Morphology
Morphemes
Study of meaningful units of language and how their patterns of distribution contribute to the forms and structures of words.
Unbelievably : Un-believe-able-ly
Derivational Morpheme
A morpheme that is combined with roots or stems to form new words with new meanings and has potential to change the part of speech
Unbelievable- ly
Morphology: Root
A morpheme that underlies an inflectional or derivational paradigm
Unbelievably: believe
Morphology: Stem
An underlying form to which an inflectional ending is attached and can be made up of a root and affixes
Unbelievably: unbelievable
Morphology: Affix
A bound morpheme attached to a root or base word to modify its meaning or function
Unbelievably:
Prefix- before the root: un-
Suffix- after the root: -ly
Morphology:
Pluralization and Conjugation
Present : I do
Past : I did
Past participle : I have done
Some plurals are irregular and defy rules of conjugation
Mouse- Mice, not Mouses
Alphabetic Principle
The idea that sounds used in oral speech are represented by written symbols and these symbols can be combined to form units of speech such as words.
Applies to many modern languages including English but sounds and the way they are represented symbolically may vary between languages
Alphabetic Principle: logographic
Type of alphabetic system where symbols represent meanings
Chinese
Phonology
Phoneme: The smallest unit of sound that can change the meaning of a word
tart: Start
The rule system within a language where phonemes are sequenced, patterned, and uttered to represent meanings
Vowels and Consonants
Vowels: sounds that can be produced without occluding diverting, or obstructing the flow of air from the lungs
Consonants: require the use of lips and tongue to alter airflow
Pronunciation: diphthong
Pair of vowels that makes a single sound
ae, ou, oo, ee
Inconsistent in pronunciation:
Book
Flood
Consistent in pronunciation:
Coat
Boat
Phonemic Awareness
The conscious awareness that words are made up of letters and each letter makes a sound
Segmenting: breaking apart sounds
Cat - C A T
Blending: putting sounds together to create one word
C A T - cat
Rhyming: identifying similar phonemes in different words
Care, bear, share
Phonics
Approach to the study of the relationships between letters and the sounds they represent
Can also mean reading instruction which teaches sound symbol correspondences in order to help students “sound out” words
METHOD OF TEACHING PHONEMIC AWARENESS
Syntax
Study of the rules for the formation of grammatical sentences and the patterns that words are combined to form phrases
“I ran quickly to get out of the pouring rain”
Sentence made up of PARTS OF SPEECH that are organized according to rules of syntax so that the meaning of the sentence is clearly conveyed: pronoun, conjugated verb, infinitive verb, 2 adverbs, preposition, article, adjective, noun
Infinitive verb
vs.
Conjugated verb
Infinitive: A verb that is not bound by time
“TO run”
vs.
Conjugated: bound by time- past, present, future
“I ran, I am running, I will run”
Parts of Speech
Noun- person, place, thing, quality, or action
Pronoun- Word that replaces a noun
Verb- expressing action, state, or relationship
Adj- modifies or describes a noun
Adverb- modifies or describes a verb
Preposition- used to express spatial or temporal relationship
Conjunction- functions as a “connector”
Interjection- isolated word used to express emotion “wow!”
Article- describes a noun as definite or indefinite
Verbals- POS derived from verbs, such as participles and infinitives “HAVE BEEN” - is past participial of “to be”
Types of Phrases
Look at the most important word in the phrase, the head word.
“Full of bubbles”- noun phrase
“Over the hill”- prepositional phrase
“Jump up and down”- verb phrase
“The rich”- referring to people group- noun phrase
Clause
Group of words that includes a subject and a predicate
Tradition of subject/predicate structure in clauses and sentences dates back to Aristotle, and is UNIVERSAL FEATURE of nearly all world languages
Types of Clauses
Independent Clause- subject and verb that can stand as complete sentence
Dependent Clause- (subordinate clause) - cannot stand alone, acts as a noun, adj, adv
Relative Clause- type of dependent clause introduced by a relative pronoun, adjective, or adverb. Usually modifies an antecedent
The tall man is my dad “who wears glasses”.
Types of Sentences
Simple- one Clause
Compound- 2+ independent clauses usually joined by conjunction; NO dependent clause
Complex- 1+ dependent clauses in addition to independent clause
Semantics
The study of the meaning of words, clauses, and sentences
Meanings can change and evolve among time and cultures
Pragmatics
Study of situational context, verbal tone, body language, knowledge and beliefs of speaker, and relationship between speaker and listener contribute to how the meaning of a word clause or sentence is interpreted
Most learners develop pragmatics through observation
Can vary among cultures
Development of First Language:
Biological Model
Aka.Nativism - theorizes children have innate language specific (brain) abilities that facilitate and constrain language learning. Also believe children have a Critical Period during which they are best able to acquire language skills.
