Language Change Flashcards

Question

Key dates for lang change What happened in 1794 AD for language change?

Answer 1

Key dates for lang change publication of Lindley Murray's English Grammar

Answer 2

Key dates for lang change British control established in South Africa

Answer 3

Key dates for lang change publication of American Dictionary of the English lang - for the first time, the concept of 'Americanisms' is realised

Answer 4

Key dates for lang change an official colony is established in New Zealand

Answer 5

Key dates for lang change publication of the Oxford English Dictionary

Answer 6

Key dates for lang change BBC is established

Answer 7

Key dates for lang change the second wave of feminist movement begins bringing changes in ways that women identify themselves + are identified by men, causing a major shift in how lang is gendered

Answer 8

Key dates for lang change the re-emergence of political correctness in the US - leading to the practice of changing words + phrases that were considered to be offensive to minority groups

Answer 9

Key dates for lang change the internet becomes widely available in homes + workplaces across the developed world

Answer 10

Key dates for lang change September 11th; attacks on NYC & War on Terror - causes a range of neologisms + semantic realignments in the lang of war to suit the unpopularity of the ensuring conflicts

Answer 11

Key dates for lang change - after the 18th century, the pace of language change slows somewhat - this is because the standard has been settled + linguistics appear to be concerned w/ the process of refinement + fine-tuning the lang

Answer 12

Key dates for lang change - as technological changes increase, so does the speed of language change, e.g the number of words used to describe a PC - meaning that language change isn't driven by just rules and conventions, but by the world outside - the users of a lang need to find new ways to articulate things, e.g. computer technology, so the pace of change gradually increases

Answer 13

Key Periods in the development of English - British Isles were invaded by the Angles, Saxons + Jutes in 449 AD, arrived from Germany + Scandanavia - at first, English is a dialectal variant of Germanic lang, so there's no standard that governs how Old English is used - written forms of the lang were provided only by Latin speaking monks, who arrived after St Augustine's mission arrived in Kent (597 AD) - part of the mission was to convert the people in Britain to the Roman Catholic church, therefore the texts were produced to be read aloud - arrival of Vikings (787 AD) brings about the erosion of grammar + adds to the lexicon

Answer 14

Key Periods in the development of English - 1066, William the Conqueror invaded from France, bringing the influence of the French lang. the lang of this period is Medieval French, which became the 'prestige' lang (used in government + law) - 1362, Edward III confirmed that English is the official lang of the British Isles at a State Opening of Parliament - Chaucer's keywords are written during this period, as for the first time, there's a literacy representation of spoken dialect. he's part of a movement, that's identifying a change in English - his writings describe the change, whilst other writers, e.g Ranulph Higden bemoan the strange sound of what has become known as 'Estuary English'

Answer 15

Key Periods in the development of English - 1458, Johan Gutenberg developed European printing tech in Mainz. printing was brought to England in 1476, by William Caxton, who established his printing press in Westminister - begins the 300-year march toward standardisation of the English lang: Caxton's press was able to create some standardiation of the Eng lang, but was limited because there wasn't a widespread standard of spelling or punctuation printing wasn't widely available, was reserved for books of significance - Great Vowel Shift (GVS), which saw long vowel sounds become pronounced differently, a vowel used to be pronounced in 1 part of the mouth was pronounced 'higher up' - GVS had long-term implications for spelling, the teaching of reading + our understanding of written texts. it continued for a long period of time - Renaissance was taking place + saw the development of English vocab, most of which was borrowed from other langs to describe concepts, techniques + processes that were coming from Europe in the fields of science, med + arts - English was heavily influenced by the writing of Shakespeare, Milton; his plays demonstrated inventiveness w/ the lang providing us w/ neologisms + common idioms the authorised vers of the bible gave church congregations exposure to a standard form of the lang

Answer 16

Key Periods in the development of English - towards the end of early modern period, there was growing unease about the rapidity in which lang was changing - feeling about the state of English was so intense that words like, 'corrupt', 'unrefined', 'unruly', and 'barbarous' were used to describe the state of the lang - attempts to standarise the lang culminated during the early stages of modern English

