Language, Thought, and Communication

Question 1

Language, Thought, and Communication

Describe Piaget’s theory of language and thought.

AO1

Language and Thought

Answer 1

• Piaget believed that thought and understanding come first and then language develops as you learn to express it.
• Children develop language by matching the correct words to their existing knowledge of the world (schemas). This child’s understanding of the concept comes first and then they learn how to express their understanding of it.
• Piaget believed that cognitive development leads to the growth of a language, and this means we can only use langauge at a level that matches our cognitive development.
• A child may copy a word when they hear others use it, but until they understand the concept, they will not actually be able to use that word to communicate.

Question 2

Language, Thought, and Communication

Outline Piaget’s theory of language and thought for each of his stages of development.

AO1

Language and Thought

Answer 2

• Sensorimotor: Babies are learning what their bodies can do which includes making vocal sounds they mayhear others making.
• Preoperational stage: Children are able to voice their internal thoughts but their language is limited for communicating with other people.
• Concrete operational: Langauge has developed a lot, but it is only used to talk about actual, concrete things.
• Formal operational stage: Language can be used to talk about theoretical, abstract ideas. Piaget believed that some people do not get to the formal operational stage.

Question 3

Language, Thought, and Communication

Evaluate Piaget’s theory of langauge and thought.

AO3

Language and Thought

Answer 3

One weakness of Piaget’s theory is that it can be criticised for having a low population validity because his theory is based on observations made from a small sample, which were his own children. This makes the findings difficult to generalise inot the development of language and thought for all children. Additionally, there may have been researcher bias and a lack of objectivity in this case. This lowers the validity of piaget’s theory into langauge development.

One weakness is that schemas cannot be scientifically measured. Piaget argues that schemas must develop first then language after, but it is almost impossible to know when someone has a schema. It is difficult to ask young people about their understanding and we cannot measure schemas, therefore if we cannot do this, there is no proof they exist. This suggests that Piaget’s theory is limited due to a lack of evidence.

Question 4

Language, Thought, and Communication

Outline Sapir-Wharf’s theory of language and thought.

AO1

Language and Thought

Answer 4

Sapir-Whorf’s theory suggests that language comes first and then thought comes after. Words influence our thoughts, memories, and perceptions, not the other way around. Frank Boas found that one Inuit (Eskimo) language has 4-27 different words for snow. This shows that language and culture must be linked as Inuits can think and perceive snow in many different ways that are not available to English speakers who have not grown up in that culture or used that language.
There are two versions of the hypothesis; the strong version suggests that if a langauge has no words for a thought, idea, or feeling, then people will have no way of thinking about it. This is why it can be very difficult to translate words in other languages that do not have quite the same meaning. The weak version suggests that language doesn’t determine but will have an influence on the way we think. You can still think about things you don’t have words for. In the inuit example, it is possible for English natives to imagine snow in different ways even if they do not have separate words for it (e.g. soft snow, wet snow, fine snow carried by wind).

Question 5

Language, Thought, and Communication

Evaluate Sapir-Wharf’s theory of language and thought.

AO3

Language and Thought

Answer 5

A weakness of the Sapir-Whorf’s theory is that just because a culture has more words does not mean language comes before thought. The Inuits have more words for snow because they are surrounded by lots of snow every day, meaning they need a way to distinguish between the different types, resulting in more words for snow. This may have mean they thought about different types of snow then created different words for them. This suggests that language develops because of our perception of the environment and that thought comes before language.

One strength of the theory is that it explains the link between language and intelligence. Bernstein suggests that intelligence is influenced by the language people speak and hear, whether it be elaborative code or restricted code. He found that children who use a restrictive code will fall behind in school because it has a negative affect on their ability to think. Therefore, this suggests there is a strong link between the language being heard/spoken and language/intelligence.

A further problem with the theory is that there is an alternative explanation. Piaget suggests that thought comes before language, as children must have thoughts first and then use language as a way of expressing it, unlike Sapir-Whorf who suggests language comes first. Therefore, this theory may not be the only theory to consider when explaining the relationship between thought and language.

Question 6

Language, Thought, and Communication

Describe and evaluate Whorf’s study on the variation in recall of events.

AO1/AO3

Influence of language

Answer 6

Whorf studied how language affects our view of the world by researching Native American culture, particularly the language spoken by the Hopi Indians. He compared the Hopi language with European language such as English, French, and Italian. He described their language as a ‘timeless’ language as they did not distinguish between past, present, and future; they do not use tenses. This suggests our cultural differences and languages affect the way we think about time.

