying. It’s moral oversight. * The ego is part of the conscious and unconscious mind, so it acts as mediator between the unconscious desires of the id and the moral demands of the superego.

Answer 384

* Ex. a **_Freudian slip_** is example of mental conflict. Ex. financially stressed patient, please don’t give me any bills – meant any pills. • Freud’s stages of psychosocial development is a process all individuals go through and is a part of personality development. Especially problematic when there’s a problem with development at a particular psychosocial stage.

Answer 385

The **_Humanistic Theory_** (developed by **_Carl Rogers_**) focuses on healthy personality development, and humans are seen as inherently good. The most basic motive of all people is the **_actualizing tendency_** (self-actualization), innate drive to maintain and enhance oneself to full potential. It also says that people also have **_free will_**. Person will grow towards self-actualization as long as there are no obstacles.

Answer 386

The primary difference between Freud's Psychoanalytic Theory and Roger's Humanistic Theory was that Freud's Theory was deterministic – behaviour was determined by unconscious desires.

Answer 387

Humanistic Theory focuses on the **_conscious_**, and says people are **_inherently good_**, and we are **_self-motivated to improve_** (so we can reach self-actualization).

Answer 388

Even though Carl Rogers Developed the Humanistic Theory, the first theorist of this theory was **_Maslow_**, who formed the hierarchy of needs. He stated that we must fulfill the physiological needs of the pyramid and work our way up, then safety, then love, self-esttem, and finally self-actualization. * Self-actualization is rarely achieved, only 1% of people ver reach it.

Answer 389

**_Carl Rogers_** says qualities Maslow described are nurtured early in life. Self- actualization is a constant growth process nurtured in a growth-promoting process. In order for this climate to help someone reach self-actualization, 2 conditions need to be met. The first is that growth is nurtured by when an individual is **_genuine_**, one has to be open and revealing about themselves without fear of being wrong. Second growth is nurtured through **_acceptance_** from others – allows us to live up to our ideal selves. * In the Humanistic Theory, the central feature of our personality is **_self-concept_**, achieved when we bring genuiness and acceptance together to achieve a growth-promoting climate. * When there's a discrepency between conscious values and unconscoius true values leads to tension, must be resolved. * **_Genuine_** + **_acceptance_** = **_self-concept_** * Importance of **_congruency_** between **_self-concept_** and our actions to be fulfilled.

Answer 390

There is a Biological Theory on Personality. * There are many variations to this theory, some relate to the **_brain_** and some relate to **_behaviour_** instead of traits * For example, evolutionary psychology theorizes that males + females have a different mating strategy that influence the cost of passing on genes. Males seek to have many mates, and females want to be more selective due to the cost pf pregnancy.

Answer 391

* The biological theory suggests important components of personality are **_inherited_**, or determined in part by our **_genes_**. * **_Hans Eysnck_** proposed extroversion level is based on differences in the reticular formation – introverts are more easily aroused and therefore require less. **_Jeffrey Alan Gray_** proposed personality is governed by 3 brain systems, such as the fight or flight system. **_C. Robert Cloninger_** linked personality to brain systems in reward/motivation/punishment, such as low dopamine correlating with higher impulsivity.

Answer 392

In the Biological Theory For Personality, researchers always try to look to identical twins, because they are used to tease out environment vs genetic characteristics – same genetic makeup. * Results show even if twins reared separately, still had similar personalities. * **_Social Potency_** trait – the degree to which a person assumes leadership roles in social situations. Common in twins reared separately. * **_Traditionalism_** – tendency to follow authority also shown to be common in twins. * Weaker genetic traits – achievement, closeness * Specific genes that relate to personality, people with longer **_dopamine-4-receptor_** gene are more likely to be thrill seekers * But of course, just because you have a gene doesn't mean you'll express it – depends on the environement. * **_Temperament_** – innate disposition, our mood/activity level, and is consistent throughout your life. The most important takeaway on the Biological Theory of Personality is our inherited gene to some degree leads to our traits, which leads to our behaviour/personality.

Answer 393

The **_behaviourist theory_** says personality is the result of learned behavior patterns based on a person's environement – it's **_deterministic_**, in that people begin as blank slates and the enviornment completely determines their behaviour/personalities.

Answer 394

The Behaviourist Theory on Personality focuses on **_observable_** and measurable behaviour, rather than mental/emotional behaviours. * The Psychoanalytic Theory would be the most opposite of this theory (focuses on mental behaviour).

Answer 395

The Behaviourist Theory on Personality * 1. **_Skinner_** – strict behaviourist, associated with the conceptof **_operant conditioning_**. Uses rewards/punishment to increase/decrease behaviour, respectively * 2. **_Pavlov_** – associated with classical conditioning, ex. **_Pavlov_** dog experiment. Places a neutral stimulus with an **_unconditioned_** stimulus to trigger an involuntary response. Ex. ringing a bell in the presence of food. * People have consistent behaviour patterns becuase we have specific response tendencies, but these can change, and that's why our personality develops over our entire lifespan.

Answer 396

The **_Cognitive Theory_**, a bridge between classic behaviourism and other theories like the psychoanalyitc. Because cognitive theory treats thinking as a behaviour, and has a lot in common with behaviour theory (Albert Bandura comb)

Answer 397

Trait Theory can be used to explain personality. Trait Theory states a **_personality_** trait is a stable predisposition towards a certain behaviour. Trait Theory is a striaghtforward way to describe personality – puts it in **_patterns of behaviour_**.

Answer 398

Trait Theory can be used to explain personality. * **_Surface traits_** are evident from a person's behavior, while **_source traits_** are factors underlying human personality (fewer and more abstract). * What is a trait? A relatively **_stable characteristic_** of a person that causes individuals to **_consistently_** behave in certain ways. A combination of traits froms the personality.

Answer 399

Trait Theory can be used to explain personality. * 1. Gordon Allport – all of us have different traits. Came up with list of 4500 different descriptive words for traits. From those he was able to come up with 3 basic categories of traits: **_cardinal_**, **_central_**, and **_secondary_** traits. * **_Cardinal_** traits are characteristics that direct most of person's activities – the dominant traits. Influence all of our behaviours, including **_secondary_** and **_central_** traits. * **_Central_** trait is ex. honesty, sociability, shyness. Less dominant than **_cardinal_**. * **_Secondary_** trait is love for modern art, reluctance to eat meat – more preferences/attitudes

Answer 400

Trait Theory can be used to explain personality. * Raymond **_Cattell_** – proposed we all had **_16 personality traits_** that represent basic dimensions of personality. Turned this into the **_16 personality factor_** questionaire, or **_16 PF_**.

Answer 401

Trait Theory can be used to explain personality. * Hans **_Eysenck_** – We have 3 major dimensions of personality, which encompass all traits we all possess, but the degrees to which we individually express them are different. **_Allport_** said we have different unique subsets, **_Eysenck_** says we all have them but just express them in different degrees. These three are **_extroversion_** [vs. introversion (– degree of sociability)], **_neuroticism_**, (emotional stability), and **_psychoticism_** (degree to which reality is distorted). However, Eysenck said not all necessarily have psychoticism (degree to whcih reality is distorted). However, Eysenck said not all necessarily have **_psychoticism_**.

Answer 402

Trait Theory can be used to explain personality. * **_5 Factor Model_** (**_Big 5 Personality Traits_**) – found in all people of all populations. * **_Openness_** - independent vs. conforming, imagining vs. practical * **_Conscientousness_** - careful vs carelss, disciplined vs. impulse, organized or not * **_Extroversion_** – talkative or quiet, fun loving or sober * **_Agreeableness_** - kind vs. cold, appreciative vs. unfirendly * **_Neuroticism_** - stable vs. tense, calm vs. anxious, secure vs. insecure * Use acronym **OCEAN**.

Answer 403

Trait Theory can be used to explain personality. * Cattell, Eysenck, and Big 5 all use **_factor analyisis_** – a statistical method that categorizes and determines major categories of traits. Allport's theory did not, he used different methods. * **_Factor analysis_**: Reduces variable and detects structure between variables. We get a final classification of personality after factor analysis.

Answer 404

Observational Learning: Bobo Doll Experiment and Social Cognitive Theory on Personality * Observational learning (aka social learning/vicarious learning) is learned through watching and imitating others – such as **_modeling_** the actions of another. * **_Mirror Neurons_** found that support this * Aggression is environmentally learned and mass-media can have a performance effect (performance is situationally dependent depending on if the actor is rewarded or punished)

Answer 405

**_Social Cognitive Theory_** (originally called social learning theory) is theory of behaviour change that emphasizes interactions between people and their environment. Unlike **_behaviourism_** (where environment controls us entirely), cognition is also important. * Social factors, observational learning, and environmental factors (ex. opinions/attitudes of firends and family) can influence your beliefs.

Answer 406

**_Albert Bandura_** studied the Social Cognitive Theory, and he did the **_Bobo Doll Experiment_**. **_Bandura's_** **_Experiment_** is cited when people debate if they should ban violent video games. It's a blow up doll you can punch. * Had group of children doing arts and crafts, but in middle of it suddenly man appeared and started hitting this inflatable doll. Also screaming “kick it, hit it, etc”. Did for 10 minutes straight. Some children observed it, others weren’t fazed. * Then man left, and researchers gave kids an impossible puzzle to solve to frustrate them. Researched how the kids reacted to frustration. In the room was a bobo doll. Many children would come up to the doll and hit it, and ones hitting it were yelling kick it, hit it. Revealed that kids can observe and learn from it. * Why people use this to argue to ban violent games and movies. * But learning vs. performing it is different. Many of the kids were aggressive to the doll, others weren't, so how come some the kids are different and did not beat the shit out of the doll? * Did second experiment, set up TV that showed a bobodoll and someone being aggressive to it. But difference here was video showed afterwards that person was punished. Some of the kids again walked up to the bobo doll to hit it. What about kids that didn't? * Researchers bribed kids, offered them sticker/juic to imitate behavior. Kids were able to imitate. The concept was called the **_learning-performance distinction_** – learning a behavior and performing it are 2 different things. * Not performing it doesn't mean you didn't learn it!

Answer 407

Albert Bandura studied the Social Cognitive Theory, and he did the Bobo Doll Experiment. From his experimentation, he came up with **_Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory_** - **_Attention_**, **_Memory_**, **_Imitation_**, **_Motivation_**. Acronym: “AM I Motivated?” * For example, want to teach you to draw a star. In order to learn it, you need a long enough attention span, the memory to remember it, and be able to imitate it. Question is, are you motivated enough to do it? If you are, you do the action (draw the star).

Answer 408

**_Mental Disorder_**– disorders of the mind. Mental illnedss, psychological/psychiatric illness. Abnormalities of the mind that cause distress or disability. Sometimes can shorten someone's lifespan (suicide or other negative effects). Major public health problem, affects the higher functions of the brain including cognition, mood, and **_behaviour_**. * **_Biomedical_** vs. **_Biopsychosocial Models_** * **_Biomedical_** = focuses on biological and physical abnormalities. * E. Abnormalities of cell of the brain that might cause the disorders or having an abnormal pattern of connections between cells of the brain. * **_BioPsychoSocial_** = also considers abnormalities and might be useful for cause or classification of mental disorder but also includes psychological and cultural/social factors that might be useful for cause or classification of mental disorder.

Answer 409

It is difficult to categorize mental disorders because there are no brain tests/scans/blood tests. Diagnosis is made clinically by symptoms and signs, time course, risk factors, and epidemiology. However, there are two classification systems for mental disorders: **_ICD-10_** and **_DSM-5_**. * **_ICD-10_** is the **_international Classification of Diseases, 10th revision_**. System from WHO (World Health Organization).. 11 top categories. * **_DSM-5_** is the **_Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th edition_**, from the American Psychiatric Association (APA). There are 20 top level categories in the **_DSM-5_**.

Answer 410

According to the National Institutes of Health (NIH), each year in the USA about **_25%_** will meet criteria for 1 mental disorder, and **_6%_** will have a serious mental illness that causes severe disability/distress. Some people have more than 1 mental disorder at a time.

Answer 411

Categories of Mental Disorders * Types of mental disorders – enormous #, many with overlapping features. * Not due to use of medication, drugs, other medications, etc. Also cultural differences. * Ususally causes **_distress/disability_**. This is a key point because if someone is weird it does not necessarily mean he or she has a mental disorder becuase that individual does NOT have **_distress_**.

Answer 412

We'll go through the DSM-5 * There are 20 top-level categories in the DSM-5 * 1. **_Neurodevelopmental Disorders_** – involve distress/disability due to abnormality in development of the nervous system. **_Neurodevelopmental Disorders_** include intellectual disability, autism spectrum disorders, and ADHD. * 2. **_Neurocognitive Disorders_** – loss of cognitive/other functions of the brain after the nervous system has developed. Big categories within this, one is delirium (reversible episode of cognitive/higher brain problems, many cuases – drugs/blood/infectiosn). Dimentia and its milder versions are usually irreversible and progressive. * 3. **_Sleep-wake Disorders_** result in distress/disability from sleep-related issues. This includes insomnia and breathing-related sleep disorders. * 4. **_Anxiety Disorders_** – abnormal worry/fear. Some are specific to certain stimuli like phobias, while others are not specific to certain stimuli, including generalized anxiety disorder. Panic disorder involves panic attacks. * 5. **_Depressive Disorders_** – abnormally negative mood. Mood refers to long-term emotional state. Mood is also subjective experience person has of their experience. There is a high risk of suicide.

Answer 413

We'll go through the DSM-5 * There are 20 top-level categories in the DSM-5. * 6. **_Bipolar and Related Disorders_** – abnormal mood, but these may have periods of abnormally positive mood called mania. Leads to social/legal problems. * Mania is characterized by little sleep, talking quickly, making bad decisions due to impaired judgement, making bad decisions based on bad assessment of risk or abilities of a task. Can leads to social/legal problems. * 7. **_Schizophrenia Spectrum_** and other Psychotic Disorders – involves distress/disability from psychosis. Psychosis involves delusions (not explainable by experiences/culture), hallucinations. * 8. **_Trauma/Stressor-Related Disorders_** – occurs after stressful/traumatic events. Post traumatic stress disorder, common after wars. * 9. **_Substance-Related and Addictive Disorders_** – distress/disability form use of substances that affect mental function. This includes alcohol, caffeine, cannabis, hallucinogens, opiods, etc. * 10. **_Personality Disorders_** – related tp personality. Involves long-term mental and behavioral feautures characteristic of a person, huge spectrum of personality types considered acceptable. Personality disorders involve ones outside those accepted of societal norms. Cluster A odd/eccentric, Cluster B intense emotional/relationship problems, Cluster C is anxious/avoidant/obsessive.

Answer 414

We'll go through the DSM-5 * There are 20 top-level categories in the DSM-5. * 11. **_Disruptive, Impulse-Control, and Conduct Disorders_** – inability to controls inappropriate behaviours * 12. **_Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders_** – compulsions are unwelcome thoughts that occur repeatedly. Ex. Obsession with hands being dirty, compulsion to wash them many times a day. * 13. **_Somatic Symptom and Related Disorder_** – Distress/disability from symptoms similar to those that may occur to illness unrelated to mental disorder, but of psychological origin. Example is someone that has abdominal pain, caused by stress. * 14. **_Feeding and Eating Disorders_** – behavioural abnormalities related to food, ex. anorexia, bulimia. * 15. **_Elimination Disorders_** – urination/defacation at innappropriate times.

Answer 415

We'll go through the DSM-5 * There are 20 top-level categories in the DSM-5. * 16. **_Dissociative Disorders_** – abnormalities of identity/memory. Multiple personailities, or lost memories for part of their lives. * 17. **_Sexual Dysfunctions_** – abnormalities in performance of sexual activity * 18. **_Gender Dysphoria_** – caused by a person identifying as a different gender * 19. **_Paraphillic Disorders_** – having sexual arousal to unusual stimuli * 20. **_Other Disorders_** – any person that appears to have a mental disorder causing distress/disability but doesn't fit into other categories. Rare.