Answer 17

Key Periods in the development of English - latter half of the 18th century is crucially important, in terms of the development of English, because it's concerned w/ the first major attempt to impose order on the use of the lang - the culmination of this process was the publication of Dr. Johnson's dictionary (1755) - attempts to standarise English were prevalent as those to standarise the lexicon. during this period (1750-1800), there were over 200 published works on grammar + rhetoric. - approach of linguistics differs from present day, in the sense that they looked at lang from a primary prescriptive POV - many linguistics sought the creation of an 'English academy' to regulate + control the development of English

Answer 18

Key Periods in the development of English - throughout this period, those who wished to standardise + regulate the lang persisted - 1826, Noah Webster published American Dictionary of the English Language; it caused controversy because the first examples of what we call 'Americanisms' began to spell his dictionary concerned the affixes '-our' and '-re', where Webster has '-or', '-er'. e.g color instead colour - Jakob + Wilhelm Grimm were the forefathers of modern lang science their work revealed that English wasn't descended from Latin but from a Germanic origin - this was radical thinking, at the time because the common assertion amongst some linguistics was that English was a development from Latin + hence much of the thinking regarding the evolution of the lang was derived from principles of Latin - also, this negated the attempts to explain English by categories of Latin or to make writers conform to classical models as historically mistaken. although, it's important to remember that this remains a belief of some people today

Answer 19

Key Periods in the development of English - arguments of 'prescriptivists' became less persuasive + the focus of lang development changes. instead, this century can be looked at 3 distinct phrases 1) conflict - there was a succession of military conflicts that changed the world order + and the way people viewed warfare. politicians + national leaders had to alter the lang that was used to describe warfare. - technology's a central component in the development of how the war impacted lang. WW1, WW2, Cold War + the latter conflicts created a context in which lang was central to maintaining widespread popular support for warfare. most obvious linguistic development was related to lexical growth + semantic re-alignment 2) agitation - different groups were mobilised into a protest against their marginalisation by wider society. the suffragette movement was the pre-cursor to second-wave feminists of the 1960s, who sought the right to vote primarily, setting the foundations for feminism to pursue financial + ideological parity w/ men - 20th century is prepped w/ other equal rights movement, e.g. black rights, different religious groups + nationalist movements from ireland to S.Africa each movement impacted some way on the development of lang. e.g feminists 1960s affected the way that lang + linguistic labeling was gendered 3) technology - technological advances were unprecedented: development of modern recording equipment, mass broadcasting, home computer tech, internet + modern communication have all contributed to the development of the lexicon: grammatical structure, promotion of written + spoken forms - development of 'spell check' + 'grammar check' has a profound influence on lang, removing the need for conscious technical accuracy. allows users to choose which standard of English to adopt, e.g. UK English, US English, Australian/NZ English

Answer 20

Key Periods in the development of English ``` - 1946 GE was won by the Labour party w/ Clement Atlee as PM. at the centre of Atlee's welfare reform agenda was the issue of education the butler education act (1944) achieved several significant objectives: education was available to all, free until 15 yrs + compulsory. a whole generation of working class children were given teaching in literacy + exposed to a standard form of communication + lang use ``` - speed of literacy across society helped to equip more people to use lang. the more people can do and use lang, the greater the flexability that's imposed on the lang as all the different groups of users manilpulate it to meet their needs

Answer 21

Language change; Old English (Anglo Saxon) lexis: - early English period is characterised by a succession of invasions, from this history comes a lang that's comprised of loan words taken from languages that were assimilated during this period. - so, by looking at Old English, we can see influence of Latin + Scandinavian by looking at the loan words used in English loan words: - after the arrival of St. Augustine's mission, lang saw an influx of Latin words related to church + theology, as well as, more general loans. once the Anglo-Saxons arrived, English began to loan words from Norse grammar: - Old English was an inflected lang, where the function of a word is determined by its ending. the inflectional system was used to: > specify number/quantity > assign gender to nouns > show the function of specific words within a sentence - while being fully inflected, Old English also had 5 grammatical cases, which show the precise function of a noun in a sentence: 1) accusative; shows that the noun is the direct object 2) dative; shows that the noun is the indirect object 3) indicative; indicates the verb mood through the use of inflection 4) genitive; indicating a relationship between the noun in the genitive + another noun 5) nominative; shows the noun is the subject of a verb within a clause other ways that Old English grammar's different to modern English: - personal pronoun system had more members than modern English - past tense of the verb 'to be' (was) has lost its plural ending - Old English nouns may be masculine, feminine or neuter, regardless of the biological sex of their referents