One weakness of Whorf’s conclusions about the Hopi language is that most of his research lacks population validity because his conclusions were mostly based on one person, Naquayouma. This makes it difficult to generalise the findings of variation of recall of events to all Hopi. Additionally, other researchers have argued that the Hopi speak and their understanding of the past, present, and future is not much different from English speakers. Therefore, Whorf’s research into the variation of events between the Hopi and European speakers lacks validity.

Question 7

Language, Thought, and Communication

Describe and evaluate Leonard and Carmichael et al’s study on variation in recall.

AO1/AO3

Influence of language

Answer 7

Their aim was to investigate whether or not how a picture is described influences the way an individual remembers it. Participants were split into two groups. All participants were shown the same set of pictures, but each group had a different descriptive word next to each picture. Both groups were then asked to draw the pictures from memory. They found that the drawings reflected the labels they had, therefore they concluded that the memory of the picture had been influenced by the verbal label attached, supporting the idea that language influences memory.

One weakness of Leonard and Carmichael et al’s study is that they used an artificial task. Participants were asked to draw ambiguous images from memory, which is not reflective of how we use memory in real life. Its likely that there may be less variation in their recall if the images were not ambiguous. This reduces the validity of Leonard and Carmichael et al’s study into the variation in recall of events.

Question 8

Language, Thought, and Communication

Describe and evaluate Roberson et al’s study on variation in recall of colour.

AO1/AO3

Influence of language

Answer 8

Roberson et al’s aim was to investigate how language can affect the recall of colour. They investigated the Berinmo people from New Guinea, who only have five names for colours. For example, they only have one name for green, blue, and purple and one name for yellow, orange, and brown. They found that the Berinmo could only recall the colours they had words for. They also found it difficult to distinguish between colours with only one word (e.g. blue and green). They concluded that people will have difficulty recalling colours when there is a lack of words in their language.

Research to contradict Roberson et al comes from Heider and Olivier. They tested the Dani tribe who have two words for colour; ‘mola’ and ‘moli’ menaing ‘light’ and ‘dark’k and compared them to English speakers. Both groups had to look at a coloured chip then find it again when it was placed with other chips. The Dani tribw were no worse than the English speakers at finding the chip. Therfore, this suggests that language does not affect their ability to think about colour.

Question 9

Language, Thought, and Communication

Outline Von Frisch’s bee study.

AO1

Animal Communication

Answer 9

Von Frisch’s aim was to investigate the dances performed by bees and how they enables bees to communicate. To create a controlled observation, the bees were kept in a glass hive where they could be observed. When bees fed from sugar-water in different locations, they were marked with a tiny dot of paint so they could be identified when they returned to their hive. Movements of the bees when they returned were tracked. Von Frisch found that the bees made different movements depending on the distance from the hive to the sugar-water. If the sugar-water was less than 100m away, the bees moved rapidly in circles to the left then to the right, whereas if it was further away, the bees moved straight forward, wagging their abdomen from side to side then turning in a circle the left, then doing the same thing again but turning to the right. He found that after watching a dance, 60% of bees went to the pollen at the distance indicated by the dance. He concluded that bees have a sophisticated form of communication. The speed and accuracy at which the bees found the food suggests the dances gave them valuable information.

Question 10

Language, Thought, and Communication

Evaluate Von Frisch’s bee study.

AO3

Animal Communication

Answer 10

One weakness of the study is that it lacks ecological validity. Bees do not collect sugar-water from glass containers every day, and a glass hive is not reflcetive of their natural environment, suggesting that the bees may have behaved differently in the observation to how they would have done in the real world. This makes it difficult to generalise Von Frisch’s findings to bee communication patterns in real life.

However, a strength of the study is that it has high reliability. This is because it was conducted as a controlled observation, so it has been easy for psychologists to replicate the study in the same conditions to find consistent results into the bees’ communication patterns. Therefore, this suggeststhe study’s results into the dances performed by bees are trustworthy and reliable.

Another weakness of the study is that he neglected the importance of sound in his findings. Other researchers have found that the sound created by bees whilst performing the dance was an important aspect of communications that other bees responded too. Therefore, this suggests Von Frisch’s findings may be too simplistic and not a full explanation of bees’ communication patterns.

Question 11

Language, Thought, and Communication

Evaluate Von Frisch’s bee study.