Answer 416

There is a Biological Basis of Schizophrenia * Schizophrenia is the prototype of the psychotic category of disorders. It is a rare disorder with both biological and environmental etiology. * Combination of genetics and environmental (experience in the womb, childhood experiences) cause abnormalities in the brain. * Schizophrenia has symptoms of abnormal perceptions of reality – hallucinations and delusions * There are three categories of schizophrenic symptoms: **_cognitive_** (attention, organization, and planning abilities), **_negative_** (blunted emotions), and **_positive_** (hallucinations, delsuions)

Answer 417

There is a Biological Basis of Schizophrenia * However, our understanding of the cause of schizophrenia is very limited. * In schizophrenia, the **_Cerebral cortex seems to have a decreased size_**, in frontal and temporal lobes. * Some features of schizophrenia also involve abnormalities in dopamine (increase); medications that affect dopamine transmission often improve symptoms. * The **_mesocorticolimbic pathway_**. **_Meso_** = VTA in the midbrain, cortico = cortical cortex, they project to the **_frontal_** and **_temporal_** lobe, and **_limbic_** – inside of brain involved in emotions/motivations/etc. Abnormal activity here. One way of thinking about schizophrenia is abnormal activity in the mesocorticolimbic pathway leads to dysfunction in parts of the frontal cortex that cuase cognitive symptoms, and limbic structure causes negative symptoms, and temporal cortex causes positive symptoms. * But it is likely much more complicated * The are many causes to schizophrenia. Genes, physical stress during pregnancy, and psychosocial factors (negative family interaction styles affect development of brain).

Answer 418

There is a Biological Basis of Depression * Depression is a major Depressive Disorder: major cause of distress, disability, and death from suicide. Depression is th prototype of disorder category of depressive disorders. * There are related symptoms of Depressive mood such as feeling of hopelessness and loss of interest in activities. Our understanding of cause of major depressive disorder is limited. There are no consistent abnormailities in brain tissues, but scans have suggested functional abnormalities in brains. * Areas with abnormal activity involve the **_frontal lobe_** and **_limbic structures_**. Specifically, there is decreased activity in the **_frontal lobe_** and increased activity in the **_limbic structures_**. * For example, stress hormones like cortisol are controlled by the hypothalamus, which comminucates with the **_limbic_** and **_frontal lobe_**. Hormones affect the brain themselves too.

Answer 419

There is a Biological Basis of Depression * There are abnormal neurochemical pathways for depression. One starts in the **_Raphe Nuclei_** of the brainstem, which is responsible for **_Serotonin_** release. Also the **_locus coeruleus_**, which send long axons to the cerebrum and releases **_norepinephrine_**. Also the **_VTA_** sends long axons to different areas of the cerebrum, which supplies **_dopamine_**. * Medications that affect serotonin, NE, and dopamine often improve symptoms. Ex. monoamine oxidase inhibitors (increase the amount of monomines in the synapse) * Monoamines include adrenaline, norepinephrine, dopamine, serotonin, and melatonin (involved in the onset of darkness).

Answer 420

There is a Biological Basis of Depression * Another newer idea is may be abnormalities of **_neuroplasticity_** - brain changes in response to experience. But unclear if **_neuroplasticity_** abnormalities is a cause or effect. Strength of information/efficiency of flow changes or connections change. Aspects of **_neuroplasticity_** appear to be abnormal in animals of major depressive disorder. * May include genetics (predisposition can be inherited, increase risk of developing a response to negative or stressful event particularly early in life), but psychosocial factors can also be linked to major depressive disorder such as childhood abuse, stressful events or limited social support during adverse circumstances. So likely combination of biological and psychosocial factors.

Answer 421

There is a Biological Basis for Alzheimer's Disease * Alzheimer's disease is the most common disorder in the dimentia category, or neurocognitive disorders. Alzheimer's is the loss of congnitive functions. Your memory also decreases. However, your normal motor functions are fine until the later stages where they lose basic **_activities of daily living_** (**_ADL_**) – toileting, eating, bathing, etc. * The known causes of Alzheimer's is rather limited. * Symptom's of Alzheimer's Disease include brain tissue that has decreased in size significantly – shrivelled up, atrophy. * It's the **_cerebrum_** that often dramatically decrease in size. The severity of atrophy correlates with the severity of dimentia. * The atrophy of people with Alzheimer's Disease starts in the **_temporal lobes_**, important for memory. * Later, atrophy spreads to the **_parietal_** and **_frontal_** lobes. Once it spreads to these lobes, many ohter cognitive functions decline.

Answer 422

There is a Biological Basis for Alzheimer's Disease * Under the microscope, there appears to be 3 main abnormalities in individuals with Alzheimer's Disease. These abnormalities include a **_loss of neurons_**, a build up of **_plaques_** (**_amyloid_**, becuase **_plaques_** are made up of **_beta-amyloid_**. **_Beta amyloid plaques_** occur in spaces between cells, and outside of neurons in abnormal clumps), and a build up of **_tangles_** (neurofibrillary **_tangles_**, clumps of a protein **_tau_**. **Tau** are located inside neurons. Proteins similar to these are developed normally in the brain, but for some reasons these proteins change to make it abnomal. Then these abnormal proteins then clump together). * It is not clear if the **_amyloid plaques_** and **_tau clumps_** are killing the neurons, or if they're a by-product of the disease itself. * There are a group of neurons at the base of the cerebrum, called the **_nucleus basalis_**. The **_nucleus basalis_** is often lost early in the course of Alzheimer's. It is important for cognitive functions becuase the **_nucleus basalis_** sends long axons to the cerebral cortex and through the cerebrum and releases **_acetylcholine_**. The loss of the **_nucleus basalis_** contributes to the cognitive functions of the disease.

Answer 423

There is a Biological Basis of Alzheimer's Disease. * Well before the onset of Alzheimer's disease, there appears to be synapses that do not fucntion clearly long before the disease. * Some **_genetic mutations_** are associated with Alzheimer's Disease. Most of these **_genetic mutations_** are involved in the processing of amyloid protein. * People with the **_ApoE4_** genetic mutation is involved in the metabolism of fats and is strongly related to AD. * Also, **_high blood pressure_** increases the risk for Alzheimer's disease. * There are things that decrease your chances of getting Alzheimer's Disease such as a higher education and challenging jobs with difficult thinking.

Answer 424

There is a Biological Basis to **_Parkinson's Disease_**. * **_Parkinson's Disease_** is a progressive neurological disorder involving motor abnormailities and mental dysfunction (neural) too. The most common neurological problem associated with **_Parkinson's Disease_** are slowed movements, a type of tremor, increased muscle tone, abnormal walking, and poor balance (leading to falls). Muscles are stiffer and slower with a tremor. Later in **_Parkinson's Disease_**, when motor abnormalities are severe, patients may not be able to care for themselves and have abnormalities of cognitive, emotional, and autonomic functions.

Answer 425

There is a biological basis to Parkinson's Disease. * The brains of patients have abnormalities visible to the naked eye – in brainstem, the **_substantia nigra_** is less dark or not dark at all. In patients with Parkinson's Disease there is a **_loss of ONLY dopaminergic neurons_** observed, suggesting only one type of neuron is involved. Motor abnormalities are related to the loss of dopaminergic neurons * Dopaminergic neurons in other areas are lost as well. * The **_substantia nigra_** is part of the **_basal ganglia_**, playing a major role in motor functions and some mental functions. The **_Basal Ganglia_** recieves information from many places in the nercous system, and the **_basal ganglia_** processes that information and sends it back to areas of the cerebral cortex to influence areas such as the motor cortex. * The **_substantia nigra_** also projects to an area of the **_basal ganglia_** called the **_striatum_**, and loss of dopamine neurons protecting from the **_substantia nigra_** to the **_striatum_** causes most of the motor abnormalities of Parkinson's. * Under the microscope, we see "diseased neurons" which are degenerating in the **_substantia nigra_**. These diseased neurons often contain **_Lewy bodies_** - abnormal structures inside dopaminergic neurons of the **_Substantia Nigra_**. The **_Lewy bodies_** contain a protein **_alpha synuclein_**, a normal protein present in brain cells under normal conditions are clumped together in Parkinson's Disease. * Area of research: Do **_Lewy bodies_** kill the dopaminergic neurons? Or is something else killing these dopaminergic neurons and the Lewy bodies are formed in the process? * In more-advanced stages of Parkinson’s Disease - there are wide spread neuronal loss and **_Lewy body_** depositions throughout cerebral cortex. This disease also includes cognitive dysfunction. * Lewy body disease - less motor abnormalities from **_basal ganglia_** dysfunction and more cognitive dysfunction from loss of function from cerebral cortex. Separate from Parkinson’s.

Answer 426

There is a Biological Basis of Parkinson's Disease. * Risk factors: genetic mutations have been found in some families with inherited form of disease, rural living with exposure to agricultural chemicals can be a risk factor. * unclear how these factors cause or contribute to the disorder. * Leading candidate for treatment with stem cells since only 1 type of cell affected.

Answer 427

**_Social Psychology_** is the study of how individuals think, feel, and behave in social interactions. * People act differently in groups than individually. **_Confromity_** – "peer pressure", tendency for people to bring behaviour in line with group norms. **_Conformity_** is powerful on social situations. We use social situations (especially one with peers) to determine what is acceptable, when to question quthorities, and to get feedback on behaviors. * This is why it is important for people to have positive peers. If group behavior is positive, then there will be peace, harmony, happiness * Negative peers = negative behaviors, which can be catastrophic

Answer 428

When do people conform to group norms even when behaviours are negative/wrong? * There are two reasons why you would agree/**_conform_** with the group: * 1. **_Informative Influence_**: look to group for guidance when you don't know what to do and you assume the group is correct. * Ex: You have never interacted with a dog before and you are uncertain about how to train a dog and you are uncertain if it’s an appropriate method to use a shock color. You look for the group for guidance and you assume they are correct. * 2. **_Normative Influence_**: even if you know what's right, do what group's negative actions to avoid social rejection. * Ex: you are an expert group trainer and you know it’s easier to train the dog with treats than treat it with a shock color. Even though you know training the dog with a shock color is incorrect you may still decide to go along with the group to avoid being a social outcast. You fear social rejection that can come with disagreement with the group, so you conform to even a wrongful act.

Answer 429

There are two different ways a person can conform – **_publically_** or **_privately_**. * If you **_privately conform_**- change behaviours and opinions to align with group. * Ex: If you **_privately conformed_** to the shock color, you would leave the situation with a genuine belief that the best way to train a dog is with a shock color. * If **_publically conform_** - you’re outwardly changing but inside you maintain core beliefs. You only outwardly agree with the group. * Ex: you agree to the shock color in the group situation but you also know that the treats is a more effective route. You are not convinced. When you are alone you train the dog with a treat.

Answer 430

Problem Solving/Decision-making often takes place in groups. Factors that influences an individual’s problem solving/decision making – the group interactions shape the outcome. * o **_Group polarization_** is a phenomenon where group decision-making amplifies the original opinion of group members. A stronger version of the decision is adopted. * § For a view point to influence a groups final decision making: * All the view do not have equal influence. * Viewpoint is shared by majority of members of the group * Arguments made tend to favour popular/majority group view * Any criticism is directed towards minority view * **_Confirmation bias_**: group members seek out information that support the majority view. * **_Ex_**: majority of the group agrees that training the dog with treats is the best way to go about it. Some people chastise those who say the collar is the best way to train the dog. The individuals leave the discussion that training the dog with treats is amplified.

Answer 431

**_Groupthink_** – occurs when maintaining harmony among group members is more important than carefully analyzing problem at hand. Happens in very cohesive, insulated groups. Often have important/respected leaders, and in the interest of group “**_unity_**” individuals suppress/sensor their own opinions.

Answer 432

* **_Conformity_** and **_obedience_** refer to different, but related things. * **_Conformity_** – peer pressure" – how we adjust our behavior/thinking (cognition to match group. * **_Conformity_** can be positive. Ex: If you see a bunch of people running out of a building, that you are just about to enter, you would probably **_conform_** to this behavior and run away as well. * Can lead to negative behavior, Ex. In teenagers peer pressure can lead to negative behaviors. "If your friend jumped off a bridge, would you too" * **_Obedience_** – describes how we follow orders/obey authority. No cognitive component. For example, someone under obedience states "I'm just following orders". * **_Obedience_** can be positive. Ex: Firefighter tells you not to eneter a building becuase it's on fire – you would probably acknowledge authority and obey. * **_Obedience_** can be negative. Ex: normal people committed such negative acts during the Holocaust due to **_obedience_**. * Both **_conformity_** and **_obedience_** can be positive (useful/helpful/important aspects) or negative in their effects on social behavior in society. * We can **_conform_**/**_obey_** in little ways as well: * Ex: we **_obey_** traffic laws or agree that cereal is a breakfast food. We don’t question if we should stop at a stop sign.

Answer 433

**_Social Anomie_** – breakdown of social bonds between an individual and community. A situation in which society does not have the support of a firm collective consciousness. **_Social anomie_** can also result in social groups disbanding, and alienation from social groups. To resolve **_social anomie_**, social norms must be strengthened and groups must redevelop sets of shared norms. Can lead to uncertainty in social situations. Means that there is a weakened sense of morality and criteria for behavior. * “Associated with functionalist theoretical paradigm in sociology. The concept of **_anomie_** describes the alienation that individuals feel when social norms and social bonds are weak. Without attachment to society, people will experience purposelessness, and aimlessness. Periods of rapid social change are often associated with **_anomie_**.”

Answer 434

There are a number of types of conformity and obedience: **_compliance_**, identification, and internalization. * **_Compliance_** –situations where we do behaviour to get a reward or avoid punishment. Tendency to go along with behaviour without questioning why. **_Compliance_** goes away once rewards/punishments removed. * "**_Compliance_** refers to a change in behavior that is requested by another person or group; the individual acted in some way because others asked him or her to do so (but it was possible to refuse or decline.) * **_Compliance_** is the tendency to agree to do what is requested especially if there are certain factors present: a feeling that there is give and take, believability, likability, limited supply and positive feedback from others. Robert Cialdini studied how successful marketing results in consumer **_compliance_**. For example, soft drink labels have long used celebrities to increase **_compliance_**. The ordinary consumer would buy the drink because they liked the celebrity, assumed that the celebrity approved of the product, and believed what he had to say about it. * Ex. paying taxes (I will get punished if I don’t pay my taxes). TSA screenings (nobody likes them, but you won’t be allowed on the plane if you don’t)

Answer 435

There are a number of types of conformity and obedience: compliance, **_identification_**, and internalization. * **_Identification_** – when people act/dress a certain way to be like someone they respect. The individual will continue to act a certain way as long as they maintain respect for that individual. * According to Freud, as children develop, there comes a time in which the child must adopt the characteristics of one of the parents. During this process of **_identification_**, the child adopts the characteristics of the same- sex parent and begins to associate themselves with and copy the behavior of significant others. In addition, Freud stated that this process also involves the development of the child's superego (our moral guide in life - the moral component of personality) which is done by incorporating characteristics of the parents’ superegos into the child's own. So, a young male child will begin to take on characteristics of the father (act more like his father than his mother in the sense of being a male) and will develop a superego that has similarities to the moral values and guidelines by which the parents live their lives (e.g., if the parents are honest people, the child may come to realize that honesty is important and that lying is wrong). * Ex: football player people admired and bought his jersey, but then he engaged in domestic violence and once it was made public the identification of this player by people dropped significantly.

Answer 436

There are a number of types of conformity and obedience: compliance, identification, and internalization. * **_Internalization_** – idea/belief/behaviour has been integrated into our own values. We conform to the belief privately. Stronger than other types of conformity. * **_Internalization_** refers to the normal process where children learn and absorb (**_Internalize_**) knowledge and rules about the world from social context, rather than through being specifically told. This is how children learn how to alter their behavior in response to the situation that they are in (home, school, church, playground, etc.) * Ex: start going to gym to comply with friends, but then might **_Internalization_** that exercise is good for you and continue the behavior

Answer 437

We can conform due to different types of social influence - pressure from those around us. * **_Normative Social Influence_** - If we do something to gain respect/support of peers, we're complying with social norms. Because of this we might go with the group outwardly, but internally believe something differently. * Ex: friends are all obsessed with a certain singer. You tell the group you like the singer as well even if you absolutely hate him/her. You continue to say you like it (or even go to the singers concert).