Answer 22

Language change; Middle English orthography: - spelling is incredibly varied + diverse, the same word can have upwards of 10 to 15 variations there are a number of reasons that explain the diversity of spelling: > impact of the french invasion - french scribes wrote down words phonetically + hence an increased number of variants appeared > continuation of the processes of sound change that began in the Old English period > growth + movement of the Medieval population influence of french on Middle English orthography: - as this period progressed, french scribes played a role in the development of spelling. began to impose the conventions of Norman french onto the English that they heard - long term effect was the spelling system was a combo of Old English + french - most common example of this was the way U and V came to be used in complimentary ways: V at the beginning of the word (under) + u in the middle of word (haue = have) lexis: - estimated that up to 10000 words entered the English lexicon following the arrival of the french (1066). these words predominately belonged to to the semantic fields of law + administration. - also included words from fields, including medicine, art + fashion. over 70% of the words that came into the lang were nouns - french wasn't the only influence during this period: Latin played a part in the influx of new words. most of these were professional/technical terms belonging to fields like religion, medicine, law + literature compounding: - loan words weren't the only way that the lexicon grew during this period, compounding played a major role in the expansion of the lexicon noun compounds: bagpipe, birthday, blackberry adjective compounds: lukewarm, moth-eaten, new-born, red-hot many compounds were created using the suffix 'er' in the 14th century: bricklayer, housekeeper, money-maker affixation: - french + latin introduced some new affixes to the lang: 'con-', 'trans-', 'pre-'. these, plus others were used to expand the lexicon - affixations in ME: consecration, duckling, forgetful, greenish, manhood, napkin, uncover grammar: ME saw a range of grammatical developments: - inflectional system died away throughout the period, partly because the endlings were becoming indistinguishable in everyday speech, because of the increase in dialectal varieties - a fixed pattern of word-order was established to show the relationship between clause elements = the subject-verb-object order was consolidated - emergence of the progressive form - 'have' was used to express actions that were ongoing or immediate, for the first time - modal auxiliaries emerged at the only way to determine the possibility/necessity of an action the inflectional verb endings had died away - continued use of double + triple negatives to create emphasis

Answer 23

Language change: Early Modern English - Caxton was a merchant, not a linguistic, so when he tried to translate texts for printing + circulation, he was faced w/ several key questions. most questions arose from the fact that there wasn't standardised form of English. - if Caxton was going to produce texts that could be accessed by many people, he had to answer the following questions: > should he use use foreign words in his translation of replace them w/ native English words? > which variety of English should he follow - given there was a variety of regional differences > which literacy style should he use as a model? Chaucer was the obvious example, however, because it was an ornate style, it might not have been accessible to wider public > how should the lang be spelled + punctuated? given the variations generated, the scribal differences of pervious centuries + lack of a standard > in publishing, being a native writer, should he change their lang to make it more readily understood? the outcome: - recognising there wasn't an overall standard of English orthography, he realised that he couldn't satisfy everyone. - therefore, he published his texts, incl. translations of Homer, in the dialect of the south east of England realised that the questions he was faced w/ were unanswerable by just one man

Answer 24

Language change; Early Modern English - he's significant because of the printing press + the problems it raised in terms of orthography, promoted the need for English to be standardised. if texts were going to be readily available, it was essential to overcome the unusual features of the different lang variations that were operating at the time - to achieve this, linguistics had to strive towards a central 'standard version' of English orthography + grammar. the need for a standard wasn't just highlighted by Caxton, the printing technology he brought to England facilitated the production of texts in later years, dealing w/ grammar, vocab + written style - Caxton's press provided more writers w/ motivation to write, so there are more texts available. within the next 150 yrs, 20,000 texts appeared as some of the texts survived beyond the period of their production, the history of English becomes more definite in the 15th century

Answer 25

Language change; Early Modern English (Age of bibles) - was the first vernacular text of the bible + was the basis for most subsequent versions of the bibles that appeared. - he was motivated by the idea that people should be able to read the bible in their own lang

Answer 26

Language change; Early Modern English (Age of bibles) - his version was the first complete bible to be printed in English from a German translation

Answer 27

Language change; Early Modern English (Age of bibles) - this complete bible was the first to be printed in England, the text attributed to Thomas Matthew, Chamberlain of Colchester, but was complied by John Rogers, a friend of Tyndale - Matthew's bible is largely based on Tyndale's works w/ some use of Coverdale's translations