AO3

Animal Communication

Answer 11

One weakness of the study is that it lacks ecological validity. Bees do not collect sugar-water from glass containers every day, and a glass hive is not reflcetive of their natural environment, suggesting that the bees may have behaved differently in the observation to how they would have done in the real world. This makes it difficult to generalise Von Frisch’s findings to bee communication patterns in real life.

However, a strength of the study is that it has high reliability. This is because it was conducted as a controlled observation, so it has been easy for psychologists to replicate the study in the same conditions to find consistent results into the bees’ communication patterns. Therefore, this suggeststhe study’s results into the dances performed by bees are trustworthy and reliable.

Another weakness of the study is that he neglected the importance of sound in his findings. Other researchers have found that the sound created by bees whilst performing the dance was an important aspect of communications that other bees responded too. Therefore, this suggests Von Frisch’s findings may be too simplistic and not a full explanation of bees’ communication patterns.

Question 12

Language, Thought, and Communication

Explain what is meant by survival as a function of animal communciation and give an example.

AO1

Animal Communication

Answer 12

To increase survival for them and their offspring, they warn others among their species when there is a predator nearby so they can run or hide. Examples include:
* Vervet monkeys make alarm calls to warn when there is a predator (e.g. leapord)
* Rabbits lift their tail high, pin their ears back, and leap forward when they see a predator

Question 13

Language, Thought, and Communication

Explain what is meant by reproduction as a function of animal communciation and give an example.

AO1

Animal Communication

Answer 13

To attract a mate using mating displays to signal they want to reproduce. These displays also communicate genetic fittness. Females who mate with healthy males are more likely to have healthy offspring who survive and reproduce over generations. Examples include:
* Male peacocks stretch out their plummage (feathers); a full plummage indicates genetic fitness (healthiness)

Question 14

Language, Thought, and Communication

Explain what is meant by territory as a function of animal communciation and give an example.

AO1

Animal Communication

Answer 14

Many animals mark their territory through scent marking, spreading urine, faeces, or other scents to stop other species invading. Methods like this are better for survival because there is no risk of being harmed or killed. Examples include:
* White rhinos must produce 20-30 dung piles to mark their territory. They also drag their feet through the pile of manure to make a path.

Question 15

Language, Thought, and Communication

Explain what is meant by food as a function of animal communciation and give an example.

AO1

Animal Communication

Answer 15

Using signals to draw attention to food sources. Some use pheromones (chemical scent) which is detected by other rmembers of the same species. Examples include:
* Bees dancing
* Ants leave pheromone trails from the colony to the food source

Question 16

Language, Thought, and Communication

Explain what is meant by ‘planning ahead’ as a property of human communication that is not present in animals.

AO1

Animal Communication

Answer 16

Humans can communicate about things that are not in the present or may not even exist (displacement). Humans can discuss future events or plans using language, for example what they are doing over the weekend

WHEREAS

Animals tend to communicate on things that are physically present like food or predator. They cannot use language to discuss future events like the likelihood of being attacked by a predator next week.

Question 17

Language, Thought, and Communication

Explain what is meant by ‘creativity’ as a property of human communication that is not present in animals.

AO1

Animal Communication

Answer 17

Animals use a closed system. The sounds, gestures, and movements they make only refer to very specific events. Their signals are restricted. They can combine different signals togehter, but not in a way that creates a new meaning.

WHEREAS

Human language is an open system. Humans can combine their language in completely new ways, meaning they can create infinite sentences and new ideas.

Question 18

Language, Thought, and Communication

Explain what is meant by ‘creativity’ as a property of human communication that is not present in animals.

AO1

Animal Communication

Answer 18

Animals use a closed system. The sounds, gestures, and movements they make only refer to very specific events. Their signals are restricted. They can combine different signals together, but not in a way that creates a new meaning.

WHEREAS

Human language is an open system. Humans can combine their language in completely new ways, meaning they can create infinite sentences and new ideas.

Question 19

Language, Thought, and Communication

Explain what is meant by ‘single and multiple channels’ as a property of human communication that is not present in animals.

AO1

Animal Communication

Answer 19

Humans communicate in multiple channels as messages can be expressed in a number of ways including spoken language, written language, braille, sign language, and more.

WHEREAS

Animals communicate in a single channel. For example, ants can only communicate about food using pheromones. They cannot speak or write down where the food is.

Question 20

Language, Thought, and Communication

What is the difference between verbal and non-verbal communication?

AO1

Non-verbal communication

Answer 20

Verbal communication is sending and receiving messages using words, whereas non-verbal communication is sending and receiving messages without using words such as through body language and facial expressions.