Answer 438

We can conform due to different types of social influence - pressure from those around us. * **_Informational Social Influence_** – when we conform becuase we feel others are more knowledgeable than us, becuase we think they know something we don't * Ex: when you move to a new place. You would ask people around you (who lived in this place for a longer period) of things to do / places to eat and go along with their suggestions.

Answer 439

Asch Conformity Studies (Asch LineStudies) * One of the most famous conformity experiments. * **_Solomon Asch_** (1907) was part of the group known as **_Gestalt Psychologists_** – believed it was not possible to understand human behavior by breaking it down into parts, people must be understood as a whole. * “Most social acts have to be understood in their setting, and lose meaning if isolated. No error in thinking about social facts is more serious than the failure to see their place and function.” ~**_Solomon Ash_**.

Answer 440

Asch Conformity Studies * Holocaust influenced Ash’s studies of conformity (was born in Poland and moved to US at age of 13). Was interested in studying how group behavior can influence behavior of an individual. What aspects of the group behavior is most important. * Ex. Participant in study, many other participants too. The experiment explains a boring experiment to you – he holds up a card with a target line and 3 comparison lines, and the participants need to figure out which comparison line matches target line. This occurs 18 times (12 trials where the confederates give wrong answer, 6 where they give correct answer). * First trial, each participant everyone gives what is obviously right answer. Second trial, same occurrence. Error rate \<1% * Third trial, answer remains just as obvious, but the first participant gives the wrong answer. The second group member than gives the same wrong answer. The study found: 75% of participants give the wrong answer (conform to the wrong answer) at least once and 37% conform every single time the group does. * § People often say they would always give right answer even when majority is giving incorrect one. * In this experiment, the other participants of the group were confederates (actors, told what to do) and were told what to do by the experimenter. The purpose was to determine if the real test participant would go along with the other group confederates incorrect decision. * No actual pressure to conform, i.e. no prize for conforming to the study and no punish for not conforming. Only perceived pressure to conform

Answer 441

Asch Conformity Studies * Why did the individuals conform? * Example of **_Normative social influence_**: Most participants said the answer they gave was incorrect but went along with it because they would otherwise feel ridiculed by the group. Altering behavior to of those around us. The people knew the correct answer, but went along with wrong answer regardless. * Example of **_Informational Social Influence_**: Some study participants conformed because they doubted their own response. They reasoned that because all of the participants at the table were giving a certain answer that it must be correct. Change our behavior because others are better informed. Saw what they thought was the correct answer but then after hearing responses of the group, they changed their minds and thought they were wrong. They gave the same answer as the group – deferred to their judgement. Finally, some participants made a **_perceptual error_** – truly beleived the answer given by others were correct. They were never consciously aware of any dissonance of the judgements.

Answer 442

Asch Conformity Studies * Why did some of the participants not conform? After study non-conforming individuals were asked why they did not conform * Some were really confident, really sure their answers were correct and others were wrong * Others were not confident but stuck with their answers

Answer 443

Asch Conformity Studies Criticisms/Problems with study: * All participants came from the same **_population_** (all male undergrads from same culture) – women, individuals from minority groups, individuals from different cultures or age ranges might have reacted differently * Participants knew they were coming in for a study. Participant were suspicions of the study. Perhaps individuals would conform once just to see what would happen. * **_Ecological validity_** – do the conditions of the study mimic those of the real world. If they don’t, we can only make limited conclusions. A line in lab (in this experiment) is not same as conformity in the real world. * **_Demand characteristics_** – describes how participants change behaviour to match expectations of experimenter. Conformed because that’s what experimenter wanted them to do. Still, 75% of individuals confirmed with no pressure. How much more powerful would experiment be with a pressure/reward/punishment or if your friends/professors/teachers were the confederates (rather than random college students).

Answer 444

Migram Experiment on Obedience * Milgram studies were done to study willingness of participants, average Americans to obey authority figures that conflicted with their personality and morals. * Kept studies from finding out, he used deception – posted ad about memory/learning. * When arrived at lab, study that looked at effects of punishment on memory. * Learner was hooked to electrodes, and told learner would be shocked when gave wrong answer. Teacher was taken to different room without visual contact, sat in front of shock box. First 15V, and switches increased until 450V. * Whenever they made error, teacher was instructed to give higher shocks with each wrong answer (no actual shocks were given). * After several increasing shocks, learner would cry out in pain and complain about their heart condition. As shocks increased, continued to yell they want to quit. * Finally, all responses would cease and only silence. * Teacher instructed to continue, experiment requires you continue, it is absolutely essential you continue, you have no choice. * When results of study came out, very disturbing – 65% of participants shocked all the way. They had protested and were trembling, but still obeyed commander. In conditions with heart condition actor, dropped a bit, but not much – 63%.

Answer 445

What can we learn fromt he Milgram Experiment? * The Milgram Experiment was one of the most famous psychological studies * Regular everyday people will comply with an authority figure even if it goes against their moral values and harming others. * Study has been replicated, and the results remain the same, no matter what country/time/period/locartion. Full compliance hovered around 61-66%. * Study was perceived to be unethical today and at the time too in the 1960s. * Milgram was denied tenure at Harvard and kept from entering lots of academic institutions because of the negative perceptions associated with the experiment.

Answer 446

What can we learn fromt he Milgram Experiment? Things we ought to avoid: * Many participants really felt ashamed about what they had done, but even ashamed participants tended to speak poorly of the victims – he wouldn't have been shocked if he answered correctly/was smarter. * the “**_just world phenomenon_**” – idea that universe is fair so people must get what they deserve - belief good things happen to good people, and vice versa (bad things happen to bad people). Some people use this to justify their actions. Assuming things had gone bad to the victim because he was deficient. * Also, many participants were comforted by **_passing responsibility of actions to others_** (when experimenter said they’d take full responsibility and participant would not be responsible for the harm, participants felt more comfortable). “I was just following orders”. (seen in other cases of atrocities)

Answer 447

What can we learn fromt he Milgram Experiment? Things we ought to avoid: * We ought to caution ourselves against the **_self-serving bias_** – that we could never commit acts like this, becuase most of us would. * **_Fundamental Attribution Error_** – focuses only on actions of others, tendency to believe that others in out-groups behave a certain way based on inherent personalities/flaws. Idea of attributing character too strongly to explain aother groups' actions. Real takeaway of the study – how easy it is to think others are atrocious and evil, while people like us would only perform evil acts because they are misguided. Truth is we're all misguided, all susceptible to authorities in ways many of us would find upsetting. It is important to have compassion for all people – victims and aggressor, don't know how you'd act in their place.

Answer 448

Zimbardo Prison Study – the Stanford Prison Experiment * Zimbardo Prison Study – the Stanford Prison Experiment - Final of three studies on conformity/obedience * Study was conducted in 1971 * Purpose: how conformity/obedience can result in acts different from usual (on theirown) or even contrary to how they think they would act. The answer is complicated (not only bad people do bad things). In certain situations can make otherwise ordinary people behave in strange ways. * Goal: How social norms/conventions can influence behaviours of participants playing the roles of prisoners/guards. * Prisoners/guards get so caught up in roles that they had to stop experiment early. * Participants knew all about the study – no physical or psychological deception. And participants were normal (male, middle class, university students, with no medical/psychological problems). * 18 students randomly assigned to be guards or prisoners. All knew the assignment was random. * Had participants in prisoners arrested at unexpected times on a random day. Prisoners were treated as prisoners from the start and the prison had no windows and clocks so it became an environment different from outside world. The prisoners were fingerprinted, handcuffed, and numbered after arrest. * Also met with guards and told them they were not supposed to physically harm prisoners, but could create fear/loss of privacy/loss of control/loss of individuality. Given uniforms, batons, and sunglasses. Instructed to refer to prisoners by #s and not names. Guards can do anything to maintain except for physically harm the participants. * Day 1 uneventful. Then prisoners began to rebel against guards. Guards had to decide what to do. * Day 2: early prisoner rebellion against guards and some prisoner’s remained in their cell. Guards fought back against prisoners actions because it was a danger to their authority. Prisoners cursed at guards. At some point, guards began to see actual participants as dangerous prisoners that needed to be controlled. Guards used fire extinguishers on them and forced them to strip down. Guards regained some control and rebelling prisoners were put in a closet/solitary confinement. Closet only big enough to stand but they couldn’t lie down or sit. * Day 3, situation went even further. Participants went on hunger strike. In response, guards forced the prisoners to repeat their #s over and over again, exercise (pushups till exhaustion), withheld bathroom privileges and other basic amenities, and tried to make the prisoners turn on each other and break them down. * Day 4, continued escalations. * Day 5, same. * Day 6: Zimbardo had involved himself as prison warden. Zimbardo never realized things had gone wrong. His girlfriend, Maslach visited prison and so upset by what she saw she made him stop the experiment. His girlfriend is how Zimbardo was brought back to reality. Zimbardo then ends study * By this time, half of prisoners already left from breakdowns. No guards had left.

Answer 449

Closer look at the Stanford Prison Experiment * Before experiment: all prisoners were similar, same background, college students, middle class, and no physical or psychological conditions. * Prisoners did not band together usually, they were pretty distrustful of each other. The prisoners saw each other as informants. * And guards did not encourage solidarity, but tended to reward those they saw as good prisoners by giving privileges such as better foods, basic privileges, allowing them to keep mattresses etc. By giving privileges to some inmates and not others - guards broke the solidarity of prisoners. * Some released early due to emotional trauma. BUT, none of the prisoners just stopped and left the experiment, even though they were told at beginning of the experiment (in the consent form they signed) that they could. Why? Maybe it was a misunderstanding, they convinced each other to stay, or maybe didn’t want to give up $ they were going to get for engaging in the experiment. These prisoners were just volunteered who could have left at any time.

Answer 450

Closer look at the Stanford Prison Experiment * Why did the guards act so poorly towards the prisoners? The guards thought the prisoners were wimps, troublemakers, or faking distress. Many thought their behavior was not too extreme and placed blame of behavior on prisoners. None of the guards left the study and some were upset that the study ended early. * The experiment shows us: * the influence situation can have on our behavior – might be due to **_situational attribution_** (due to situation), not **_dispositional attribution_** (internal characteristics/personalities of people) * It becomes much easier to behave badly towards individuals who suffer from **_deindividualization_** (loss of self) – In this case prisoners were forced to dress the same, and addressed as a number. * The guards' bad behavior was caused **_cognitive dissonance_** – guards knowing their behavior was inappropriate, tried to reduce their mental distress by cognitive dissonance reduction - overly justified their behaviors – everything happened becuase prisoners were wimps or they desrved it. The guards changed their cognition/ * There was also a role of **_internalization_** in the Zimabardo prison experiment. **_Internalization_** – participants **_internalized_** their prison roles. Prisoners encorporated their roles into beliefs, and let it influence their attitudes/cognitions/behaviours.

Answer 451

Closer look at the Stanford Prison Experiment * But many problems with the study: * Zimbardo himself played a role of prison warden (to observe behaviors of input), but by doing so, he compromised his objectivity (not a neutral observer) He was so involved that he passively allowed a lot of unethical behavior. Why didn't it get stopped? Zimbardo himself thought they were faking it to get released. * Also, according to scientific methodology, this wasn’t a good experiment. What were the operational definitions of dependent/independent variables? What was being manipulated, what was being measured, where were controls, etc.? Also small sample size? Different results if other people were involved? (Cant replicate so hard to know!) Also good example of **_demand characteristics_** (how much of behavior was influenced by how they thought experimenter wanted them to behave consciously or unconsciously). * Possible that all participants were acting the way Zimbardo wanted them to act.

Answer 452

Closer look at the Stanford Prison Experiment * Zimbardo's experiment could have also been affected by **_selection bias_** – no deception in study, so what kind of student willingly signs up to be in prison for 2 weeks? So, was this really a random sample? * Overall: these criticisms don't discredit its results. The results of the study line up with other studies of conformity and obedience with stricter methodologies.

Answer 453

There are many factors that influence CONFORMITY and obedience. This list purely goes thorugh some on conformity! * Are there factors that will make someone more likely to conform? Are there external factors that cause someone to change how they think? External factors can cause someone to do things that have nothing to do with the person. * **_Group Size_** – more likely to conform in groups of 3-5 * **_Unanimity_** – when opinions of group are unanimous (everyone agrees). In the Asch experiement, there was one supporter who answered correctly before the experimenter, and full-compliance of experimenter dropped from 37% to 5%. Individuals claimed that the response of the supporter influenced their response – they said they didn’t. Shows that supporter shows reduced likelihood of conformity. We’re not aware of effects a defector can have (someone who conform). * **_Group Status_** – why children are more likely to go along with the popular group. This is the reason we trust four doctors over four gardeners about our health. Individuals are more likely to conform with high-status groups. * **_Group Cohesion_** – if we feel no connection with the group, we feel less of a need to go along with that group.

Answer 454

There are many factors that influence CONFORMITY and obedience. This list purely goes through some terms on conformity! * **_Observed Behaviour_** – whether we believe our behavior is observed. In Asch experiment, when the participant came in late, they said his response would be recorded on paper and not shared with the group. If the response in Asch's line was not shared with th egroup, the experiemnter was much less likely to conform. * **_Public Response_** – if we think we are met with acceptance vs shunning. (happy to conform if we will be met with shunning, but will happily not conform if we think we will be met with acceptance) * Internal factors – * **_Prior commitments_** (if we say something earlier that goes against the group, we will decrease conformity because we are less likely to say something different later. If we said something earlier that is along the lines of the group, we will have increased conformity becuase we will say the same thing now. We are not likely to change what we say). * **_Feeling of Insecurity_** – more likely to follow judgements of others (conformity)

Answer 455

There are many factors that influence conformity and OBEDIENCE. This list purely goes through some terms on obedience! * Likelihood someone will obey – following orders without question/protest – OBEDIENCE. In order to prevent negative consequences from disobeying. * Our **_closeness_** to authority giving orders- more likely to accept orders from someone we respect. * **_Physical proximity_** – more likely to comply with someone we are close to. On the Milgram experiement, when the authority was standing close by/behind the experimenter (the teacher) they are most likely to obey. * **_Legitimacy_** of authority – if wearing lab coat/carrying a clipboard, we are more likely to obey. This is shown in the Milgram Study.

Answer 456

There are many factors that influence conformity and OBEDIENCE. This list purely goes through some terms on obedience! * Likelihood someone will obey – following orders without question/protest – OBEDIENCE. In order to prevent negative consequences from disobeying. * Also **_Instituional Authority_** – well-respected university. Expectation that these places won't give you a harmful command. Can also be physical or symbolic (ex. police/government). * **_Victim Distance_** – in original Milgram Study, teacher couldn't see learner (victim). If you could see the participant, there was a reduced likelihood that the particpant (teacher) would obey the experimenter. But still didn't stop everyone (30% of participants gave all shocks). * **_Depersonalization_** – when learner/victim is made to seem less human through stereotypes/prejudices, people are less likely to object against them. * **_Depersonalization_** is a symptom of serious mental illness (although it can happen to anyone, repeated instances are suggestive of a dissociative disorder) in which a person feels like she has stepped outside of herself and is watching herself act, with no sense of control over her behavior.

Answer 457

There are many factors that influence conformity and OBEDIENCE. This list purely goes through some terms on obedience! * Likelihood someone will obey – following orders without question/protest – OBEDIENCE. In order to prevent negative consequences from disobeying. * **_Role models for defiance_** – more likely to disobey orders when we see others doing the same.

Answer 458

* No one type of **_personality_** makes someone more susceptible to authority. But people's **_moods_** can have an effect – those with a rough day are less likely to conform. Status and culture can play a role, those of low socioeconimic status (those with low pwer) are more likely to conform. Also cultures like US/Europe (individualized cultures) that emphasize individual achievement are less likely to conform than collective cultures (Asia, cultures that emphasize the family and the group). * People conform all the time like going to school or eating cereal for breakfast. * There are reasons why ordinary people can do terrible things. But knowing these can reduce the negative outcomes. Just 1 non-conformer can make others not conform as well. You can understand social influence better knowing these factors.