Answer 28

Language change; Early Modern English (Age of bibles) - text was given its name because of its size, was the first of many official versions used by the Protestant church - a copy was placed in every parish it was a revision of Matthew's bible

Answer 29

Language change; Early Modern English (Age of bibles) - translation was produced by English Protestants exiled during the reign of the Catholic Queen Mary was the first bible in Roman type

Answer 30

Language change; Early Modern English (Age of bibles) - revised version of the great bible became the official version of the church in 1571 + was used by the scholars working on the subsequent authorised version which would be published in 1611

Answer 31

Language change; Early Modern English (Age of bibles) - translation was produced by Roman Catholic priests in exile in Europe, Rheims testament first appeared in 1582 + the remaining text was produced from Douai in 1609 based on Latin vulgate, it was used by English Catholics for the next century

Answer 32

Language change; Early Modern English (King James bible - 1611) - a total of 54 translators involved in the production of a draft. translators were split into 6 'companies', each working on a different section of the bible. the preliminary version took 4 yrs + the final version, a further 9 months the translators had to follow a series of protocols in their production of a new bible: > translators were to use the Bishop's bible where possible > were permitted to consult w/ Tyndale if necessary - which they did extensively > were to preserve chapter divisions + proper names > were ordered to avoid lengthy marginal notes > translations by 1 member of the 'company' had to be agreed by the other members > each company had to send its material to the other companies for final approval > disagreements had to be formally discussed + outside mediation sought if necessary

Answer 33

Language change; Early Modern English (King James bible - 1611) - translations weren't motivated in the same way that Tyndale had been, the idea of a Bible which allowed greater access to the gospels wasn't a paramount consideration - instead, translators often opted to use older, more archaic forms of lang when, more contemporary ones were available - unlike Shakespeare's influence on Early Modern English, the King James bible doesn't offer a wealth of neologisms. equally, the bible is regressive in its use of grammatical structures that were, elsewhere, falling out of use

Answer 34

Language change; Early Modern English (King James bible - 1611) - irregular verbs are found in their archaic forms: > digged ('dug') > gat ('got') > bare ('bore') ``` - older lexis is still in use: > follow thou me > speak ye unto > things eternal > they knew him not ``` - pronoun usage was evidence of older forms using: > '(e)th' ending as opposed to the more commonly use '-s' ending - Ye was still being used as the 2nd person pronoun as opposed to 'you' which was becoming more common by the end of the 16th century

Answer 35

Language change; Early Modern English (King James bible - 1611) - it was a major success for a combo of reasons. primarily, the conversation of the style made it an aural delight much of the process of producing the new version had involved the translators reading the bible aloud to access the rhythm + balance of the prose - secondly, the decision to avoid a populist style ensured that the magnitude of the events wasn't evaporated instead, the archaisms of the bible preserved much of the intensity + mystery of the gospels

Answer 36

Language change; Early Modern English (King James bible - 1611) - such was the success of the bible as a 'preacher's bible', church congregations were exposed en masse to an elevated style of writing - alongside, Shakespeare verse, the King James Bible gave the broader population exposure to a style of formalised writing that transcended the dialectal variations of their communities

Answer 37

Language change; linguistic changes over the Early Modern English period - as interest grew in sciences, medicines + arts, new words had to be found to describe processes + concepts linked to these areas - most new concepts + ideas were imported from mainland Europe where many of the advances in the sciences + medicines were taking place - consequently, we can see this foreign influence in many of the loan words which entered the English lexicon at this time + remain to present day

Answer 38

Language change; linguistic changes over the Early Modern English period ``` > absurdity > adapt > agile > chaos > climax > transcribe > tonic > parenthesis > parasite > obstruction ```

Answer 39

Language change; linguistic changes over the Early Modern English period ``` > alloy > bayonet > anatomy > entrance > equip > ticket > surpass > vogue > colonel > detail ```

Answer 40

Language change; linguistic changes over the Early Modern English period ``` > balcony > solo > opera > plaza > cameo > rocket > ballot > lottery > design > carnival ```

Answer 41

Language change; linguistic changes over the Early Modern English period ``` > alligator > anchovy > apricot > banana > barricade > bravado > cannibal > yam > maize > guitar ```

