Language, Thought And Communication

Question 1

AO1 Piagets theory (language though and communication)

Answer 1

He believes we learn by developing schemas about the world.
Language depends on thought. Children develop language by matching the correct word to their knowledge.
Thought and understanding comes first, language develops afterChildren only understand words when they have reached the correct stage of development and are ready.
They can have language without understanding but will not be able to use it effectively. In the Sensorimotor stage: Children speak towards the end of their first year.
Pre-operational stage: From 2 years they talk about things not present. Concrete operational stage: By 7 children’s language becomes mature and logical as they question things and create their own ideas.

Question 2

AO3 Piagets theory (language thought and communication)

Answer 2

Supporting evidence early language is not random.
When children start talking they use two-word phrases like ‘Mummy sock’, which shows they can see how objects relate to each other. This suggests that children only start to use language when they have some understanding of it.

Language comes first Sapir–Whorf hypothesis challenges Piaget.
It states that language comes before thought as people need a word or phrase for an object in order to think about it.
This suggests that Piaget may have been wrong.

schemas cannot be scientifically measured.
It is very difficult to know if schema exist as we cannot directly measure them.
This shows that Piaget’s theory of language and thought is not based on solid scientific evidence.

Question 3

Schema

Answer 3

A mental framework of believes and expectations that influence cognitive processing

Question 4

AO1 Sapir whorf hypothesis

Answer 4

Sapir and Whorf suggested it is not possible to think about something you don’t have words for.
Thinking depends on language Language comes first and thought afterwards.
There are two versions of the hypothesis
The strong version: language determines thought If there are no words for a thought, object or idea then you can’t think about it.
This is why it is difficult to translate ideas from one language to another.
The weak version: language influences thought Words help to ‘carve up’ the world. However, you can still imagine something with no words for it.
Weaker version is preferred. If the words we have for a concept or idea are limited, our ability to notice or recall that idea will be limited.

Question 5

AO3 Sapir whorf hypothesis

Answer 5

The differences are exaggerated differences between cultures may have been exaggerated by Boas. There are really only two words for snow in Inuit culture and actually English has other words for different types of snow.
This shows that the differences aren’t that great and challenges the conclusion that language may determine thought.

Thoughts come before language having more words for snow doesn’t mean the words came first.
The Inuit language may have more words for snow because there is always lots of snow.
This suggests that language develops because of the way we perceive our environment, which supports Piaget’s view that thinking influences language.

Restricted and elaborated code A strength is that the hypothesis explains the link between language and intelligence.
Bernstein suggested that working-class children will always fall behind in school because their use of the restricted code will have a negative effect on their ability to think.
This shows that language influences a particular type of thinking (intelligence).

Question 6

AO1 Von Frisch bee study

Answer 6

Aim To describe the dances performed by honey bees to explain how they communicate information to each other. Von Frisch put a food source close to the hive (within about 10–20 metres), as well as one further away (up to 300 metres).
He made over 6000 observations of honey bees over 20 years.
Worker bees tell the others where pollen is located by two types of dance:

Round dance: Moving in a circle to indicate food is less than 100 metres away.

Waggle dance: Moving in a figure of eight, waggling its abdomen in the ‘middle’ of the eight, with this straight line pointing at the source of pollen. Speed indicates distance.
60% of bees went to food sources at the distance indicated by the dances. Bees use a sophisticated form of animal communication.
The signalling system has evolutionary value as it helps their survival.

Question 7

AO3 von Frisch bee study

Answer 7

Scientific valueVon Frisch’s work made an important contribution to science.
People knew that bees danced but had no understanding of the meaning of the movements.
This shows how valuable his research was.

Sound matters too the importance of sound was overlooked.
When bees performed dances in silence, other bees would not then go on and investigate food sources (Esch).
This shows that sound-based signals also play a part in directing other bees – something that Von Frisch did not consider.

Other factors are important bees do not always respond to the waggle dance.
Bees do not use the information from the waggle dance to fly to nectar if it was placed in a boat in the middle of a lake (Gould).
This shows that Von Frisch’s account was incomplete.

Question 8

Animal communication

Answer 8

The exchange of information between animals within the same species using a variety of signals

Question 9

Functions of animal communication

Answer 9

Survival
Reproduction
Territory
Food

Question 10

Survival as a a function of animal communication

Answer 10

Vervet monkeys use sounds to warn of danger. A specific sound warns other monkeys close by.
Rabbits use visual signals. They lift their tail high, pin ears back and leap forward to communicate danger to other rabbits.
These signals increase the survival of members of the signaller’s species.