Answer 459

Person falls to ground nearby, would you help? People say yes, research says no. If in group, less likely to help. With increased group size, people feel less inclined to take action - called **_bystander effect._** * The **_Bystander Effect_** is that an individual may feel less inclined to take action becuase of presence of others in the group. The bystander effect referes to a group process in which individuals observe an injustice or a crime being perpetuated and do not intervene. * Small group = less **_bystander effect_**. Large group group = more **_bystander effect_** (leads to nothing happening by any one individual and people might not even call 911).

Answer 460

Why? One may be lack of medical knowledge, or limited experience in assistance and think someone else would do it (one might assume that with such a large group of people, someone must have more experience than I have with unconscious person). This is called the **_diffusion of responsibility theory_** * **_Diffusion of Responsibility Theory_** – explains the bystander effect. When individuals are in the presence of others where help is needed, people feel less personal responsibility and are less likely to take action when needed. * In a small group, you don't diffuse the responsibility. You are mor elikely to feel personal responsibility to intervene. E. In a small group you might realize that you are only one who has practiced CPR.

Answer 461

The **_Bystander Effect_** is amplified by the amount of people in the group. If youe were to collapse in a small group, there would be less of a chance of the **_bystander effect_**. If there are only a few people, more likely that people would be more inclined to take action and help you. Feel more personal responsibility.

Answer 462

* The bystander effect can lead to little happening by any individual. One example is Kitty Genovese who was stabbed, raped, and robbed while 38 people were in the vicinity. It spanned over half an hour. * **_Deindividuation_** – those in the group are more likely to act inappropriately because the crowd conceals the person's identitiy. A good example of **_Deindividuation_** are some people on black friday. The presence of a large group of individuals decreases their inhibition/guilt. Or the internet.

Answer 463

**_Social Facilitation_** – how would the presence of others affect your behavior? Would it HELP or hinder your performance? According to social facilitation, the most **_dominant response_** for a particular behavior would be shown. **_Dominant response_** refers to the response that is most likely to occur. In the example of a presentation, if you practice inside and out, then then the presence of others around you will lead you to perfomr very well. If oyu haven't practiced well, the presence of others will make you perform more poorly (exacerbate your mistakes). Social facilitation occurs when individuals perform better in front of an audience. * The presence of others increases your **_arousal_** – your general physiological or psychological excitement (Increased HR, faster breathing, activation of the autonomic nervous system) and is known as nervous energy. Increased energy/**_arousal_** increases the likelihood of a dominant response occurring. Whether the dominant response is correct or accurate depends on how easy the task is, and how well you've learned it/rehearsed it. The presence of thers improves performance (helps) on **_simple tasks_**, and hinders it on **_difficult tasks_**/unpracticed tasks. (This is known as **_Yerkes-Dodson Law_**).

Answer 464

The graph is showing the **_Yerkes-Dodson Law_**.

Answer 465

**_Social Loafing_** is a tendency to put forth less effort in a group task if the individual contributions aren't evaluated. **_Social loafing_** is the tendency for individuals to put forth less effort when part of a group. * **_Group-produced reduction of individual effort_** – groups experiencing social loafing are less productive, put forth less effort, and perform poorly. Perhaps to guard against being th eperson who is doing all of the work, or because you know that your individual contributions are not evaluated. * Ex: in group project of a presentation, they put in less effort and perform poorly. * Can be reduced by making task more difficult, or separating performance of individual in the group (giving own person their own grade), or make individual components to each group member

Answer 466

* So does the presence of others help or hinder performance? Depends. * The **_Hawthorne effect_** (also referred to as the observer **_effect_**) is a type of reactivity in which individuals modify or improve an aspect of their behavior in response to their awareness of being observed. (acronym: observe the THORNes) * The **_Hawthorne Effect_** occurs when an individual participant changes his or her behavior, specifically due to the awareness of being observed.

Answer 467

* **_Agents of Socialization_**: Refers to parts of society that are important for **_socialization_** (the process of learning the norms and values in society) * **_Socialization_** is a life-long process where we learn how to interact with others. Everything we consider to be normal is actually learned through **_socialization_** – how we learn to walk/talk/feed ourselves, and how we learn behavioural norms that help us fit in.

Answer 468

**_Important Agents of Socialization_** – what's used to transmit (pass around) culture, values, beliefs about acceptable behaviors, and beliefs. Agents include people, organizations, and institutions that help us learn about our social world. * Our **_family_** – most important agent of socialization. When you are a child, totally dependent on others to survive. Your parents teach you how to care for yourself, how close relationships work, their beliefs/values/norms, how to talk to others. * Malcom Gladwell’s Book “Outlier” – Looks at how family plays a role in socialization. How wealthy parents raise kids vs. less fortunate parents raise children. One example is trip to doctor’s office– wealthy parents encouraged to ask questions, while kids less fortunate unlikely to criticize doctor. Wealthy kids encouraged to challenge authority, while less wealthy kids taught to listen to authority. Shows us how kids are raised and how it affects their interactions with others (in this case authority). * **_School_** is important. Schools teach life skills along with science and math– don’t learn from academic curriculum, but learn social skills from interactions with teachers and other students – We learn the importance of obeying authority, act interested, learn to be quiet, to wait etc. Part of the “hidden curriculum”: standard behaviors that are deemed acceptable that are subtly taught by teachers. * **_Peers_** teach us develop our social behaviours. Peers values and behaviors contradict values of our families/parents at times, and influence us. Peer pressure. How our values of our peers influence us. * We must decide on what values to keep and what values to get rid off * Ex. Peers pressure us to drink/do drugs as teenagers. What movies/music we watch and listen to. * **_Mass media_** – television, internet, radio, book, magazines. When you are young, you learn things through mass media that parents would not approve of. Today, children are exposed to a lot of content intended for mature audiences – violent TV shows. Enforces gender and other stereotypes. Ex: Children’s books is another agent of socialization.

Answer 469

Norms can be classified into 4 groups: **_folkways_**, **_mores_**, **_laws_**, and **_taboos_**. These four categories dictate how important a norm is and consequences for deviating from the norm. * **_Folkways_** – the mildest type of norm, hust common rules/manners we are supposed to follow. Traditions individuals have followed for a long time, ex. opening the door, helping a person who's dropped an item, or saying thank you. Consequences are not severe/consistent. There is no actual punishment. * **_Mores_** – norms based on some moral value/belief. Generally produce strong feelings. Usually a strong reaction if the more is violated. Ex. Truthfullness. Violating a **_more_** will not have serious consequences.

Answer 470

Norms can be classified into 4 groups: **_folkways_**, **_mores_**, **_laws_**, and **_taboos_**. These four categories dictate how important a norm is and consequences for deviating from the norm. * **_Laws_** – still based on right and wrong, but have formal/consistent consequences. Ex. if you lie under oath, you have done something morally wrong AND you also violate the **_law_** in courts. * Ex: friends takes of all clothes and decides to go streaking across the field. Broken **_law_** and you will receive a punishment. Perhaps not outrage or disgust – crowd might be laughing or cheering. * **_Taboos_** – completely wrong in any circumstance, and violation results in consequences far more extreme than a more. Often punishable by law and results in severe disgust by members of a community. Ex. incest and cannibalism.

Answer 471

Normative and Non-Normative Behavior What is normal? Exploring Folkways, Mores, and Taboos * **_Norms_** are standards for what behaviours, set by groups of individuals, are acceptable, and which are not. Rules that dictate how person should behave around certain group of people – and are defined by that group and usually guided by some sort of moral standard or ethical value that is easily understood and internalized by all members of the group. Provide structure and standards of how people can behave. * **_Norms_** vary by culture and by country. **_Norms_** can change with time as individuals' behaviours change. * **_Norms_** are reinforced by **_sanctions_** – rewards/punishments for behaviours in accord with or against norms. * **_Formal norms_** are written down, **_informal norms_** are understood but less precise and have no specific punishments

Answer 472

When a norm is violated, it is referred to as **_deviance_**. **_Deviance_** is no negative. **_Deviance_** is just individuals bahaving differently from what society feels is normal. * For example, most Americans eat meat. Therefore, an American who is vegetarian is **_deviant_**.

Answer 473

There are many perspectives on Deviance such as **_Differential Association_**, **_Labelling Theory_**, and **_Strain Theory_**. * The **_Theory of Differential Associtation_** states that deviance is a learned behavior that results from continuous exposure to others that violate norms and laws – learn from observation of others. Rejects norms/values and believes the new behavior is a norm.

Answer 474

There are many perspectives on Deviance such as **_Differential Association_**, **_Labelling Theory_**, and **_Strain Theory_**. * **_Labeling Theory_** – a behavior is deviant if people have judged the behavior and labelled it as deviant. Whether or not a behavior is deviant or not depends on what's acceptable in that society. Ex. steroids can be labelled as deviant and wrong by those who think so. * **_Primary Deviance_** – no big consequences, reaction to deviant behavior is very mild. Individual behaves in same way without feeling wrong. * **_Secondary Deviance_** – more serious consequences, characterized by severe negative reaction that results in stigmatizing behavior.

Answer 475

There are many perspectives on Deviance such as **_Differential Association_**, **_Labelling Theory_**, and **_Strain Theory_**. * **_Strain Theory_** – if person is blocked from attaining a culturally accepted goal, that person may then turn to deviance. The person is pushed to attain certain goals, but may not have legitimate ways to achieve sucess.

Answer 476

There are three types of collective behavior: **_Fads_**, **_Mass Hysteria_**, and **_Riots_**. * What happens when large numbers of individuals rapidly behave in ways that are not inline with societal norms? In Sociology, this is called **_collective behavior_**. * **_Collective behavior_** is **_not_** the same as group behavior, because fo a few reasons. * First, **_collective behavior_** is time-limited, and involves short social interactions, while groups stay together and socialize for long periods of time. * **_Collectives_** can be open, while groups can be exclusive. * **_Collectives_** have **_loose norms_** (which are murkily defined), while groups have strongly held/well-defined norms. * **_Collective behavior_** generally violates widely held societal norms and at times, it can be very destructive. * **_Collective behavior_** is often driven by group dynamics, such as deindividualization. Certain group dynamics can encourage people to engage in acts they may consider wrong in normal circumstances, which also occur in a collective.

Answer 477

There are 3 types of collective behavior: **_fads_**, **_mass hysteria_**, and **_riots_**. * A **_fad_** is something that becomes incredibly popular very quickly, but loses popularity just as quickly as it is gained. **_Fads_** last for a short period of time, but fads reach influence to a large number of people in that time. **_Fads_** are percieved as cool/interesting to a large group of people. A good example of a **_fad_** is the "Cinnamon Challenge" – a person has to eat a large spoonful fo ground cinnamon in under a minute typically while posting the video online.

Answer 478

There are 3 types of collective behavior: **_fads_**, **_mass_** **_hysteria_**, and **_riots_**. * **_Mass Hysteria_** is large # of people who experience unmanageable delusions and anxiety at same time. Reactions spread rapidly and reach more people through rumours and fears. Often takes the form of panic reactions and negative news or potential threat. * **_Mass hysteria_** refers to behavior that occurs when groups react emotionally or irrationally to real or perceived threats. It is characterized by panic and spread of information (or misinformation) by the media * Ex. Mild-form of **_hysteria_**: Reaction due to news of severe weather warnings. The result is fear/anxiety induced in large #s of people and the fear causes people to become crazed (rush to supermarket), drive erratically and become irrational * **_Mass psychogenic illness_**, or **_epidemic hysteria_**: **_Mass hysteria_** can be a result of of psychology, like when large amount of people believe they have same illness despite lack of disease. * Ex. after anthrax attack in US, after reports there were over 2000 false alarms. Individuals reported false symptoms of anthrax infection and because they believed they were exposed (which induced false symptoms).

Answer 479

There are 3 types of collective behavior: **_fads_**, **_mass hysteria_**, and **_riots_**. * **_Riots_** are characterized by a large number of people who engage in dangerous behavior, such as vandalism. **_Riots_** are chaotic and cost cities millions in damages. Individuals who act in **_riots_** cast aside societal norms and behave in very destructive ways, and violate laws. **_Riots_** are often seen as a collective act of defiance/disapproval due to a percieved issue (ex. sports game outcome).

Answer 480

* **_Non-associative Learning_** – when an organism is repeatedly exposed to one type of stimulus, ex. **_habituation_** and **_sensitization_**. In **_habituation_**, the person tunes out the stimulus. On the other hand, **_dishabituation_** occurs when the previously **_habituated_** stimulus is removed. * **_Associative Learning_** – when one event is connected to another, ex. classical and operant conditioning.

Answer 481

**_Classical Conditioning_** (also known as **_Pavlovian_** or respondent conditioning) is a learning process in chich an innate response to a potent stimulus comes to be elicited in response to a previously neutral stimulus; this is achieved by repeated pairings of the neutral stimulus with the potent stimulus. * "I am conditioning myself to like it" is the same as "I am learning to like it" * **_Classical Conditioning_** does NOT involve a change in behaviour like operant conditioning.

Answer 482

A guinea pig is initially excited about seeing a carrot. However, over a long period of time, the guinea pig gets excited just as the refrigerator door is opening. Then this occurs with every other time the refrigerator door gets opened. * In the example listed, the carrot is an **_unconditioned stimulus_** because no one had to teach the guinea pig to like carrots. The carrot triggering the excitement is cool. The excitement response is the **_unconditioned response_**. * **_Unconditioned_** means it is innnate, and not learned. While **_conditioned_** means it's a learned behavior. * Right before the guinea pig got the carrot, the guinea pig heard the refrigerator door open. The noise from the refrigerator door opening is the **_neutral stimuli_**– a stimuli you can sense by sight, taste, or hearing it that typically doesn’t not produce the reflex that is being tested. In this example, the sound of the refrigerator door can be heard, but it does not naturally cause excitement. It is something that had to be learned. * **_Conditioning_** is produced when the neutral stimulus is presented shortly before the unconditioned stimulus – presentation of both stimuli is caused a trial. Pairing the two stimuli together is how you establish **_classical conditioning_**. Occurs when neutral stimulus (refrigerator door) is able to elicit the same response as the unconditioned stimulus (the carrot) * Ex. guinea pig was conditioned to respond to sound of refrigerator door. * Refrigerator door (neutral stimulus) becomes the **_conditioned_** stimuli, because it elicits a **_conditioned_** response (excitement). The excitement was previously a UCR elicited by UCS (the carrot).

Answer 483

**_Generalization_**: tendency/ability of a stimulus similar to conditioned stimulus to elicit a conditioned response, and more similar the stimuls is to original conditioned stimulus - the greater the conditioned response. **_Generalization_** is a Classical Conditioning term. * **_Generalization_** has adaptive value * **_Generalization_** allows us to make an appropriate response to similar stimuli. For example, meeting someone new who smiles, reminds us of other smiles (both exhibit feelings of joy).

Answer 484

The guniea pig doesn't respond to a dreser drawer, whcih makes a sound that is different from a refrigerator, this is called **_discrimination_**, when you learn to make a response to some stimuli but not others. **_Discrimination_** also has adaptive value because you want to respond differently to related stimuli. **_Discrimination_** is a classical conditioning term. * Ex: You wouldn’t want to respond to all loud sounds in the same way. You probably want to respond differently to a loud bang of drum vs loud bang of gunshot

Answer 485

If you open refrigerator door and give the Guinea pig get a carrot anymore, over time she would no longer react – **_extinction_** – When a CS does not elicit a CR anymore. **_Extinction_** is a classical conditioning term. * It is used to train certain phobias. Ex. If you are afraid of heights, the therapist would expose you to various heights and the stimuli would not elicit the same response anymore (the response of fear)

Answer 486

However, suddenly she hears the refrigertor door open later, and the guinea pig makes a response ( a milder form like feeling intrigued more than usual instead of a strong feeling of excitement) – **_spontaneous recovery_** (when old conditioned stimulus elicits response). Don't know why it happens, usually infrequent, doesn't persist for a long time, and is less strong. **_Spontaneous Recovery_** is a classical conditioning term.

Answer 487

* **_Operant Conditioning_** is associated with **_B. F. Skinner_**. **_Operant conditioning_** is also called **_Instrumental Conditioning_** and focuses on the relationship between behavior and their consequences, and how those in turn influence the behavior. (**_Classical Conditioning_** was no change in behavior). * In **_operant conditioning_**, behaviours have consequences – two types: **_reinforcement_** (increase a behavior) and **_punishment_** (decrease a behavior). There are two types of **_reinforcement_** (positive and negative) and two types of **punishment** (positive and negative).