Answer 42

Language change; linguistic changes over the Early Modern English period - the influx of loan words was one way in which the lexicon was expanded throughout the period, however the vocab was expanding in other ways ``` - more words came into the lang by suffixation (the adding of pre/suffixes), or by forming new compounds. Shakespeare was also central to this process employing the technique of word-class formation ```

Answer 43

Language change; linguistic changes over the Early Modern English period ``` > bedaub > counterstroke > disabuse > disrobe > endear > forename > interlink > nonsense > submarine > uncivilised > uncomfortable ```

Answer 44

Language change; linguistic changes over the Early Modern English period ``` > blandishment > changeful > considerable > delightfulness > drizzling > frequenter > gloomy > immaturity > laughable > lunatical > mumorous ```

Answer 45

Language change; linguistic changes over the Early Modern English period ``` > chap-fallen > commander-in-chief > Frenchwoman >heaven-sent > laughing-stock > pincushion > pine-cone > rosewood > spoonwort ```

Answer 46

Language change; linguistic changes over the Early Modern English period > invite > laugh > scratch

Answer 47

Language change; linguistic changes over the Early Modern English period > gossip > launder > season

Answer 48

Language change; linguistic changes over the Early Modern English period - his influence over lang was considerable; his plays produced the first recorded examples of many words which are now regularly used parts of the English lexicon - he contributed many of the idiomatic expressions which are regularly used

Answer 49

Language change; linguistic changes over the Early Modern English period ``` > 'beggars all description' > a foregone conclusion' > 'in my mind's eye' > 'play fast and loose' > 'cold comfort' > 'at one fell swoop' > 'to the manner born' > 'i must be cruel only to be kind' ```

Answer 50

Language change; linguistic changes over the Early Modern English period - 1582, Richard Mulcaster published Elememtaire in which he vowed to find out the 'right writing of ours' he was one of many early critics of the chaotic + inconsistent nature of English orthography - him + others blamed printers for the lack of order in the orthographic system, this was unfair, because, many printers were foreign + arrived w/ expertise in printing tech + little understanding of the orthographic traditions of English - the texts that were printed were merely symptomatic of the lack of a standardised spelling system not the cause - Elementaire was a list of 9000 words + their spellings which was significant because it came to inform pronunciation teachers + grammarians Mulcaster's text was weakened by the absence of semantic illustration, discussing the contextual use of each word - the text was the first of a series of works by other writers which looked at the writing of English gradually, a culture of standardisation was emerging

Answer 51

Language change; linguistic changes over the Early Modern English period > vowels came to be spelled in a more predictable way - an increased use of double vowel convention in words, like 'soon' the silent 'e' was used more frequently to signal the length of words, e.g. 'name' > the u/v convention was settled - 'u' came to represent a vowel sound while 'v' was used to represent a consonant > during the 17th century, an increasing number of spelling guides began to emerge, identifying homophones that schoolchildren had to learn > by the middle of the 17th century, printing practices became more regularised + a gulf established between spoken + written forms > gradually, the modern system of irregular spellings that can be explained, but not predicted, emerged variant spellings began to attract a social stigma in the 'prescriptive' years of the 18th century

Answer 52

Language change; linguistic changes over the Early Modern English period - by early of 17th century, the practice of using capitals to delineate the beginnings of sentences, proper names + important common nouns had become commonplace - equally, capitals were being used for titles, forms of address + personified nouns - continued into the 18th century, following the principles of modern German, all nouns had been given capitals, by this point - in 18th century, grammarians were angered by this apparent lack of order + soon began to regulate it w/ their objectives of reason + logic

Answer 53

Language change; linguistic changes over the Early Modern English period - foundations of modern punctuation emerged during Renaissance, Caxton inherited a legacy of rhetorical punctuation, where it was used to show readers where to breathe, how long to pause + how to introduce emphasis + rhythmical balance into speech

Answer 54

Language change; linguistic changes over the Early Modern English period > / = the virgule > . = the period > : = the colon - when Caxton was printing, the virgule assumed the role of the modern day comma, full stop or colon it fell out of use during 16th century + was replaced by the comma - full stop was used where today, we would use a comma colon had a broad range of rhetorical functions + wasn't restricted to introducing a list/summary

