Language Development, Variation and Use Flashcards
(119 cards)
1
Q
What is a language family?
A
A group of languages that descend from a common ancestor and share vocabulary and grammar similarities.
2
Q
What is historical linguistics?
A
The study of how languages are related and how they change over time.
3
Q
What is an example of a major language family?
A
The Indo-European language family includes English, Spanish, Hindi, and German.
4
Q
What is a language isolate?
A
A language that has no known living relatives (e.g., Basque in Spain and France).
5
Q
What are Creole languages?
A
Languages formed by blending two or more languages into a new, stable language.
6
Q
How did Indo-European languages spread?
A
Speakers of proto-Indo-European migrated across Europe and Asia, evolving into different languages.
7
Q
What are the two largest branches of the Indo-European language family?
A
The Germanic and Romance branches.
8
Q
What are examples of Romance languages?
A
Spanish, Portuguese, French, Italian—descended from Latin.
9
Q
What are examples of Germanic languages?
A
English, German, Dutch, Afrikaans, and the Scandinavian languages.
10
Q
What is the significance of sign language in language families?
A
Sign languages form a distinct language family, with different sign languages used worldwide.
11
Q
What is language diffusion?
A
The process by which a language spreads to new areas where it was not previously spoken.
12
Q
What are the three main ways language diffusion occurs?
A
Trade, migration, and proselytism (missionary work).
13
Q
How does trade influence language diffusion?
A
Traders learn parts of other languages to communicate, leading to the spread of linguistic elements.
14
Q
How does migration affect language development?
A
Migrants bring their language to new regions, influencing and blending with local languages.
15
Q
What is proselytism in language diffusion?
A
The spread of language through religious conversion often requires people to learn a new language.
16
Q
How many languages have ever existed?
A
Around 31,000 languages have existed, but only 7,151 are still spoken today.
17
Q
Why do languages become extinct?
A
Standardization of a few dominant languages leads to the decline of smaller, local languages.
18
Q
What is an artificial language?
A
A language intentionally created for a specific purpose, such as Esperanto.
19
Q
What is a language family?
A
A group of languages that share a common ancestor and similar traits.
20
Q
What are the five most spoken languages today?
A
English, Mandarin Chinese, Hindi, Spanish, and French
21
Q
What is a language register?
A
The way a person modifies their speech based on their audience, formality, and purpose.
22
Q
What are the five types of language registers?
A
Frozen, formal, consultative, casual, and intimate.
23
Q
What is a frozen register?
A
A highly formal, ritualistic speech that remains unchanged, like wedding vows or prayers.
24
Q
What is a formal register?
A
Precise, professional, and official speech is used in academic lectures, ceremonies, or legal settings.
25
What is a consultative register?
A semi-formal speech style where both speaker and listener actively participate, like a doctor-patient conversation.
26
What is a casual register?
Informal speech used among friends, often including slang and nonstandard grammar
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What is an intimate register?
Highly personal speech is used between close friends, family, or romantic partners.
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What factors influence language register?
Audience, topic, purpose, and location.
29
How does the register affect literature?
It helps authors establish tone, characterization, and world-building in fiction and poetry.
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How does the register impact communication?
It ensures appropriate speech styles for different social contexts, improving clarity and effectiveness.
31
What is language?
A system of communication where sounds and words are understood by a group of people who share the same language.
32
What is mutual intelligibility?
The ability of speakers of different dialects or languages to understand each other.
33
What is a dialect?
A variation of a language that includes differences in pronunciation, spelling, and word choice.
34
What is an accent?
The way words are pronounced, often influenced by region or native language.
35
How do dialects affect communication?
Some dialects have minor differences, while others may make mutual intelligibility difficult.
36
What is an example of regional dialect differences?
The different words for carbonated beverages—"soda," "pop," "soft drink," or "lolly water."
37
How do accents relate to dialects?
Accents are a part of dialects, affecting pronunciation but not necessarily vocabulary.
38
Can dialects change over time?
Yes! Exposure to new regions and speakers can influence how people speak.
39
Why do people perceive their speech as "standard"?
Many people assume their way of speaking is neutral, while others have accents or dialects.
40
How do linguists study dialects?
They analyze speech patterns, mutual intelligibility, and regional variations.
41
What are the three main uses of language?
Informative, expressive, and directive—each serving different communication purposes
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What is the informative use of language?