Answer 488

**_Positive Reinforcement_** = something is being added to increase behavior, ex. a gas gift card for safe driving.

Answer 489

**_Negative Reinforcement_** = taking something away to increase the tendency for a behavior to occur again. Ex. having a loud buzzing noise that keep going until you put on your seatbelt. Taking away the sound of buzzer when you put the seatbelt on is the **_negative reinforcement_** because taking something away in an effort to increase behavior.

Answer 490

**_Positive Punishment_** = punish behaviors that are unsafe. **_Positive punishment_** means something is added to decrease tnedency something will occur again. Ex. giving a speeding ticket.

Answer 491

* **_Negative punishment_** = something taken away in an effort to decrease the tnedency for it to occur again. Ex. taking away your license. * All these consequences **_shape_** (influence) th ebehavior * The immediacy of the feedback is an important factor in influencing behavior.

Answer 492

**_Primary reinforcers_** are innately satisfying/desirable, like food, water, and sexual activity.

Answer 493

**_Secondary reinforcers_** are those learned to be reinforcers, such as previously neutral stimuli. It requires a pairing or association with a primary reinforcer for it to have value. Ex. money

Answer 494

**_Token Economy_** – system of behaviour modification based on systemic _REINFORCEMENT_ of target behavior. Reinforcers are "**_tokens_**" that can be exchanged for other reinforcers (ex. Prizes)

Answer 495

"I want to learn to do a headstand" – emphasize **learn**. Learning through successively reinforcing behaviors that approximate the target behavior is **_shaping_**. **_Shaping_** is like the term for learning in Operant Conditioning. * What is the **_target behviour_**? Ex. headstand. * showing up to yoga class, won't necessarily make you learn how to do a head stand. * Next, put your hands on the mat (downward dog), Then forearms on the mat. Each is the reinforced behavior until the next step. * Finally, put legs up – the target.

Answer 496

Most of our behaviours are on a **_partial reinforcement schedule_** – behavior is reinforced only some of the time. **_Partial Reinforcement Schedule_** is more resistant to extinction than continuous reinforcement. Behavior is shaped through a process of successive reinforcement of approximations of target behavior. These are partial reinforcemnt schdules in the picture.

Answer 497

**_Continuous reinforcement_** becomes less reinforcing, so there is a need for ulterior reinforcement. **_Continuous reinforcement_** occurs on a 1:1 ratio - this means that for each behavior there is a reward. **_Continuos reinforcement_** was discovered by B. F. Skinner via reward schedules with animals but apply to animals as well.

Answer 498

**_Fixed-Ratio_** – acronym: **_Ratio_***n* = RATION = AMOUNT (of responses). **_FIXED_** = Consistent ex. car salesman gets bonus every 5 cars he sells. Reinforcement only occurs after a fixed # of responses. Contingent on # of cars sold regardless of how long it takes (so the salesman will probably try to sell as fast as possible). Jobs that demand someone to work in a fast paced manner typically pay workers on fixed-ratio (ex. Factory workers, fruit pickers)

Answer 499

**_Fixed-Interval_** – acronym: **_Interval_** = TIME. ex. receives pay check every 2 weeks – in this case, time is constant. Pay doesn’t change if he sells 1 car or 100 cars. Less incentive to sell cars. Response rate is slower.

Answer 500

**_Variable-Ratio_** – acronym: **_Variable_** = VARIATION. Reinforcement is delivered after average # of right responses has occurred. Similar to fixed-ratio, except # changes for each reward. Just fixed-ratio but varies. Average # of correct responses is the same. Ex. bonus is paid after selling 5 cars for first bonus, 3 for second, 7 for third, 6, then 4 etc. Average is 5. Lots of uncertainty. Car salesman can’t predict when he will get a bonus.

Answer 501

**_Variable-Interval_** – Responses are reinforced after a variable amount of time has passed, regardless on amount Ex. bonus can come randomly on different days. **_Variable RATIO_** is most effective (acronym: produces a Very-Rapid response)

Answer 502

**_Innate behaviors_** (instincts) vs. learned behaviours * **_Innate behavior_** is performed correctly the first time in response to a stimulus – they innately possess. Commonly called "instinct". **_Innate behaviors_** can be broken down into two categories: **_simple innate behaviors_** and **_complex innate behaviors_**. * **_Simple innate behaviors_**– **_reflexes_** (squint or blinking – natural behaviors), **_taxis_** (bugs fly towards light, can be towards or away from stimulus – a purposeful movement ||acronym: Taxis have a purposeful movement), **_kinesis_** (rats randomly scurrying in different directions – no purpose of movement). [example was a light source as being the stimuli] * **_Complex innate behaviors_** – **_fixed action patterns_** (mating dance), **_migration_** (birds flying south in winter), **_circadian rhythms_** (biological clock, waking up early to sing) [example was a singing bird]

Answer 503

Learned behaviours are learned behaviors through experience. * **_Habituation_** – response to alarm decreases over time. Ex. curing phobia by repeated exposure to the fear until the intensity of the emotional response decreases. "Loss of response to repeated stimuli" * **_Classical conditioning_** – associate one stimuli with another stimuli that produces a specific response. Ex. freaking out (CR) because of a fire alarm because the fire + fire-alarm (CS) are paired stimuli. The UCS was the fire (which you have a natural response too). * **_Operant conditioning_** – consequences that follow behavior increase/ decrease the likelihood of the behavior happening again. * **_Insight Learning_** – solve a problem using past skills, the "aha" moment is insight learning. Ex. Use math skills previously learned to solve a problem. * **_Latent Learning_** – learned behavior is not expressed until required.

Answer 504

**_Escape_** and **_avoidance_** are two types of **_aversive control_**, situations where behavior is motivated by the threat of something unpleasant – examples of negative reinforcement (removing undesirable stimulus following correct behavior). * **_Escape_** – escape an unpleasant stimulus once it has occurred (the stimuli has an element of surprise usually). The response is conditioned (of escaping) in response to a stimuli and then stimuli goes away. (negative reinforcement). Typically, the response would not occur. Fire in a building, and you have to find a way to get out. * **_Escape_** conditioning occurs when the animal learns to perform an operant to terminate an ongoing, aversive stimulus. It is a "get me out of here" or "shut this off" reaction, aimed at escape from pain or annoyance. The behavior that produces escape is negatively reinforced (reinforced by the elimination of the unpleasant stimulus). * **_Avoidance_** – signal is given before aversive situation. The behavior is to avoid the situation, which results in continued **_avoidance_** because it is reinforced by the removal of the pain/undesirable stimuli. Ex. A fire alarm allows you to avoid the fire and you are able to “Avoid” the situation. * **_Avoidance_** behaviors are incredibly persistent. This is true even when there is no longer anything to avoid. The reason is that an animal that performs an **_avoidance_** reaction never experiences the aversive stimulus. But it receives negative reinforcement in the form of relief. Because of this, **_avoidance_** behavior is self-reinforcing. Negative reinforcement.

Answer 505

**_Persuasion_** is a method for attitude change/behavior change. The **_elaboration likelihood model_** explains how attitudes are formed and the likelihood they are to be changed. The **_target characteristics_** are the most important in this model, but all play a factor (message and source characteristics as well). The **_Elaboration Likelihood Model_** determines when people will be influenced by the content of a speech vs. more superficial features.

Answer 506

There are 3 main characteristics that impact how we are persuaded for/against a message: * **_Message Characteristics_** – message itself, clarity, how well thought the message was. Message characteristics also include how well written the message was, does the speaker have a good grasp of grammr, appropriate vocabulary, length of talk, etc. * **_Source Characteristics_** – what is their level of expertise, trustworthy, and is the information credible or not. Physical environment, venue of event. * **_Target Characteristics_** – characteristics of listener such as mood, self-steem, alertness, intelligence, etc. How we recieve a message.

Answer 507

According to the elaboration likelihood model, we want to evaluate information along two possible paths: central and peripheral routes. After a route is chosen, information is passed through three different stages. Stages: * Stage 1: Pre-Processing stage due to target characteristics: before we can consider information or be persuaded by it, the information is first filtered by interest, motivation, importance, etc. of us (the listener). * **_Central Processing_**: If listener interest, motivation, importance are high. People will only choose this route when they are interested in the topic. * **_Peripheral processing_**: If listener interest, motivation, importance are low we process via the peripheral route. Chosen when listener doesn’t care about topic, * We filter information before we even process it. * Stage 2: Processing Stage by message/source: * **_Central Processing_**: Focus on a deep processing of the information * **_Peripheral processing_**: Focus on superficial characteristics (shallow processing of information) such attractiveness of speaker, their PowerPoint attractiveness, or even how many points the speaker made. How many times speaker got audience to laugh, etc. * Stage 3: Change in attitude * **_Central Processing_**: creates a lasting attitude change * **_Peripheral processing_**: creates a temporarily attitude change

Answer 508

**Reciprocal Determinism** is the interaction between a person's behaviours, personal factors (motivation/cognition), and environment are all determined by each other.

Answer 509

The Social Cognitive Theory views behaviors as being influenced by people's actions/cognitions and their social context. The social Cognitive Theory talks about interactions between the individual and situation they are in. * Cognition \<–\> Environment \<–\> Behavior * For example Jim is interested in Soccer (cognition), Jin joins a soccer team (environment), an dspends time with Soccer players (behavior) * Or, he can spend a lot of time with Soccer players, become interested in it, and joins a Soccer team. Behavior leads to cognition. * Another direction: Jin hangs with soccer players, so she joins a soccer team, and then after a while develop a real interest in Soccer, which then reinforces her hanging with the team. The Social Cognitive Theory was developed by Bandura (the same scientist who did work on observational learning).

Answer 510

**_Perceived Behavioral Control_**: refers to a person's ability to carry out intentions to perform a certain behavior.

Answer 511

An important element in the social cognitive theory is personal control. Are we controlling or are we getting controlled by the environment around us? Is our locus of control internal or external?

Answer 512

A situation occurs in which Chris Sedlak gets an A+ in Bilogy 171. Becuase Chris knows he got an A+ becuase he studied harder than most for the class, he has an **_Internal Locus of Control_**.

Answer 513

If someone has the idea that a "test was unfair" that person has an **_external locus of control_**. A person has an **_external locus of control_** when he or she percieves outside forces that help control your fate.

Answer 514

Individuals with an **_internal locus of control_** achieve more in school/work, cope better with stress and have lower rates of depression. Individuals with an **_external locus of control_** do not do as well academically and have higher rates of depression.

Answer 515

**_Learned Helplessness_** – a condition in which a person suffers from a sense of powerlessness, arising from a traumatic event or persistent failure to succeed. It is thought to be one of the underlying causes of depression. * An experiment occurred in which a tone got sounded and the Group 1 dogs recieved electrical shocks, nut th dogs were able to press a button to stop the shock. However, Group 2 dogs had no way to turn off the shocks. * After the dogs were placed in a new environment and had 2 sides separated by a low paartition in the middle, both groups of dogs were shocked again. The dogs in group 1 learned to escape by jumping over the barrier, but the dogs in group 2 did NOT try to escape the shock. * Therefore, uncontrollable bas events can lead to a **_perceived_** lack of control, which leads to general helpless behavior.

Answer 516

* Increasing people's control over very small things, like a TV remote can increase the health and well being of people in nursery homes. * What about too much control? Too many choices can also negatively impact our behavior and cognition – the **_tyranny of choice_**. * Ex. too many choices at stores * Those who pick 1/6 were more satisfied with their behavior than those who had to pick 1/30. * One of the reasons for this is the result of **_information overload_**, and the **_information overload_** can lead to **_decision paralysis_** and increased regret over the choice made. * Personal control is important, any control people have on the environment even a little has a good effect on well-being. On the other hand, too much is not good either.

Answer 517

**_Self-Control_**: The ability to control our impulses and delay gratification. Self-control influences how we behave. * Self-control is focussing on long term goals while putting off short-term temptations.

Answer 518

Humans have natural **_desires_**: motivations associated with pleasure or release from displeasure. **_Desires_** aren't necessarily bad (ex. **_Desire_** to drink water to live). **_Desires_** become a **_temptation_** when the **_desire_** conflicts with your values or long term goals. (ex. wanting to eat a candy bar while having the long term goal of losing weight, or watching a series on Netflix vs. graduating with your PhD).

Answer 519

The most famous experiment on self-control is commonly referred to as the **_Marshmellow Test_**. Kids in preschool given the marshmellow could eat the marshmellow whenever, but if the kid waited for 15 minutes, the kid could get another marshmellow (totaling 2 marshmellows. The children would have to forego immediate gratification and wait for a better reward). * Some children ate it right away, but other kids licked it. * Those who were able to wait tended to have better life outcomes when followed 10 years later (higher SAT scores, lower drug use, fewer relationship problems, better social skills, less stress, better grades, eat betterm and smoke less).

Answer 520

* Self-control improves management in all areas of life. * **_Ego depletion_** – idea that self-control is a limited resource. If you use a lot of it, it gets used up, and less of self- control is available to use in the future which can later affect unrelated tasks that requires the use of self-control. This is true because self control requires a lot of energy and focus.

Answer 521

**_Ego depletion_** is demonstrated by experiment. The experiment included those who resisted eating cookies ended up giving up sooner on another unrelated task that also required self-control. * Muscle is also used as a metaphor for self-control. Self-control can be strengthened, but also depleted. * Training self-control in one area can improve it in other areas too.

Answer 522

1. **_Change environment_** – ex. moving snacks to the more difficult to reach shelf. 2. **_Operant Conditioning_** – reinfocing good behaviors with rewards. aka using positive/negative reinforcement or punishment. 3. **_Classical Conditioning_** – ex. eat healthy chocolate every time you crave chocolate 4. **_Deprivation?_** – Removing something completely is problematic. This could potentially make you want it more and it leads to ego depletion.

Answer 523

**_Self-Concept_** aka Self Identity - is how someone thinks about/percieves/evaluates himself or herself. aka self awareness * Your **_self-concept_** is derived from your **_self-esteem_** and **_self-efficacy_**

Answer 524

Development of self-concept has 2 parts: first, an **_existential self_** and then a **_categorical self_**. * The **_existential self_** is the most basic part of self-concept, the sense of being separate and distinct from others. Awareness that the self is constant/consistent throughout life. (Ex: if someone say they are "tired" that isn't them all the time. This is not their self-concept becuase self-concept is consistent) * Child as young as 2-3 months realize they exist as distinct entities due to the relationship child as with the world. When someone smiles, someone smiles back. They have a relationship with objects and they are separate/distinct from that.

Answer 525

Development of self-concept has 2 parts: first, an **_existential self_** and then a **_categorical self_**. * The **_categorical self_** comes once a baby realizes they're separate (comes comes after the **_existential self_**) – becoming aware that even though we are separate/distinct objects/beings, we also exist in the world with others. And each of these objects/entities has properties. For example, **_age_** and **_gender_** are the first categories babies learn, then babies learn **_skills_** and **_size_**. Then as we grow older, we compare ourselves with others – **_traits_**, **_comparisons_**, **_careers_** (these are more developed categories)

Answer 526

**_Carl Rogers_** (Humanistic Theory), believed self-concept had 3 different components. * **_Self-image_**: what we believe we are. The view we have of ourselves. * **_Self-esteem_**/**_self-worth_**: how much values we place on ourselves * **_Ideal-self_**: what we wish/aspire to be * When the ideal self and the real self are similar, the result is a positive self-concept. When the ideal self does not match the real self, the result is **_incongruity_**. * Explain actions through self-concept and incongruence

Answer 527

We can use the **_social identity theory_** to develop self-concept further – has 2 parts: **_personal identity_** and **_social identity_** * **_Personal Identity_**: things unique to each person like personality traits. * **_Social Identity_**: includes the groups you belong to in our community. * Mental processes involved in how we categorize ourselves/use **_social-identity theory_**. Process involved 3 steps. This process is used when we categorize ourselves, others, and look at the relationship between personal and social identities.