Noam Chomsky and Eric Lenneberg
Development of First Language:
Social/Functional Model
Non-Nativism - argues there is no specific biological hardwiring for language, instead support a psychological and social/functional model of language acquisition. Language abilities develop out of general cognitive abilities and social interactions with fellow learners and community.
Elizabeth Bates and Catherine Snow
Language Development: Stage 1
Roger Brown
Age 0-12mo
Cooing, crying, patterned speech repeat certain phonemes in form of consonant-vowel strings
Bababababa
Language Development: Stage 2
Roger Brown
Age 12-26mo
Early toddler 12-18mo first words, 1-syllable
holophrases- single word to communicate phrase “food”
Late toddler 18-24mo use forms of “to be”, articles, prepositions, conjunctions
telegraphic speech- use most important words like a telegraph
Present tense, 1st person
Questions by intonation and eventually “what X doing/going?”
No and Not in sentences
Underextending and Overextending word meanings … calling a cow a dog; seeing one breed of dog and calling it s dog, seeing another breed and not know it’s a dog
Language Development: Stage 3
Roger Brown
Age 27mo-4yrs
Quasi-model verbs “wanna”
Private speech- talking to self
Future tense
Articles
Auxiliary form in questions, “I can’t go?” later inversion happens “Can’t I go?”
Past tense
Coordinating/Subordinating conjunctions used correctly
Multiple adj to one noun
Plurals and possessives
Question words- who, which, when, how, why
Talk about things not present in direct space
Language Development: Stage 4
Roger Brown
4-7yrs Negative pronoun "nothing" Understanding syntax Understanding metaphors Speech errors: over-regularization (mouses)
Language Development :
“Exceptional”
Anything above OR below the normal development curve. Take into consideration social/cultural factors and ELL
Language Development:
“Over-regularization”
Over applying a regular rule to something that is irregular
“Mouses” instead of mice
Over applying the regular -es rule
Stages of Language Acquisition
Silent Period- engaging in internal private speech
Formulaic Speech- memorized phrases
Experimental Phase- simplified semantics and grammar to construct impromptu phrases
Fluency
Historically - Related Languages
Learners will have an easier time with English as a second language if their native language has Latin roots - similar sounds, spellings, meanings
French, Italian, Spanish, and Romanian
Structurally, English actually stems from Germanic languages
Approaches to Teach Reading
Phonics- Learning phonemes to sound out words
Whole Language Approach- Reading immersion techniques to help familiarize student with the irregularities in English spellings
Decoding
Recognizing the phonemes of the letters that represent them, blending that together, and recognizing the blended together word from their oral vocabulary
Phonics Approach
Whole Language Approach strategies
1) Word Wall- literally a list of words on the wall (can be “ph” words or words ending in -big, or week vocabulary words, whatever)
2) Word Sorts- sort list of words into word families or categories
3) High Frequency reading selection
Stages of Literacy
Pre-alphabetic
PreK-K
Children become aware of the directional nature of text layout (left to right, top to bottom) and begin to recognize basic visual cues such as letters in their names
Stages of Literacy
Early Alphabetic Phase
K-1st
Begin to develop phonemic awareness and apply alphabetic principle, associating letters with sound. Begin spelling simple consonant – vowel – consonant words but often omit vowels. Teachers place emphasis on the phonemic awareness
Stages of Literacy
Late Alphabetic Phase
1st
Students begin to consistently include vowels and also begin to recognize groups of letters called phonograms. Students use phonemic awareness to decode unknown words
Phonogram
Group of letters that makes a single sound
“ough” bought
Digraph- special type of phonogram with only 2 letters that make one sound
“Th” The or “ch” chair
Stages of Literacy
Orthographic Phase
2nd & 3rd
Students reading speed and accuracy increases dramatically. Ability to recognize text in larger units is a primary contributor to this increase in speed. Students begin to utilize decoding skills with fluency and develop broader word recognition
Teachers begin to emphasize comprehension by having students perform activities such as summarizing what they read
Literary Complexity Band
Grades 2-3
Structure generally simple, chronological order, common genre with every day experience or fantasy plots
Ability to identify and comprehend purpose- single complex or multiple simple purposes
Intro to literary devices, figurative meaning, and perspectives
Gradual growth in this age range
Literary Complexity Band
Grades 6-8
Structure grows in complexity
Comprehend multiple levels of meaning, perspectives, themes
Ability to identify and comprehend implicit purpose, figurative meaning, and perspectives
Gradual growth in this grade range
Indicators of Fluency
Accuracy- determines that the students are pronouncing the words correctly as they read
Pacing- students are reading the text at the correct speed, according to the speed of the daily speech
Prosody- students are reading with expression, phrasing, pitch and volume according to context and punctuation
Etymology
Looking at the history of a word and how it has come to mean what it means
Germanic vs Latin origins
“Horseradish” - originally called mereraddish. Mere (Latin) is sea - grows by the sea.