Question 11

Reproduction as a function of animal communication

Answer 11

Animals use mating displays.
Peacocks stretch their feathers like an umbrella to attract females. They communicate genetic fitness through brightly coloured and plentiful feathers.

Question 12

Territory as a function affecting animal communication

Answer 12

Animals mark territory through spreading scents.
Rhinos produce 20–30 piles of dung to communicate that an area is occupied.
This has evolutionary value as it takes less energy than fighting.

Question 13

Food as a function of animal communication

Answer 13

Animals use signals to show location of food.
Ants leave a pheromone trail to communicate the location of a food source.

Question 14

Properties of human communication not present in animals

Answer 14

Planning ahead and discussing future events
Creativity
Single vs multiple channels

Question 15

Plan ahead and discussing future events as a form of human communication

Answer 15

Humans can use their language to plan ahead and discuss future events.
animal communication focuses on things that are present such as predators

Question 16

Language

Answer 16

A communication system unique to humans and consists of arbitrary conditional symbols through which meaning is conveyed

Question 17

Eye contact

Answer 17

When two people look at each others eyes at the same time. It ha a number of roles in communication such as regulating the flow of a convo

Question 18

Nonverbal communication

Answer 18

Enhancing info without words.

Eyes
Facial expressions
Body language

Question 19

Verbal communication

Answer 19

The use of words as a way of expressing your thoughts and how you feel

Question 20

Communication

Answer 20

The passing of info from one person to another

Question 21

AO1 eye contact

Answer 21

Regulating flow of conversation Kendon found that speakers looked away when they were about to speak and gave prolonged eye contact when about to finish.
Shows eye contact encourages turn-taking in conversation.

Signalling attraction Conway et al. found that people who use eye contact are judged as more attractive even with a negative facial expression.

Expressing emotion Adams and Kleck found that participants judged emotions of joy and anger as more intense when shown a picture of someone gazing straight at them as opposed to gazing away.
They judged emotions of fear and sadness as more intense when the gaze in the picture was averted.

Question 22

AO3 eye contact

Answer 22

Real-world application studies can explain an important feature of autism.
People with autism have difficulty communicating with others because they often do not use eye contact.
Knowing the importance of eye contact means that people with autism could be taught these skills.

the use of rating scales to make judgements.
Studies in this area rely on people rating their views of ‘attractiveness’ and ‘intensity of emotion’, and these are open to bias and interpretation.
This suggests that studies of eye contact may produce biased evidence.

Artificial studies studies of eye contact involve quite artificial tasks.
In Kendon’s study, participants were asked to get to know someone as part of the experiment.
This means the results may lack validity as they do not reflect what would happen in everyday life.

Question 23

Body language

Answer 23

The way in which attitudes and feelings are communicated to others through unspoken movements and gestures

Question 24

Closed posture

Answer 24

Arms and legs closed
The person is in disagreement to what is being said or possibly annoyed

Question 25

Open posture

Answer 25

Relaxed posture (no crossed arms or legs) Listening and in agreement

Question 26

Postural echos

Answer 26

A mirroring of body positions by people in a social interaction Suggest they are getting on well and are friendly

Question 27

AO1 body language

Answer 27

Closed posture = crossing your arms and/or legs, communicates rejection or disagreement. Open posture = arms and legs not crossed, communicates approval and acceptance ‘Touching’ in a social interaction includes high fives, slapping, putting hand on a shoulder. found that students handed books by a librarian who touched them on the hand were more positive about the librarian than those who were not touched.

Question 28

Gender

Answer 28

The characteristics of women men boys and girls and socially constructed

Question 29

Personal space

Answer 29

An invisible portable “bubble” that surrounds each individual. Size depend on who we are with and how we feel

Question 30

Status

Answer 30

Social or professional position

Question 31

AO1 personal space

Answer 31

Cultural differences Sommer found that English people’s personal space is 1–1.5 metres whereas Arabs is much less. Collett found that Englishmen who stood closer and gave more eye contact were better liked by Arabs. Gender differences Men prefer a larger social distance when interacting with men than women talking to other women. Fisher and Byrne found that women felt more uncomfortable when a confederate invaded their personal space from the side whereas with men it was from the front. Status differences Status is someone’s rank within society or the workplace. Zahn found that people with a similar status maintain a closer personal space than those with unequal status.