Answer 528

Social Identity Theory has three parts. * Step 1: All humans **_categorize_** ourselves and others without really realizing it, part of human nature. We categorize in order to understand objects/identify them ex. Categorize to groups (which we belong to and those different) like race (black, white)/job (student/accountant)/etc. * If we assign categories to others, we can make prejudgements about them. * Step 2: Next is **_identification_**. When we adopt identity of the group, we see/categorize us as belonging – behaving and acting like the category we belong to, ex. a student. (ex. Act and behave like a student if we identify as students. The role starts to feel like a norm). Emotional significance to identification - our self esteem starts to become bound to this group identification and sense of belonging. * Step 3: **_social comaprison_** – how we comparing ourselves with other groups (or two different groups). We do this to maintain our self-steem. **_Social Comparison_** is critical to understanding prejudice, because once two groups develop as rivals, we start to compete in order to maintain self-esteem.

Answer 529

**_Self-esteem_** is the respect and regard one has for oneself.

Answer 530

**_Self-efficacy_** – belief in one's abilities to suceed in a particular sitaution. **_Self-efficacy_** was developed by Bandura due to his dissatisfaction with the idea of self-esteem.

Answer 531

People with a **_strong_** self efficacy **_recover_** quickly from setbacks, have strong **_interest_**, a **_strong_** sense of commitment, and **_enjoy_** challenging tasks. (**_RISE_**)

Answer 532

People with a **_weak_** self-efficacy focus on personal **_failures_**, **_avoid_** challenging tasks, quickly **_lose_** confidence in personal abilities, and believe they **_lack_** ability to handle difficult taks and situations (**_FALL_**)

Answer 533

Look at these courses to determine if a person has a strong/weak sense of self-efficacy: * 1. **_Mastery of experience_** – strengthens self-efficacy * 2. **_Social Modeling_** – seeing people like ourselves complete the same task * 3. **_Social Persuasion_** – when someone says something positive to you, helps overcome self-doubt * 4. **_Psychological Responses_** – learning how to minimize stress and control mood in difficult situations can improve self-efficacy. A person with low self-steem can have high self-efficacy, and vice versa. Ex. a perfectionist can have low self-steem but still see themselves as capable of doing tasks.

Answer 534

**_Locus of control_** – the extent to which people perceive they have control over events in their lives. * **_Internal_** - when a person believes he or she can influence events/outcomes. Results come primarily from their own actions. * **_External_** – attribute events to environmental events/causes.

Answer 535

There are theories of changes that occur in a lifespan, and each stage builds up over another. We develop capacity through these stages. We pass stages in order. * Freud – proposed the **_psychosexual theory_** of development. * Freud believed that early **_childhood_** was the most important age/ period in which personality developed. Most of personality developed by the age of 5. Early experiences play a large role in personality development. This development influences behavior later in life * **_5 stages_** – if completed successfully, result in a healthy personality. If issues aren't resolved at a certain stage, then **_fixation occurs_**.

Answer 536

There are theories of changes that occur in a lifespan, and each stage builds up over another. We develop capacity through these stages. We pass stages in order. * Erikson – **_Psychosocial Development Theory_** * Proposed personality/identity deveopment occurs through one's entire **_lifespan_**. * Each stage depends on overcoming **_conflict_**, and sucess/failure at each stage affects overall functioning of theory. * **_8 Stages_**

Answer 537

There are theories of changes that occur in a lifespan, and each stage builds up over another. We develop capacity through these stages. We pass stages in order. * Vygotsky – **_Sociocultural Cognitive Development Theory_** * Believed children learn **_actively_** through **_hands-on_** processes, and suggest parents/caregivers/cultural beliefs/language/attitudes are all responsible for development of higher function of learning. * Child internalizes information w/ interactions with others. This social-interaction is important for the development of cognition.

Answer 538

There are theories of changes that occur in a lifespan, and each stage builds up over another. We develop capacity through these stages. We pass stages in order. * Kohlberg – **_Moral Development Theory_** * Focused on **_moral reasoning_** and difference between right and wrong. * **_Moral reasoning_** develops through the level of cognitive development, and people pass through **_3 stages_** of development (each with 2 stages) **_6-levels total_** * Kohlberg did research on groups of children and presented children in moral dilemma situations and interviewed kids based on each of their conclusions in each dilemma.

Answer 539

In general **_Freud_** and **_Erikson_** were interested in how personality develops, and **_Vygotsky_** and **_Kohlberg_** were interested in how cognition develops.

Answer 540

Freud's Psychosexual Development proposed psychological development in childhood developed through these stages, and the concept of tension and pleasure – the build up of tension could cause a lot of conflicts.

Answer 541

Freud's Theory of Psychosexual Development stated **_Fixation_** was due to the concept of **_libido_** – a natural energy source that fuels mechanisms of the mind. And when **_libido_** energy is **_fixated_**, the **_fixation_** can have lifelong effects well into adulthood. **_Libido_** is centered on different parts of the body at different times of development.

Answer 542

In Freud's Theory of Psychosexual Development, the first **_5 years_** of life are crucual in the development of personality.

Answer 543

Mnemonic – OLD AGE PARROTS LOVE GRAPES or OLD AGE PENSIONERS LOVE GRAPES/GENITALS or ORANGANTANGES ALWAYS PLAY with LITTLE GORILLAS * Old = oral, age = anal, parrots = phallic, love = latent, grapes = genital

Answer 544

Depending on what stage we're at, we are going to have a different fixation of energy at certain body parts. * For oral stage – focus is the mouth. For anal stage, anus; phallis is genitals; latent is none; and genital stage is the genitals

Answer 545

Freud's Theory of Psychosexual Development Stages * **_Oral Stage_** – age **_0-1 years_**., libido is centered around a baby's mouth, vital for sucking/eating. Because completely dependent on caretakers, baby also develops sense of trust and comfort. If there is fixation here,there are issues with dependency or agression. Also smoking or biting fingers.

Answer 546

Freud's Theory of Psychosexual Development Stages * **_Anal Stage_** – age **_1-3 years_**, centered around anus, ex. toilet training. Leads to developing control/independence, encouraging positive outcomes. Serve as basis for competent adults. If fixation occurs in this stage, you can have problems with orderliness and messiness.

Answer 547

Freud's Theory of Psychosexual Development Stages * **_Phallic Stage_** – age **_3-6 years_**, children dicover the difference between males a nd females. Oedipus complex also develops. It is resolved with the process of identification, where child starts to understand and evelop similar characteristics as the same-sex parent. If fixation occurs, cause sexual dysfunction. Oedipus complex and electra complex occur at this stage.

Answer 548

Freud's Theory of Psychosexual Development Stages **_Latent Period_** – age **_6-12 years_**; no focus of libido. A period of exploration, libido present but directed into other areas such as intellectual pursuits and social interactions. The **_latent period_** is important in the development of social and communication skills. Fixation doesn't develop into adult fixation.

Answer 549

Freud's Theory of Psychosexual Development Stages * **_Genital Stage_** – back on libido, because individual develops strong sexual interests. Before this stage, focus on individual needs. Now, focus on needs of others. No adult fixation – person is mentally healthy. Goal: establish balance between various life areas (well balanced, warm, caring)

Answer 550

* Erikson's **_Psychosocial Development_** was greatly influenced by Freud, but his theory was based on culture and society. * Erikson's **_Psychosocial Development Theory_** had another key difference between his and Freud's Theory was he suggested that there was plenty of room for growth throughout one's life (not just childhood).

Answer 551

* Erikson's **_Theory of Psychosocial Development_** assumed **_crisis_** can occur at each stage of development, between needs of individual and society. Success in the 8 stages can result in acquisition of basic virtues and a healthy personality. * Failure in certain stages can result in reduced ability to move on to further stages.

Answer 552

Erikson's **_Theory of Psychosocial Development_** has 8 stages * **_Stage 1_** – **_1_** yrs., crisis is trust vs mistrust. If an infant's physical and emotional needs are not met, as an adult, he or she may mistrust everyone. Virtue is **_hope_**, and failing to acquire virtue can lead to suspicion/fear/mistrust

Answer 553

Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development has **_8 stages_** * **_Stage 2_** – **_2_** yrs., autonomy vs. shame/doubt. Around 18 months to 3 yrs. children develop independence by walking away from mother, what they eat, etc. Critical that parents allow children to do that. Virtued achieved is **_will_** (independence). If the child is overly criticized/controlled, feel inadequate and lack self-esteem, and have shame.

Answer 554

Erikson's **_Theory of Psychosocial Development_** has 8 stages * **Stage 3** – **_3-5_** yrs., initiative vs guilt. Children feel more secure in their ability to lead others and play, so ask questions. Virtue they reach is a sense of **_purpose_** in what they do and choices/decisions they make. If their tendency to ask questions is controlled, the person develops guilt – as if they're annoying other people and act more as a follower. Inhibits their creativity, and the outcome is inadequacy.

Answer 555

Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development has **_8 stages_** * **_Stage 4_** – age **_6-12_**. Where teachers take an important role in a child's life, and the child works towards competence. Crisis is **_industry vs. inferiority_**. The child will gain greater significance and self-esteem, and try to win approval from others. The child will feel industrious, but if initiative is restricted, the child feels inferior. Some is good though, so child has modesty.

Answer 556

Erikson's **_Theory of Psychosocial Development_** has 8 stages * **_Stage 5_** – age **_12-18_**, adolescence. Transition from childhood to adulthood, so one of the most important crises. You want to to start feeling like they belong to society – **_identity vs role confusion_**. In this stage, the child has to learn rules, so the person may re-examine identity to figure out who they are. Body image plays a big role. Virtue is **_fidelity_**, seeing oneself as unique. Can cause rebellion/unhappiness.

Answer 557

Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development has **_8 stages_** * **_Stage 7_** – age **_40-65_**, so settle down, make families the center of their lives, and sense of being part of a bigger picture. **_Generativity vs stagnation_**. Adults feel like they give back through raising children/work/community activities, so develop a sense of care for others. Negative outcome is they feel stagnate and unproductive

Answer 558

Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development has **_8 stages_** * **_Stage 8_** – 65+, slowing in productivity. Crisis is **_integrity vs despair_**. Contemplate on lives, reminisce. May feel guilt about past or unacomplished, dissatisfied. Virtue is **_wisdom_**, but if we feel unproductive, it can lead to dispair/dissatisfaction upon death.

Answer 559

Vygotsky created the **_sociocultural theory of development_**. * Vygotsky studied the role social interaction plays in the development of **_cognition_**. * Focussed on **_social interactions_** between growing children and interactions with those around them in development of higher order learning.

Answer 560

**_Vygotsky_** created the sociocultural theory of development. * **_Vygotsky_** passed away early, so much of his theory was left unfinished * **_Vygotsky_** said babies have 4 elementary functions: **_attention_**, **_sensation_**, **_perception_**, and **_memory_**.

Answer 561

Vygotsky created the **_sociocultural theory of development_**. * Vygotsky stated that the 4 elementary functions are developed into more sophisticated and mental processes – **_higher mental functions_**. Most develop from a skillful "tutor" – a model, ex. parent/teacher/someone older. Tutor = model, and child tries to understand instructions/actions provided by tutor and they internalize it. * **_Higher mental functions_** include independent learning and thinking. * Ex: solving a puzzle as a kid. You have a hard time as a kid, but a parent gives tips and strategies to solve the puzzle and the second time you can internalize theseideas and do it on your own. * **_Higher mental functions_** cultivated by tutor from who we model our behavior.

Answer 562

Vygotsky created the sociocultural theory of development. * Development of Higher Mental Functions (Cognition) from Elementary Mental Functions (Social Interactions) requires 3 things. * 1. Requires cooperative and collaborative dialogue from a **_MKO_** (**_more knowledgeable other_**).

Answer 563

Vygotsky created the sociocultural theory of development. * Development of Higher Mental Functions (Cognition) from Elementary Mental Functions (Social Interactions) requires 3 things. * 2. **_Zone of Proximal Development_** – part where most sensitive to instruction/guidance should be given. Ex. between ability of not being able to do something and being able to do something. The **_zone of proximal development_** is the link between the zone of what you can do and what you can't do.

Answer 564

Vygotsky created the sociocultural theory of development. * Development of Higher Mental Functions (Cognition) from Elementary Mental Functions (Social Interactions) requires 3 things. * 3. **_Language_** – the main means by which adults transmit information to children, and a powerful tool of intellectual adaptation. Ex. private/internal **speech**, when people **speak** out loud to themselves – happens in most children. It is a way for children to plan activities/strategies, and aids their development.

Answer 565

Kohlberg developed the **_moral development theory_**. * Kohlberg's **_moral theory of development_** is different from Freud's, Erikson's, and Vygotsky's theories on development. However, Kohlberg's theory of **_moral development_** is based on **_cognitive_** development, which is similar to Vygotsky's sociocultural theory of development. * To develop the **_Moral Theory of Development_**, Kohlberg also looked at children. He told stories to children and guaged their response.

Answer 566

Kohlberg developed the moral development theory. * Kohlberg's most famous story was the **_Heinz Dilemma_**. The **_Heinz Dilemma_** states that his wife is dying from cancer and the drug discovered was made by a local chemist that could save her. However, the chemist chaged 10x the price it took to make the drug, and more than **_Heinz_** could afford. After asking his family for money and getting money from them, he only had half the money to cover the cost of the drug, so explained to the chemist his wife was dieing, but the chemist refused to give **_Heinz_** the drug. He broke into the Chemist's office at night and stole the drug. * Kohlberg then asked the children questions like what if **_Heinz_** didn't love his wife, if person dying was a stranger, should he have stolen it, and should police arrest the chemist for murder if the woman died. * After analyzing these, Kohlberg came up with three **_moral stages of development_** and split each stage into 2.

Answer 567

Kohlberg developed the **_moral development theory_**. * Kohlberg's **_moral theory of development_** had 3 moral stages, but each stage was split into two. * 1. **_Preconventional_** (pre-adolescent) * 1. **_Obedience vs. punishment_** – reasoning is based on the physical consequences of actions, so obeying the rules is a means to avoid punishment. * 2. **_Individualism and exchange_** – recognize not just one right view by authorities, but recognize that different individuals have different viewpoints. Doing what is right for personal gain.

Answer 568

**_Kohlberg_** developed the moral development theory. **_Kohlberg's_** moral theory of development had 3 moral stages, but each stage was split into two. * 2. **_Conventional_** * 3. **_Good Boy and Good Girl_** – authority is internalized, but the authority is not questioned, and reasoning is based on group person belongings. The individual is good in order to be seen as good by others, emphasis on conformity. * 4. **_Law and Order_** – maintaining social order, child is aware of wider roles of society and obeying laws.

Answer 569

Kohlberg developed the **_moral development theory_**. Kohlberg's **_moral theory of development_** had 3 moral stages, but each stage was split into two. * 3. **_Post-Conventional_** (moral) * 5. **_Social Contract_** – Individual becomes aware that even though rules and law exist for the greater good, there are times when law works against the interest of particular people. For example, Heinz: is the protection of life more important than breaking/stealing? People at this stage said yes. * 6. **_Universal Ethical Principle_** – people develop their own set of moral guidelines, which may or may not fit the law, and principles apply to everyone. People who uphold and believe in these have to be prepared to acto towards these even if they have to obey consequences. There are very few people who reach this stage, ex. Ghandi

Answer 570

**_Social Influences_** is a branch of Social Psychology that looks at how how imitation, roles, reference groups, and culture are all parts of social influence. * **_Social Influences_** [Branch of Social Psychology] looks at individual thoughts, actions, and feelings and how they are influenced by social groups.

Answer 571

**_Imitation_** – a type of individual social influence, one of the most basic forms of social behaviour. Begins with the understanding that there's a difference between others and ourself. * Andrew Meltzoff (1977) published the study that questioned the theory that understanding between the self and others happens soon after birth. In his experiement, he suggested that babies are born with a built-in capacity to imitate others. Picture baby 12-21 days old, baby copies sticking tongue out. Imitating experimenter. * Was it true imitation or something else? Picture you opening mouth, baby should also open mouth. Had to ensure it wasn't a reflex or conditioning either. * Suggests we are born with built-in capacity to imitate others. * Evidence suggests we have **_mirror neurons_**, when one fires, another fires when we observe the same action performed by another person.