Answer 55

Language change; linguistic changes over the Early Modern English period - John Hart in his text, The opening of the Unreasonable writing of our Inglish (1551) commented on the grammatical + rhetorical 'pointing' - suggested a new system of punctuation w/ a series of definite purposes attached to each punctuation symbol consequently, many of the punctuation devices we use today began to emerge during this period

Answer 56

Language change; impact of Doctor Johnson's dictionary - Johnson initially set out to create a dictionary motivated by a prescriptive mentality, writing 'The chief intent... is to preserve the purity + ascertain the meaning of our English idiom' - once the dictionary was complete, he wrote in his famous preface that his aim is to 'not form, but register the lang' regardless of his initial + final intentions, his 7 year work became the motivation for the Prescriptive Age of the English lang in the 18th century

Answer 57

Language change; impact of Doctor Johnson's dictionary - once completed, his dictionary contained some 40,000 entries in a sophisticated format that gave clear illustration for each word + its context - Boswell, Johnson's biographer, noted that the dictionary 'conferred stability' on the lang + w/ respect to spelling, where most of Johnson's choices can be found in modern usage, this would appear to be the case

Answer 58

Language change; impact of Doctor Johnson's dictionary > definitions are succinct, appropriate + consistent > he gave particular attention to the different senses of each word > there's copious quotation to support each definition > he routinely identifies parts of speech (noun, verb, adjective, etc)

Answer 59

Language change; impact of Doctor Johnson's dictionary - his dictionary is significant for a range of reasons: primarily because it's the first attempt at a principled lexicography the dictionary portrayed the complexity of the lang + of its usage more accurately than ever before use of quotation + semantic illustration has informed English dictionaries ever since - the dictionary is the beginning of a culture of regulating the lang, subsequent years saw the emergent of grammar books, for example, which attempted to build on the foundations of Johnson's work aimed to build on the standardisation of orthography in other areas, like grammar + pronunciation, for example

Answer 60

Language change; 18th century, age of prescriptivism - by the turn of the 18th century, there was a growing feeling that the Renaissance had created a lang that was out of control the influx of foreign loan words had created a lang in which there was a superfluous number of words, which were similarly defined; that spelling had been arbitrary - some people like John Wallis in his Grammatica Luingae Anglicanne (Grammar of the English lang) commented on the need for standardisation because there's 'great demand for it from foreigners, who want to be able to understand the various important works which are written in our tongue' - others criticised these linguistics who had adopted Latin as the model upon which English might be moulded, arguing that this created 'useless rules about the cases, genders + declensions of nouns', for example - some linguistics were even more vehement: Lowth commented that English was rapidly becoming a 'corrupt' lang he argued that the models of grammatical construction had been men like Shakespeare + Milton, all of whom in his opinion 'offend' - there's little doubt at the outset of the 18th century, was considerable division amongst linguistics about how to effectively regulate + control the lang it was clear that the lang needed regulating somehow

Answer 61

Language change; 18th century, age of prescriptivism - in the pursuit of standardisation, it appears that there were 2 schools of though which dominated the linguists' debate: whether dictionaries + grammar books ought to describe or evaluate the idiom of the time - towards the end of the 18th century, prescriptive attitude was the most prevalent: that is, lang ought to be controlled + judged based on whether it's 'right' or 'wrong'

Answer 62

Language change; 18th century, age of prescriptivism - authors, e.g Swift, were severely concerned that the pace of lang change was dangerous, because there was no longer regulation of English - sought to 'fix' English to a 'standard...forever' Swift + others sought the creation of an English academy to preserve + regulate English

Answer 63

Language change; 18th century, age of prescriptivism - prescriptive movement created what we now call 'traditional grammar' which determines what's correct to say/write for the first time, there was the essence of a 'standard', as there was a series of rules, which determined how the lang should be used examples of these rules include: > infinitives should never be split > double negatives ought to never be used > sentences should end w/ prepositions - from perspective of 21st century, we can identify that these rules still have currency, that is grammarians still argue that rules ought to be adhered to + obeyed in the 21st century, there's an increasing sense that if meaning can be conveyed then these rules are essentially unimportant - 18th century, prescriptive linguistics can be seen as the forerunner of the 'progress decay' argument of the 21st century their concerns were w/ the regulation + protection of English in the same way that writers, e.g. Lynn Truss, is concerned w/ the protection of the 'apostrophe', for example

Language Change Flashcards

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