Question 32

AO3 body language

Answer 32

Research into facial expressions supported by research. Ekman et al. identified six primary emotions: surprise, fear, disgust, anger, happiness and sadness that are found in all people. If a behaviour is universal this suggests that it is in our genes and therefore Ekman’s evidence supports Darwin’s evolutionary theory. Research into newborns there is further support from studies of newborn babies. Babies are born with the ability to smile or maintain eye contact which suggests that, because these behaviours are present at birth, they are innate. If these behaviours are innate this supports the idea that they have been selected by evolution to help the child’s survival. Cultural differences in non-verbal communication is that Darwin’s theory struggles to explain cultural differences in non-verbal communication. Personal space and gestures are expressed in different ways in different cultures which suggests we are not biologically the same. This suggests the theory doesn’t explain all non-verbal communication.

Question 33

Innate

Answer 33

Product of genetic factors (due to nature)

Question 34

Neonates

Answer 34

The names given to newborn babies

Question 35

Sensory deprived

Answer 35

An animal or human who does not have. A particular sensory ability eg hearing

Question 36

Evidence that non verbal behaviour is innate

Answer 36

Neonate research Neonate = a newborn baby. If a non-verbal behaviour is shown at birth it is likely to be innate. Social releasers These are non-verbal behaviours like smiling which make others want to look after babies (Bowlby). This is adaptive because it means that a young baby will be looked after and the genes passed on. Facial expressionsyoung babies’ faces showed disgust with novel foods like citric acid (found in lemons). This suggests such facial expressions as a way of communicating emotions are innate. Sensory deprived An animal or human without a sensory ability, such as hearing or sight. If they show the same non-verbal behaviour as people with normal hearing or vision this suggests the behaviours are innate. Thompson found similarity in blind children and children with normal vision in terms of facial expressions such as surprise.

Question 37

AO3 evidence that non verbal bahviour is innate

Answer 37

Cross-cultural research Comparing behaviours between cultural groups. If behaviours are different this suggests that they are learned rather than innate. Contact versus non-contact cultures One cultural difference in non-verbal behaviours is in terms of personal space. People from contact cultures (the Mediterranean and Latin America) are comfortable with smaller personal space. People from non-contact cultures (the UK and the US) maintain a larger distance between themselves and others. Gestures Pointing one’s index finger is acceptable in Western culture to emphasise what is being said but offensive in Hindu culture where people tend to point with their thumbs (Black). Explaining cultural differences Social learning theory can explain cultural differences (observing and imitating others). People observe what other people in their culture are doing (e.g. personal space) and copy those behaviours.

Question 38

AO1 yukis study of emotion

Answer 38

To find out if there is a difference in how emoticons are understood by people in the East (Japan) and the West (America). 95 students from Japan and 118 students from America – an independent groups design. Six emoticons were shown with different combinations of eyes and mouths (sad, happy or neutral). Participants rated them for happiness using a 9-point scale. The Japanese gave higher ratings to faces with happy eyes than the Americans, even when the mouth was sad. Americans gave higher ratings when mouths were happy even when the eyes were sad. This suggests that cultural groups interpret facial expressions differently which may be due to cultural norms and expectations.

Question 39

AO3 yukis study of emotion

Answer 39

Artificial materials emoticons may not represent human faces. Emoticons do not include those tell-tale lines on people’s faces which give us further information of how to interpret their eyes and mouth. This means the results of the study may lack relevance to everyday life. Only tested one emotion the study only investigated two types of emotion. In everyday life, faces express a whole range of emotions – fear, surprise, disgust, etc. Therefore the study does not give us insight into how the full range of emotional expressions are interpreted by people of different cultures. Using rating scales rating scales may not be the best method of measurement. Emotions are very complex and rating scales reduce emotion to a single score. Therefore Yuki et al. may have measured the interpretation of emotions in too simple a way.

Question 40

Emoticon

Answer 40

Combination of the words emoticon and icon. On verbal way of expressing mood or emotion

Question 41

Darwin theory A01

Answer 41

Genes of a behaviour that improve animals chances of survival at apssed on to the next generation via reproduavtion He said Non verbal communications had evolved in animals as a way of expressing emotions Eg. Growling as aggression when feeling threatened Behaviours once adaptive continue to be in the gene pool which was passed to humans from distant animal ancestors Serviceable habits promote survival eg wrinkling a nose

Question 42

A03 Darwin theory