Answer 572

**_Roles_** fall under the category of Social Influences (a Branch of Social Psychology). **_Roles_** define what we do and who we are. Social norms are the accepted standards of behavior of a social group. We use **_roles_** to guide our behaviors. We respond to their approval when we play our **_roles_** well, and disapproval when we play our **_roles_** badly. We expect people to behave in a way that fits that **_role_**, and have them even more when roles are stereotyped. * Ex. Prison Experiment

Answer 573

**_Reference groups_** are a type of social influence [Branch of Social Psychology]. **_Reference groups_** are the group which people refer to in evaluating themselves. People's beliefs, attitudes, behaviors. Constantly looking for external groups that align with our beliefs/attitudes/behaviours. **_Reference groups_** influence our social decisions.

Answer 574

**_Culture and Socialization_** are a type of social influence [Branch of Social Psychology]. **_Culture and Socialization_** – important contributions of society to our personal development, emphasises interaction between people and culture in which we live. Everyone around us (teachers, coworkers) influence our social-identity development and on a largerscale the country which we live, communities, language, attitudes of the groups we belong to.

Answer 575

**_Charles Cooley_** and **_George Herbert Mead_** both thought others could play a significant roles in how we view ourselves, but these two people different in how they thought this would happen. * **_Cooley_** thought everyone a person interacts with in a lifetime influences their identity. However, **_Mead_** thought this was more restricted – only certain people can influence our identity and only in certain periods of life.

Answer 576

**_Mead_** developed the idea of **_social behaviorism_**. **_Social Behaviourism_** is the idea that the mind and self-emerge through the process of communicating with others (begining of symbolic interactionism). Infants + children were not influenced by others in any way, infants and children merely imitate others, and see themselves as being the focus of their own world and don't care what others think of them. The infants and children lack the ability to take the perspective of another person – related to Piaget's concepts of egocentrism.

Answer 577

**_Mead_** developed the idea of social behaviourism. As we grow up, our belief on how others percieve us is more important, this happens through 3 stages: **_prepatory stage_**, **_play stage_**, and **_game stage_**. These occur overtime as the child grows.

Answer 578

Mead developed the idea of **_social behaviourism_**. He believed that as we grow up, we go through 3 stages. * The first of these three stages is the **_prepatory stage_** – interactions through _imitation_, ex. play with pots and pans when parents are cooking. As they grow older, focus on communication with others instead of simple imitation, and get practice using symbols (gestures/words). Can't take perspective of others.

Answer 579

**_Mead_** developed the idea of social behaviourism. He believed that as we grow up, we go through 3 stages. * 2. **_Play Stage_** – more aware of social relationships, reflected in children's tendency to _pretend play_ as others like firefighters, doctors, etc. Mentally assuming perspective of others and acting based on their percieved point of view. Focused on _role-taking_: mentally taking perspective of another person and acting on that percieved viewpoint. * way beyond immigration, they create social-interactions (not just mimicking) * Children consider attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors of individuals closest to them.

Answer 580

Mead developed the idea of **_social behaviourism_**. He believed that as we grow up, we go through 3 stages. * 3. Game Stage – start to understand attitudes/beliefs/behavior of "**_generalized other_**" (society as a whole). With this comes a whole new understanding of society. Also realize people take on _multiple roles_. Also realize others percieve them, and are influenced by these perceptions and are concerned by reactions of others to what they do. The person in the Game Stage does not care about the reactions of everyone. The person in the Game Stage only cares about the reactions of _significant others_ (important relationships, ex. parents/teachers/close peers).

Answer 581

**_Mead_** developed the idea of social behaviourism. He believed that as we grow up, we go through 3 stages. The last of his 3 stages – the **_game stage_** – led to the development of the "**_I_**" and "**_me_**". * **_Me_** = how the individual believes the generalized other percieves it, the **_social self_**, and the "**_I_**" is our response to the "**_me_**" or how the individual believes the generalized other percieves it. * **_I_** = the response of the individual to the "**_me_**" aka attitudes of others.

Answer 582

**_Mead_** developed the idea of social behaviourism. He believed that as we grow up, we go through 3 stages. The last of his 3 stages – the **_game stage_** – led to the development of the "**_I_**" and "**_me_**". * **_Me_** = society's view, the part of self-formed in interaction with others and social environment, and the "**_I_**" = individual identity stepping in and our personal responses to what society thinks. The "**_I_**" is the spontaneous and autonomous part of our unified self.

Answer 583

**_Socialization_** describes the process by which people learn attitudes, behaviours, and values expected by their culture/community. **_Socialization_** learning occurs through observation of/interaction with people who are surrounded by – those close to us and everyone else (ex. parents, peers, person at supermarket, celebrity, etc.) * Everyone has something to teach us on how we should act in our community.

Answer 584

Socialization also shapes our **_self-image_**, and Charles Cooley used the term "**_Looking Glass Self_**" to describe this process – idea that a person's sense of self develops from interpersonal interactions with others.

Answer 585

Charles Cooley thought the "**_Looking Glass Self_**" happened in 3 steps. * 1. How do I appear to others? * 2. What must others think of me? (shy intelligent, awkward) * 3. Revise how we think about ourselves (based on correct OR incorrect perceptions).

Answer 586

A critical aspect of Charles Cooley's: "**_Looking Glass Self_**" Theory is that Cooley beleived we are not actually influenced by opinions of others, but we are influenced by what we **_imagine_** the opinions of others to be. * Ex. Say we have a teacher grading a paper harshly, and doing it because they think that the student has a lot of potential. However, the student gets the paper back and thinks the teacher gave her the bad grade because the student is not very intelligent, and she came to the conclusin that she is not very good at literary analysis. This way of peception might result in the student putting less effort into the class. * But can be influenced by future interactions – student might talk to teacher, and student was able to revise their incorrect perceptions and develp a different perspective.

Answer 587

**_Attribution Theory_** – how we explain behaviours of others around us. **_Attribution Theory_** explains the behaviour of other people by breaking down our understanding/explaination of their behaviours to factors about them, and factors related to their environment/surroundings.

Answer 588

**_Attribution Theory_** explains the behaviour or our interpretation of the behavior of other people. * **_Internal_** (dispositional attribution) – about them * **_External_** (situational attribution) – environment * When we consider our own behaviours, we are more likely to blame our behaviour on **_external_** factors. This is called **_Attribution Theory_** – explaining behaviours around us.

Answer 589

Behavior of others often have a combination of internal and external factors. **_Attribution theory_** relates to the ways in which people attempt to explain various behaviors and events. **_Fundamental attribution error_** occurs when a person assigns too much weight to internal causes rather than external factors when looking for causes of another person’s behavior.

Answer 590

**_Optimism Bias_** is the belief that bad things happen to others, but not to us.

Answer 591

**_Co-Variation Model_** – 3 cues of Kelley's co-variation model: **_consistency_** (time), **_distinctiveness_** (situation), **_consensus_** (people). * Ex. Take flaky friend, friend forever cancels. Consistent behavior over time. For high levels of consistent behavior over time, we are more likely relating the behavior to them as opposed to the situation. * When **_consistency_** is high, we attribute their behavior to internal factors

Answer 592

**_Co-Variation Model_** – 3 cues of Kelley's **_co-variation model_**: **_consistency_** (time), **_distinctiveness_** (situation), **_consensus_** (people). * For example, lets say you have a very nice friend Jim, but one day he gets so mad at the pizza place. His behavior is out of character and distinctive. He behavior of rage is so much more likely to be related to the environment. **_Distinctiveness_** = situational

Answer 593

**_Co-Variation Model_** – 3 cues of Kelley's **_co-variation model_**: **_consistency_** (time), **_distinctiveness_** (situation), **_consensus_** (people). * Third factor in the covariation model – "group lateness" – if you arrive late at a meeting but if 20 other people are late too, there is a high degree of **_consensus_**. When a lot of people demonstrate the sam ebehavior, we a re more likely to attribute behavior to the situational cause. * **_Consensus_** of people = attribution of external factors

Answer 594

How do we understand behaviour? We look at behaviour as coming from two parts – a person's internal attributes, and secondly as being fuelled by situation/external factors (ex. Weather, housing, finances) * If in the middle, we are a **_neutral judge_** and see a combination as both. * Behaviors aree often complex and involve a combination of internal and external factors

Answer 595

But often when we look at the behaviour of others, we are NOT neutral, we're more likely to attribute their behavior to their **_internal factors_** instead of considering complex external factors. * We term this the **_fundamental attribution error_**. The **_fundamental attribution error_** is problematic when looking at complex patients – we under-recognize the situational and social problems, and healthcare barriers they can have, blaming them for their own problems. * When we consider our own behaviours, we are more likely to blame our behaviour on **_external factors_** (ego-preservation). We consider ourselves victims of circumstance. No name for this attribution error.

Answer 596

**_Bias_** - cognitive bias is the tendency to think certain ways. Cognitive biases often cause deviations from a standard of rationality or good judgement. * **_Actor-Observer Bias_**: we are victims of, but others are willful actors (same thing as saying: circumstance (we attribute our personal behavior)

Answer 597

There's also a **_cultural_** component: the fundamental sttribution error occurs more in individualistic societies (NA and Europe), collectivist (Aftrica and Asia) * Cultures have different ways they explain success and failure * In **_individualistic_** cultures (**_Western_**), success is attributed to internal and failure to external * In **_collectivist_** cultures (**_Eastern_**), Success is attributed external and failure to internal factors. (favour situational attributions when situational factors are emphasized)

Answer 598

**_Self-Serving Bias_**: mechanism of preserving our **self-esteem**, more common in individualistic cultures. If we succeed, it's due to our internal/personal qualities, but if we fail, there will be no hit on **self-esteem** because we say it was due to things outside our control.

Answer 599

**_Stereotyping_** is attributing certain thoughts.cognition to a group of individuals, and **_overgeneralizing_**. * Examples: People who wear glasses are smarter, and people who live in cities are abrasive. * **_Stereotyping_** can involve race, gender, culture, religion, and even shoe size. * There are disadvantages to **_stereotyping_** such as it being inaccurate. * There are advantages to **_stereotyping_** such as it allows us to rapidly assess large amounts of social data.

Answer 600

**_Stereotype Threat_** – (negative consequence of stereotyping) - self-fulfilling fear that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype. * For example, blue and red students both perform equally on a test. However, for the next same test a negative stereotype is implemented toward the blue studdents. The blue students then perform worse as a result. * What **_stereotype threat_** is – exposure to a negative stereotype surrounding a task can actually cause a decrease in performance of an individual performing the task. A Stereotype threatens performance.

Answer 601

**_Self-fulfilling Prophecy_** – stereotypes can lead to behaviours that affirm the original stereotypes. * "City dwellers are rude" (**_cognition_**, **_stereotyping_**) -\> I don't like them (**_affective_** component, **_prejudice_**) -\> I will avoid them (**_behavioural_** component, discrimination) * They think I'm rude (cognition) -\> They may not like me (affective) -\> They avoid me (behavioural) -\> City dwellers are rude * Continous circle that positive feedbacks on itself. * The city dwellers become ruder over time in response to our own behaviour towards them.

Answer 602

Prejudice is made up of three components: * 1. Component #1: **_Cognition_** (Stereotype) -Fundamental underlying thought, overgeneralized belief (cognition) * 2. Component #2: **_Affect_** – prejudice carries an emotional component * 3. Component #3: Discrimination (tendency for prejudice to lead to **_behavior_**) - capacity to carry out behavior and act on prejudice (ABC Model) All attitudes have 3 components: **_affect_**, **_behavioural_**, and **_cognition_**.

Answer 603

There are types of personalities that are more subjective to prejudice – the **_authoritarian personality_**. * They're **_obedient to superiors_**, but don't have much sympathy for those they deem inferior to themselves – **_oppressive_**. And rigid thinkers, **_inflexible_** with their viewpoints. * They use prejudice to **_protect their ego_** and **_avoid confronting_** aspects of themselves because they are always focused on others. * Personality type is hard to change.

Answer 604

**_Frustration Aggression Hypothesis_** – not personality based, but more emotional. * For example, someone getting **_frustrated_** can lead to prejudice. When someone's **_frustrated_**, **_frustration_** turns into aggressive impulses, and you can not direct it at your employer. But you may lose your job, so you keep bottling up the aggression – and rechannel it somewhere else/ Often towards minorities. * Display aggression towards other people – **_scapegoating_**. Often seen in times of economic hardship.

Answer 605

**_Hypothesis of Relative Deprivation_** – upsurge in prejudice when people are deprived of somehting they feel entitled to. * Leads to collective unrest and an upsurge in prejudice and discrimination

Answer 606

Prejudice and discrimination are usually talked about in relation to racial and ethnic groups. * Physical Characteristics with social significance – some have more meanings than others. Ex. skin color, but not eye color. Attached meaning to skin color. * **_Ethnicity_** – Defined by national origin/distinct cultural patterns. For example, puerto Rican, Irish, Japanese. Also includes groups like jews defined by more cultural practices than country of origin.

Answer 607

Prejudice and Discrimination can also be based on **_power_**, **_social class_**, or prestige. * **_Power_** – political power, economic (unfair hiring policies to minorities), personal (laws can limit where someone lives/etc.) * **_Social Class_** – status (social status) is relative (to have higher status you needs a lower status). **_Social class_** often sets the stage for prejudice (people on top maintain differences between themselves and lower class – the **_Just World Phenomenon_** – good things happen to good people and bad things happen to bad people, contributes to prejudice). * Ex. Of **_just world phenomena_** thinking: High **_social class_** people say they are there because they work harder and low **_social class_** people are there because they don’t work hard.

Answer 608

Prejudice and Discrimination can also be based on power, social class, or **_prestige_**. * **_Prestige_** – often based on occupation (ex. Being a doctor, lawyer). Minority group members have lower paid jobs typically (ex. Janitor)

Answer 609

A **_stigma_** is extreme disapproval of a person based on some behaviour or quality of tha tperson. Typically, a culutre (or sub-culture) will stigmatize a person based on overt physical deformations (physical disability), deviant personal traits (drug addiction), or deviation from accepted norms of the ethnic groups (being a "loose" woman in a traditional latino subculture)

Answer 610

Stigmas can genrally be broken down into two categories: **_social stigma_** and **_self-stigma_**. * **_Social Stigma_** can be fuelled or associated with several other key concepts: **_stereotypes_**, **_prejudices_**, and **_discrimination_**. The relationship between **_stereotypes_**, **_prejudices_**, and **_discrimination_** and stigma is not very well defined. * Stigma against mental health is a big problem. – ex. stereotype is that mentally ill people are violent (cognition), I become scared of mentally ill (affect, prejudice), so may not want to live with them or hire them (behavior, discrimination) * **_Self-stigma_** is the individual can internalize all the negative stereotypes, prejudices, and discriminatory experiences they've had, and may feel rejected by society. * Ex. someone who has HIV/AIDS and feels the stigma may go into denial that they have the condition, experiences hits from self-esteem and suffers from depression, and displays behaviors that isolate themselves from society.

Answer 611

Stigma can be studied by concentric circles * Let's imagine four circles from deep to superficial: first circle = **_self_** (individual who is stigmatized), second = **_family_** (close social group), thrid = **_wider society_**, fourth = **_media_** (important external society). * There is a **_bidirectional_** relationship between these foru groups.

Answer 612

**_Media_**: outer circle. Major source of stigma, because can depict conditions as being dangerous, violent, moral-failings (ex. This occurs in media representation of mental illness) etc. Also creates stigma against: HIV/AIDS, Obesity, substance use problems. * Social **_media_** is also huge component in creating stigma. * We need to have guidelines for journalists to reduce the stigma in society.

Answer 613

Stigmas can be studied by concentric circles. * **_Society_** – interactions between self and society like education/employment/health care and stigmatizing views can affect individual to get a job (earning an income), in healthcare (to get appropriate level of healthcare, follow-up care, getting a screening), etc. A great intervention to stop societal level stigma is the use of legislation and anti-discrimination laws.

Answer 614

Stigmas can be studied by concentric circles. * **_Family_** – **_family_** can be shunned by society (if they have a family member with stigmatizing condition), or family might shun individual themselves. Ex. isolate the individual who is stigmatized against in the family and keep isolate/as secret within family. May be detrimental to personal/intimate relationships, and interventions like education/therapy are important.