Question 21

Language, Thought, and Communication

Briefly describe and evaluate a study into eye contact’s role in regulating the flow of conversation.

AO1/AO3

Non-verbal communication

Answer 21

Kendon has pairs of ppt meet for the first time and were watched through a two-way mirror. Kendon found that eye contact was important in encouraging turn-taking. Speakers would look away when they were about to speak and give prolonged eye contact as they finished speaking. This signals when each person’s turn to talk was and if not, there were awkward pasues.

One problem with research into eye contact, such as Kendon’s, is that the task is artificial. This is because participants were having conversations with strangers which may not be representative of eye contact in real life. People may make more eye contact with someone they know compared to with strangers. Therefore, this lowers the validity of Kendon’s research.

Question 22

Language, Thought, and Communication

Briefly describe and evaluate a study into eye contact’s role in signalling attraction.

AO1/AO3

Non-verbal communication

Answer 22

Conway et al showed several hundred students pictures of males or females either looking straight at them or looking away. The pictures with eye contact were rated as more attractive than those looking away even with a negative expression like disgust. They concluded that eye contact has an evolutionary purpose in attracting a mate.

One problem with research into eye contact is that they often use rating scales to make judgements. Rating scales are not objective and rely on people’s opinions of what attractiveness is, which is open to bias and will differ depending on the person. This reduces the validity of the research into eye contact.

Question 23

Language, Thought, and Communication

Briefly describe and evaluate a study into eye contact’s role in expressing emotion.

AO1/AO3

Non-verbal communication

Answer 23

Adams and Kleck gave aprticipants pictures with different emotions; joy, anger, sadness, and fear. Some were lookign straight at the participants and some where looking away. The participants were asked to judge how intense the emotion was. They found that joy and anger were most intense with a direct gaze, and sadness and fear were most intense with an averted gaze. This suggests that we use eye contact in different ways to express how intense the emotion we are experiencing is.

One strength of this research is that it explains an important feature of autism. People with autism often struggle to communicate and read other people’s emotions. This may be because they often struggle to make eye contact in conversations and interactions. Therefore, the research is important in encouraging people with autism to make eye contact to help manage social situations.

Question 24

Language, Thought, and Communication

Briefly describe and evaluate a study into eye contact’s role in expressing emotion.

AO1/AO3

Non-verbal communication

Answer 24

Adams and Kleck gave participants pictures with different emotions; joy, anger, sadness, and fear. Some were lookign straight at the participants and some where looking away. The participants were asked to judge how intense the emotion was. They found that joy and anger were most intense with a direct gaze, and sadness and fear were most intense with an averted gaze. This suggests that we use eye contact in different ways to express how intense the emotion we are experiencing is.

One strength of this research is that it explains an important feature of autism. People with autism often struggle to communicate and read other people’s emotions. This may be because they often struggle to make eye contact in conversations and interactions. Therefore, the research is important in encouraging people with autism to make eye contact to help manage social situations.

Question 25

# Language, Thought, and Communication Briefly describe a study into body language's role in **posture**. | AO1/AO3 ## Footnote Non-verbal communication

Answer 25

McGinley et al con ducted an experiment where participants were shown slides of a woman confederate discussing her views on various topics, such as whether to give waiters tips and the use of nuclear weapons. Participants gave their views on the topic beforehand and after viewing the slide. If the woman on the slide had an open posture, participants were more likely to change their views, whereas if she had a closed posture, participants were less likely to change their views. This suggests that posture influences the way people perceive us, as an open posture signal confidence and friendliness, whereas a closed posture signals hostility, defensiveness, or insecurity.

Question 26

# Language, Thought, and Communication Briefly describe a study into body language's role in **postural echo**. | AO1/AO3 ## Footnote Non-verbal communication

Answer 26

Tannar and Chartrand conducted a study to investigate the influence of postural echo on people's opinions. Ppt were asked to give feedback on a drink called 'Vigor'. With one group they used postural echo, and the other they did not (independent groups design). At the end of the experiment, the group who had experienced postural echo were more likely to say they liked the drink and that it would be successful in the future compared to the other group. This suggests that postural echo creates a positive attitude and friendly environment.

Question 27

# Language, Thought, and Communication What is meant by postural echo? | AO1 ## Footnote Non-verbal communication

Answer 27

Postural echo refers to the tendency for people to ‘mirror’ those to whom they agree with/find attractive/are friends with. One way of signalling a positive attitude towards another person is to adopt the same pose as them.