Other group thought they said mare, as in female horse
Denotative meaning of a word
Dictionary definition- specific and direct
Ally vs Comrad- basically the same
Connotative meaning of a word
Secondary meaning, linked to the word’s historical usage and context that it’s being used
Ally vs Comrad
Assessment
Aural (listening)
Oral (speaking)
Aural- listen and summarize
Oral- describe an object or person
Usage Errors
Faulty Parallelism
Inconsistency in tense usage within a clause or sentence
Usage Errors
amphibolies
Ambiguity in meaning caused by misplaced, squinting, or dangling modifier
I voted for the candidate with the highest hopes - who has the highest hopes?
Flying over Yosemite a bear could be seen
Homonyms
Words that sound the same but are not spelled the same and don’t mean the same
Affect=cause(verb)/Effect=result(noun or verb);to bring about
Ascent-go up/Assent-agreement
Dual- two/ Duel- fight
Elicit-draw out / Illicit-illegal inappropriate
Genres of Writing
Narrative: tells a story
Interpretive: examines an existing work and attempts to explain its meaning
Analytical- examines a work or issue to evaluate critical elements
Descriptive- describes something
Persuasive- convince
Expository- explain a concept
Rhetoric Speech (or writing)
Designed to persuade
Rhetorical devices-
- Anaphora:repetition of word or phrase
- Rhetorical question: provoke a reaction, non answer
Ways of Persuasion
Ethos: credibility of speaker toward subject
Pathos: appeal to emotion, get audience to feel excitement, anger, compassion, etc
Logos: appeal to logic
Best speeches have all three components. Aristotle’s idea
Dialects
Different forms of language used by speakers from different social groups, cultures, or geographic regions
Idiolects
Speech patterns unique to each individual
Concepts & Conventions of Text
Literary Elements
Literary elements deal with themes, characters, plot, and literary devices used by the author
Concepts & Conventions of Text
Structural Elements
Structural elements relate to the format, linguistic devices, and word choices employed by the author
Types of writing style and genre
Legal or official doc Advertisement Popular journalism Technical writing Literary Scholarly Scientific
Plot
Begins with exposition followed by an inciting incident, which leads rising action (reversals and reveals) then resolves with a climax, often followed by denouement
Reversals- where the protagonist is given the upper hand, then the antagonist, vice versa
Reveals- new info to story
Stock Characters
Characters that don’t require any exposition to understand
Archetype
Character that represents an idea
“Compassion”- Mother Theresa
Tone
Authors attitude toward the subject
Mood
Overall “feeling” created by the work
Internal rhyme
Words rhyme Within a single line
External Rhyme
A word at the END of the line rhymes with the word at the end of another line
Slant Rhyme
“Near Rhyme”
Sounds are very similar but not the same phonologically
Strain - Again
Meter- poetry
Arrangement of words in a certain rhythmic measure based on their number of syllables and emphasis
Example of metrical pattern-
“Iambic Pantameter”: ex Dr. Seuss, Green Eggs and Ham
Structural Principles of Poetry
Series- in an order of a series
Contrast- comparing things
Repetition- repeating
Structural Units of poetry
Scenes, acts, chapters, lines, and stanzas
Alliteration
The repetition of certain sounds to achieve an effect. May take the form of assonance or consonants
Consonance- Sally Seashell
Assonance- using vowels
Genres
Include novels, short stories, folk in fairytales, poetry, others (comedy, thriller, etc)
Theme
Dominant idea or meaning of a literary work
Implicit- understand for yourself based on context clues from story
Explicit- outwardly stated in story
“what gets resolved in the stories climax?”