Answer 615

Stigmas can be studied by concentric circles. * **_Self_** – core circle – media, society, family interactions can be internalized by an individual and can lead to avoidance, denial of condition, suffering of mental health conditions, and no longer participating in society. Useful interventions include educating, access to support groups/resources.

Answer 616

First impressions count! They're 1) **_Long_** (lasts a long time) 2) **_strong_** (tough to overcome) and 3) **_easily built upon_** (people put extra emphasis on info that helps reinforce the first impression, and not info that doesn't....ex. you are a messy person, people will look at your messy room instead of your tidy desk). * Called the **_primacy bias_**: first impression is more important than later data.

Answer 617

Your most recent actions are also very important, and people place a lot of emphasis on your recent actions/recent performances, more than ones before – the **_recency bias_**. * Ex. You are only as good as your last game, last match. Information retention (memory) relates to **_primacy_** and **_recency bias_**. * **_Primacy_** and **_recency_** events are more important to developing memory. * In Variable duration (in between **primacy**/**_recency_** – you might remember some actions a bit more if an action is unusual or elicits an unusual response in you.

Answer 618

The **_Halo Effect_** is the tendency for people to have inherently good/bad natures, rather than looking at individual characteristics. For example the **_physical attractiveness stereotype_** – believe attractive people have more positive personality traits.

Answer 619

Ex. Jim, our initial overall impression is on the middle. His accounting rating/skills is very high, sales are negative, and leadership is moderately good. * **_Halo effect_** – as if someone has a **_halo_** over their head. If we have an overall positive first impression, we start to analyze all their skills based on our overall firs timpression rather than just skills. They get an overall boost in each of their skills because of our impression. * Ex: Now imagine, he has overall very good impression, even though he has the same actual skillset. We would perceive that the person is much better at other skills not demonstrated. Regardless of evidence, We may perceive he’s actually pretty good at sales instead of below average, We may say he is extra-ordinary in leadership and accounting instead of just good. * **_Halo effect_** often happens with celebrities, and greater attractiveness. * Ex; we think attractive people are kind, good leaders, hospitable without actual evidence.

Answer 620

Now imagine someone who we think is overall very poor. Even if baseline skills are same, we perceive them to all be lower – the **_devil effect_**/**_reverse halo effect_**. Can carry over into how we see other attributes about the person. Happens if overall negative impression or if one attribute is very negative. * Ex: From being good at accounting we can perceive them as being mediocre, we can perceive someone as being awful at sales (even though they are great). We can see them as having terrible leadership (instead of being moderately good). The reduction of our perception depends on the situation. Ex: **_Halo effect_**: Teacher sees kid who is good can’t do no wrong. **_Reverse-halo_**/**_devil effect_**: Kid who is wrong that can do no right

Answer 621

The **_Just World Hypothesis_** is the idea that "You got what you deserve" or "you got what was coming to you. * The "**_Just World Hypothesis_**" - predictable result as a consequence for our actions. Noble actions performed/good deed by an individual are rewarded, while evil acts/deeds are always punished. * The **_Just World Hypothesis_** suggests there is some kind of special force, cosmic justice at play. * The primary reason people think this way is because it helps individuals rationalize their good or misfortune. Ex. If I go to school, I will be rewarded in life. * However, the world doesn't always work this way, and using this **_hypothesis_**, we may blame people for being poor.

Answer 622

When the “just world hypothesis” is threatened (which occurs on a daily basis, we say “the world is not fair”....we see evil deeds being rewarded and good deeds being punished), we need to mentally make sense of them to keep just world hypothesis in tact– we use **_rational techniques_** or **_irrational techniques_**. * **_Rational Techniques_**: * 1. **_Accept Reality_** * 2. **_Prevent or correct injustice_** – with charities, sign a petition or changes to legal system * **_Irrational Techniques_** can also be used * 1. **_Denial of the situation_** – refuse to accept the situation * 2. **_Reinterpretting the events_** – change our interpretation of the outcome, the cause, and the character of the victim. * Ex. If a Victim of violence that was hurt, they were really hurt, we can reinterpret outcome(wasn’t that bad, it was a trip, it could have happened to anyone), reinterpret cause (victim was working in a bad neighborhood), or reinterpret character of victim(I always thought she was a good human being but I now realize she probably isn’t, she was hanging around with the wrong people, etc.)

Answer 623

**_Attribution Theory_** – how do we explain the behavior of other people? * Split up the internal causes and external causes. * JWH overemphasizes/attributes people's actions to personal/dispositional/internal factors and underemphasize situational factors that are at play. * Ex; poor person = personal miss-failings instead of recognizing the complex situational/environmental causes

Answer 624

**_Ethnocentrism_** is judging someone else's culture from the position of your own culture. * Viewing our own culture to be superior to that of others. * Can lead to cultural bias

Answer 625

**_Cultural Relativism_** is the idea that you can judge and understand their culture from within their culture. * **_Cultural Relativism_** has the idea that there is no right or wrong, but we have different cultures who are themselves valid. * **_Cultural Relativism_** can falter if someone uses it to conduct activities that violate rights of humans no matter what culture they're from.

Answer 626

People within groups share psychological connection between peers, related to politics/culture/spirituality. * **_"In" Group_** – the one we are connected with. "US" . Stronger interactions with those in the **_in-group_** than those in the **_out-group_**. Interactions are more common and more influential as well within In-group. * **_"Out" Group_** – "THEM". Group we're not associated with, "group of people we do not feel connected to"

Answer 627

People within groups share psychological connection between peers, related to politics/culture/spirituality. * **_In-Group Favouritism_** – we favour/friendly to people in our own group, but those in the out-group we are neutral to those in the out group– we do not give them favours as we do to our in-group. * **_Out-group derogation_** – we are super friendly to our in group, but we are not friendly to our out group – we discriminate. This happens if we feel that the out group is threatening to or undermine the in group's success.

Answer 628

People within groups share psychological connection between peers, related to politics/culture/spirituality. * **_Group Polarization_** – group makes decisions that are more extreme than any individual member in the group would want. This can turbo charge the group's viewpoints.

Answer 629

**_Geographical Proximity_** is the most powerful predictor of friendships and relationships. * Mating starts with meeting – we are not going to fall in love with someone we don't meet. Even with social media, it is still true.

Answer 630

**_Mere Exposure Effect_** = repeated exposure to novel people or objects increases our liking for them. The more often we see something, the more often we will like it. The **_Mere Exposure Effect_** applies to everything – music, numbers, objects, etc. * There are exceptions, but it is generally true, especially with attraction

Answer 631

Here are some studies and examples of the **_Mere Exposure Effect_** * Ex. study where males rated women's attractiveness, took 2 womne rated similarly and placed them in the same class as the male. After 15 classes, males rated the woman in their class higher than the other one they initially rated the same. * Ex. study with individuals who has **_anterograde amnesia_** (**_retrograde amnesia_** is the loss of memory before an accident, **_anterograde amnesia_** is loss of memory after an accident). Showed them faces initially, and showed them faces again at a later date, some new some old. Ask the individual if he saw any before, he said no. But if you ask which one is attractive, they pick the face they've seen before. * The previously listed study shows us how subtle the **_mere exposure effect_** is. * **_Advertisers_** know this effect. They depend on the **_mere exposure effect_** to sell you different products. The more times we see a brand the more likely we are to think positively.

Answer 632

* How similar someone is to us is a huge predictor of attraction * Close friends and couples are more likely to share common attitudes, beliefs, and values. We tend to partner up with people who match our age, race, religion,a nd economic status/educational level. * On estudy showed a person is more likely to trust/cooperate with a photo of someone whose facial features are morphed with their own. * Also more likely to think an individual is attractive when their facial features are morphed with their own.

Answer 633

Similarity can help epople stay together. Doe sit help them stay together? Research has shown yes! * Couples can also stay together due to **_percieved similarity_** – becuase over time interests/beliefs are more aligned. Become similar as time goes on. **_Percieved similarity_** can be just percieved – they think the other person is similar to them (but actually aren't similar to their partners at all).

Answer 634

Our wanting to stay together with people who are similar to each other could lead to us having a **_similarity bias_** – implies we will not befriend people different from us.

Answer 635

* A **_projection bias_** is when we assume others share the same beliefs we do * **_False consensus_** is when we assume everyone else agrees with what we do, even if they do not.

Answer 636

* What causes **_attachment_** (a close bond) between mother and child? Scientists used to think it was food (mom has food). This is not true... mother provides more than that! * Scientists conducted the **_Harlow Monkey Experiments_** * Separated monkeys from mothers at a young age (controversial today), then given a choice between two substiture mothers (vaguely monkey-shaped structures) that were placed in a cage with a baby monkey * First option was the **_wire mother_** – vaguely face like shape on top of it, and chicken wire wrapped in the cylinder. And in middle was a feeding tube. **_This mother provides food_**. * Second mother was the **_cloth mother_** – same shape/size as mother, but instead of chicken wire, it had a soft blanket wrapped around the chicken wire, so this mother **_can provide comfort_**.

Answer 637

In the **_Harlow Monkey Experiments_**, the baby monkeys everwhelmingly preferred the **_cloth mother_** – spent a large majority of time clinging to her. If had to eat, tried to eat while staying attached to the **_cloth mother_**. Shows that attachemnt basis to mother is due to comfort, not food! * Cloth mother acts as a **_secure base_** – eventually monkey is comfortable enough to explore world/cage on its own, becuase it knows cloth mother will still be there. * If monkey became anxious, it would come back to the cloth mother.

Answer 638

* Babies are passed around, but then around **_8 months_**, stranger anxiety sets in. The child ends up being wary of strangers and even people they know. Some don't have stranger anxiety though. * **_Mary Ainsworth's Strange Situation_** – done to try to understand why some have stranger anxiety and some don't * Mother and child in the room with a stranger, then mom leaves and returns. Wanted to see how child reacts. * Researchers found children in 2 groups – those with **_secure attachment_** and **_insecure attachment_** * 60% were secure. Child was secure with parent and explored the room, but when parent left, the child was upset/distressed, but happy when the mother returned. * **_Insecure_** children clinged to mother, and stayed with mother and did not explore. When mother left, the child became upset. However, the distress did not go away when she came back. Others were **_avoidant_** – ignored mother when she returned.

Answer 639

What causes a secure or insecure attachment of children to their parents? * **_Parenting style_** can cause a child to have secure or insecure attachment to a parent. **_Parenting style_** – those sensitive to child and responsive had a **_secure attachment_**, and those insensitive/unresponsive formed **_insecure attachments_**. * Effects after childhood? **_Yes!_** Early attachment style forms basis of adult relationships later in life, especially with intimacy/relationships.

Answer 640

Parenting Styles can be authoritarian, permissive, or authoritative (best).

Answer 641

There are three types of parenting styles. One of the three parenting styles are **_authoritarian parenting_**: very strict, break will of child. Punishment

Answer 642

There are three types of parenting styles. One of the three parenting styles is **_authoritative_**: also strict, consistent and loving but more pragmatic and issue-oriented and listens to the children's arguments. An **_authoritative_** parent balances responsibility witht he rights of the child. Discipline

Answer 643

There are three types of parenting styles. One of the three parenting styles is **_Permissive Parenting/Indulgent Parenting_**: non-directive and lenient. Few behavioral expectations for child.

Answer 644

**_Aggression_** = any physical/verbal behavior intended to harm or destroy. Ex. Physical, verbal, or spreading a malicious rumor.

Answer 645

**_Aggression_** comes from a combination of three things. One of the combination of three things is Biology. * 1. **_Genes_**: evidence: identical twins, if one is more aggressive, the other is as well. With fraternal twins, this is not the case, and we can breed animals for aggression. * 2. **_Brain structure impact on aggressive behavior_**: no one brain spot controls for aggression but there are circuits on the brain that can inhibit/facilitate aggression. The **_amygdala_** (part of the limbic system which is composed of structures from the telencephalon, diencephalon, and mesencephalon) facilitates our fear response, and when stimulated triggers aggressive behavior. The **_frontal lobe_** is repsonsible for planning, decision making, and imporatantly for impulse control, can correlation studies have shown criminals have decreased **_frontal lobe_** activation. (Perhaps those who commit violent actions can't inhibit violent behaviors) * 3. **_Testosterone_** is hormone released by testes in men and ovaries in women. Higher in men = why men are more aggressive than women. Also why 70 y/o man is less aggressive than a 17 y/o adolescence man. High levels of high **_testosterone_** can lead to aggression, muscle building, and wider faces (rather than long round one). Can lead to irritability/assertiveness/impulsiveness, and low tolerance for frustration. Drugs that reduce **_testosterone_** levels tend to reduce aggressive tendencies.

Answer 646

Aggression comes from a combination of three things. One of the combination of three things is Psychological. * **_Frustration-Aggression Principle_**, the idea that frustration creates anger which can spark aggression. Almost anything can cause frustration. * Ex. Physical pain or presence of a crowd. Higher temperatures can also lead to frustration. (more violent crimes when the weather is hot) * **_Reinforcement-modeling_** can lead to aggression through positive reinforcement. Parents who give into demands of child during temper tantrums in future. * Also if parents yell/hit each other, child will pick up on behavior too (parents can model aggressive behavior – child can observe and pick up behavior of parents).

Answer 647

Aggression comes from a combination of three things. One of the combination of three things is **_Socio-Cultural_**. * People act more aggressively in groups (ex. riots) – **_de-individuation_** – you gain an anonymous status when you are with large group of people. If people around individual act poorly, individual might act poorly too. This also explains why there is poor behavior on the internet (they are anonymous here, and those around them model poor behavior). * **_De-individualization_** - **_De-individuation_** is when an individual loses self-awareness in groups. * **_Social scripts_** – when people are in new situations they rely on **_social scripts_**, or instructions provided by society on how to act. Ex. violent video games model aggressive behavior for them. Viewing media can give them example of how they should act. Ex. Lash out at someone when something goes wrong Again, seems to be a combination of all 3 BIG factors work together to lead to aggressive factor, not only 1.

Answer 648

**_Altruism_**: care about welfare of other people and are acting to help them. **_Altruism_** is beneficial to society and also individuals. * Studies have found a connection between volunteerism and future health and well-being. Also higher life satisfaction and decreased risk for depression/anxiety. * Most definitions of **_altruism_** include that **_altruistic_** person is not getting anything in return. Based on this, can anything ever truly be **_altruistic_**?

Answer 649

Types of altruistic behavior: (Does altruism have an ulterior motive?) There are three types of altruism! One of the three is listed and discussed below. * **_Kin selection_** – people act more altruistically to close/**_kin_** than distant/non-**_kin_** people. * same when people share last names, especially true if people have rare last names. * Morphing face can increase trust we have in another person. * Is this behavior altruistic if it gives us an evolutionay advantage, to pass on our genes (the genes of those closest to us)? Is it really altruism if we are helping to select for genes of our **_kin_**?

Answer 650

Types of altruistic behavior: (Does altruism have an ulterior motive?) There are three types of altruism! One of the three is listed and discussed below. * **_Reciprocal Altruism_** – People are also more cooperative if they will interact with that person again in the future. Giving with expectation of future reward. * We feel more obliged to help someone else if they have helped us. * This is why charities send out small gifts. By helping you out now, they hope you respond by giving them a larger gift in the future.

Answer 651

Types of altruistic behavior: (Does altruism have an ulterior motive?) There are three types of altruism! One of the three is listed and discussed below. * **_Cost Signaling_** – giving **_signals_** to others that person who's giving has resources. People have increased trust in those they know have helped others in the past. **_Signals_** that the person is open to cooperation. Altruism ha ulterior motives in the above three. There is always a reason (not completely selfless!)

Answer 652

**_Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis_** – suggests some people are altruistic due to empathy. High Empathy = high in altruistic behaviors. Those who score higher on empathy are more altruistic. * **_Early developmental trajectory_** – Helping behaviors begin early. Some newborns cry when other neworns cry (they recognize other babies's distess). Helping behavior begins around **_age 2_**, children share toys and play act helping/altruism. Age 4 begin actually helping others. * Says that altruism might be a normal human behavior because it occurs at such a young age. We have a tendency to help pther people without an alternative motive.

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