Language used to convey factual information that can be determined as true or false.
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What is an example of informative language?
"The sky is blue." This statement provides factual information.
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What is an example of expressive language?
"Wow! That sunset is breathtaking!" This conveys emotion rather than factual information.
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What is the directive use of language?
Language used to give instructions, orders, or suggestions.
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What is an example of directive language?
"Please close the door." This instructs someone to take action.
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How can informative language be phrased as a question?
A rhetorical question can emphasize known information, like "Isn't it raining outside?" to remind someone of the weather.
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How can directive language be phrased as a question?
A polite request, like "Would you mind turning off the light?" still functions as a directive.
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Why is understanding language use important?
It helps improve communication skills, making interactions clearer and more effective.
50
What is direct speech?
Direct speech, also called quoted speech, repeats exactly what someone said and is placed inside quotation marks.
51
What is indirect speech?
Indirect speech, also called reported speech, modifies or summarizes what someone said without using quotation marks.
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How do you convert direct speech to indirect speech?
Remove quotation marks, adjust pronouns, and shift verb tense backward (e.g., "She said, 'I am happy.'" → "She said she was happy.").
53
What is the backshift in indirect speech?
The process of shifting verb tense backward when converting direct speech to indirect speech (e.g., "plays" → "played").
54
How do direct and indirect speech differ in questions?
Indirect speech turns questions into statements and removes question marks (e.g., "He asked, 'Are you coming?'" → "He asked if I was coming.").
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How do direct and indirect speech differ in requests?
Indirect speech changes requests into statements using verbs like "asked" or "told" (e.g., "She said, 'Please help me.'" → "She asked me to help her.").
56
What is an example of direct speech?
"Martin Luther King, Jr. said, 'Injustice anywhere is a threat to justice everywhere.'"
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What is an example of indirect speech?
"Martin Luther King, Jr. said that injustice anywhere was a threat to justice everywhere."
58
What is Speech Act Theory?
The idea that language conveys meaning beyond just words—it can perform actions and create outcomes.
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Who introduced Speech Act Theory?
British philosopher John L. Austin in his 1959 book How to Do Things with Words.
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Who expanded on Speech Act Theory?
American philosopher John Searle, building on Austin’s work and contributions from other philosophers.
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What are the three components of a speech act?
Locutionary act (literal meaning), illocutionary act (speaker’s intent), and perlocutionary act (effect on the listener).
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What is an example of a performative speech act?
Saying "I do" in a wedding ceremony—this phrase creates the marriage.
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What are the five types of speech acts?
Assertives, Directives, Commissives, Expressives, and Declarations.
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What is an assertive speech act?
A statement that provides information or expresses belief (e.g., "Ottawa is the capital of Canada.").
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What is a directive speech act?
A command, request, or invitation that prompts action (e.g., "Could you come over for dinner?").
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What is a commissive speech act?
A promise or commitment for future action (e.g., "I will drive you to school.").
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What is an expressive speech act?
A statement that conveys emotion (e.g., "I'm sorry for missing your birthday.").
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What is a declarative speech act?
A statement that creates a change (e.g., "You're fired," or "I declare you husband and wife").
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How does Speech Act Theory relate to pragmatics?
It is part of pragmatics, which studies how language is used in social contexts.
70
What is Universal Grammar Theory?
A linguistic theory stating that all humans are born with an innate ability to acquire, develop, and understand language.
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Who introduced Universal Grammar Theory?
Noam Chomsky, a linguistics professor at MIT, developed the theory in the 1960s.
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What are the three main principles of Universal Grammar?
Universality of language, convergence, and poverty of stimulus.
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What does "universality of language" mean?
All languages share deep similarities, meaning humans can learn any language if exposed to it.
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What is "convergence" in Universal Grammar?
The idea is that languages with similar structures are easier to learn and understand.
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What is "poverty of stimulus"?
The argument that children cannot learn language purely through exposure, implying an innate grammatical ability
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How does Universal Grammar explain language acquisition in infants?
Infants recognize phonemes and sentence structures even before understanding words.
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What is an example of Universal Grammar in action?
A child can recognize incorrect sentence structure even without formal grammar training.
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What are some criticisms of Universal Grammar?
Some linguists argue that language changes too much over time to be universal, and biologists suggest the brain may only have general abilities at birth.
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How has research supported Universal Grammar?
Studies show infants can differentiate words from non-words based on sentence structure and tonal cues.
80
What is descriptive grammar?
A grammar approach that studies how language is used by native speakers, without enforcing rules.
81
What is prescriptive grammar?
A grammar approach that enforces strict rules about how language "should" be used.
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How does descriptive grammar view dialects?
It recognizes dialects as valid forms of language and treats native speakers as experts.
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How does prescriptive grammar affect communication?
It standardizes language, making it easier to teach and understand across cultures.
84
What is code-switching?
The act of shifting between different grammar styles or dialects depending on social context.
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What is an example of descriptive grammar?
Saying "I ain't going nowhere" instead of "I am not going anywhere."
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What is an example of prescriptive grammar?
Saying "To whom are you speaking?" instead of "Who are you talking to?"
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What are the benefits of descriptive grammar?
It preserves linguistic diversity and acknowledges the history behind dialects.
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What are the benefits of prescriptive grammar?
It provides a universal standard for communication and education.
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How do linguists use both descriptive and prescriptive grammar?
They study how language is used (descriptive) while also recognizing standardized rules (prescriptive).
90
What is surface structure in linguistics?
The visible form of a sentence, representing how words are arranged and spoken or written.
91
What is deep structure in linguistics?
The underlying meaning of a sentence is applied before transformations are applied to make it grammatically correct.
92
Who introduced the concepts of deep and surface structure?
Noam Chomsky, in his book Syntactic Structures.
93
What is transformational grammar?
A linguistic theory that explains how deep structures transform into surface structures through grammatical rules.
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What are transformations in linguistics?
Rules that modify deep structures to create grammatically correct surface structures.
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What is an example of deep vs. surface structure?
Deep structure: "John throw ball." → Surface structure: "John throws the ball."
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What are some types of transformations?
Conjugation, word rearrangement, inflection, and deletion.
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How does conjugation affect surface structure?
It modifies verbs to indicate tense, person, or number (e.g., "throw" → "throws").
98
Why does surface structure delete some deep structure information?
To simplify communication by removing unnecessary details.
99
Can one surface structure have multiple deep structures?
Yes! A sentence can imply different meanings depending on interpretation.
100
What is coherence in writing?
The logical bridge between words, sentences, and paragraphs that makes writing clear and easy to follow.
101
How can coherence be created between words?
By using parallel structure, ensuring similar grammatical constructions in lists and sentences.
102
What is an example of parallel structure?
Instead of saying "Sarah likes to jump, running, and skate," say "Sarah likes jumping, running, and skating."
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How can coherence be created between sentences?
Through repetition of key words and transitional devices that connect ideas smoothly.
104
What is an example of repetition for coherence?
"The most important part of an essay is the thesis statement. The thesis statement introduces the argument of the essay."
105
What are transitional devices?
Words or phrases that guide the reader through ideas, such as "first," "later," "then," "however," and "thus."
106
How can coherence be created between paragraphs?
By using transitional words, maintaining a consistent paragraph structure, and keeping a steady point of view.
107
What is the structure of a coherent paragraph?
A topic sentence, supporting sentences, and a concluding sentence to tie ideas together.
108
Why is a consistent point of view important for coherence?
Switching between first, second, and third person can confuse the reader and disrupt the flow of writing.
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What is an example of maintaining a consistent point of view?
Instead of "If someone wants to improve themselves, you should set goals," say "If someone wants to improve, they should set goals."
110
What is text structure?
The way a writer organizes ideas in a piece of writing enhances clarity and comprehension.
111
Why is text structure important?
It helps readers understand and analyze information effectively.
112
What are the six common types of text structure?
Chronological, cause and effect, problem and solution, compare and contrast, description, and process.
113
What is chronological text structure?
A structure that presents events in time order, often used in biographies and historical writing.
114
What is the cause-and-effect text structure?
A structure that explains the relationship between events, showing how one event leads to another.
115
What is the problem and solution text structure?
A structure that presents a problem and offers solutions, often used in persuasive writing.
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What is a compare and contrast text structure?
A structure that highlights similarities and differences between two or more subjects.
117
What is descriptive text structure?
A structure that uses vivid language and figurative expressions to create a detailed picture for the reader.
118
What is process text structure?
A structure that provides step-by-step instructions, often found in manuals and cookbooks.
119
How can graphic organizers help with text structure?
Tools like Venn diagrams, flow charts, and T-charts help visualize and organize information.