Question 28

# Language, Thought, and Communication Briefly describe a study into body language's role in **touch**. | AO1 ## Footnote Non-verbal communication

Answer 28

Fisher et al handed out books to female students in the library. These books were handed out by a librarian (confederate). Half the students were touched lightly on the hand and half were not. Afterwards, ppt were asked about the librarian and the librarian. Those who had been touched spoke about them more positively than those who hadn't. This suggests that touch has positive, friendly properties.

Question 29

# Language, Thought, and Communication Evaluate (the research into) body language as a form of non-verbal communication. | AO3 ## Footnote Non-verbal communication

Answer 29

One weakness of the research into body language is that it raises ethical issues. This is because participants are deceived and not told the true aims of the study. For example, in Fisher et al's experiment, participants were not told that the librarian may or may not touch their hand as this may have led to demand characteristics. This devalues the research into body langauge and devalues psychology's reputation. Another weakness of the research is that it has been criticised due to lack of control over extraneous variables. For example, Fisher et al's was a field experiment conducted in a library where there may have been extraneous variables such as the ease of using the library that affected their rating of the librarian. This reudces the validity of the research into body language. However, a strength of the research into body language is that it has practical applications in the real world. People can ise touch and posture in order to build a rapport with people. This would be good for jobs such as doctors, therapists, and salesmen to build relationships with patients and customers. Therefore, the research into body language is an important part of applied psychology.

Question 30

# Language, Thought, and Communication Briefly describe a study into **cultural difference's** role in personal space. | AO1 ## Footnote Non-verbal communication

Answer 30

Robert summer observed groups of white English people and groups of Arab people in a conversation. English people were comfortable with a space of between 1-1.5 metres, whereas for Arab people it was much closer. Collett found that when English men were trained to stand closer and give more eye contact to Arab men, they were better liked compared to English men who did not stand as close. These studies suggest that personal space distances vary between cultures.

Question 31

# Language, Thought, and Communication Briefly describe a study into **gender difference's** role in personal space. | AO1 ## Footnote Non-verbal communication

Answer 31

Men generally prefer larher social distanes when speaking to other men compared to women. Byrne found that men prefer to sit opposite each other whereas women prefer to sit s-de by side. Fisher and Byrne set up a study where a confederate would invade the personal space of men and women in a library. This would either happen from the front (face to face) or from the side. Female ppt reported feeling more stressed and uncomfortable when the stranger invaded their space from the side, whereas men felt more uncomfortable when it was from the front. This suggests there is a clear difference between the personal space preference between men and women.

Question 32

# Language, Thought, and Communication Briefly describe a study into **status difference's** role in personal space. | AO1 ## Footnote Non-verbal communication

Answer 32

Status refers to someone's rank or position within society or workplace. Zahn found that people who have a similar or equal status tend to maintain a closer personal space than those with an unequal status. In their study, 45 workers from a manufacturing company were observed at work. It was found that those with a lower status did not approach those with a higher status as closely as they did with those of a similar position suggesting status affects personal space.

Question 33

# Language, Thought, and Communication Evaluate (the research into) personal space as a form of non-verbal communication. | AO3 ## Footnote Non-verbal communication

Answer 33

One weakness of the research into body language is that it raises ethical issues. This is because participants are deceived and not told the true aims of the study. For example, in Zahn's study into status, the workers were not told they were being observed about their personal space with individuals of different status as this may have led to demand characteristics. This devalues the research into body langauge and devalues psychology's reputation. Another weakness of the research is that it has been criticised due to lack of control over extraneous variables. For example, in Sommer's study into culture, English men may have stood further away from the men due to them being stranger rather than because they prefer a larger personal space. This reudces the validity of the research into body language. However, a strength of the research into body language is that it has practical applications in the real world. Understanding culture, gender, and status differences can help avoid offending people in every day life. For example, knowing that particular cultures prefer to keep their distance means that an individual will stand further away. This would be particularly helpful for jobs like doctors that need to build a rapport with their patients. Therefore, the research into body language is an important part of applied psychology.

Question 34

# Language, Thought, and Communication Describe Darwin's evolutionary theory of non-verbal behaviour. | AO1 ## Footnote Non-verbal communication

Answer 34

* Darwin argued that genes that improve an animal's chance of survival are passed onto the next generation. * Genes are selected through the natural process that requires no thought on the animal's part (natural selection). * Reproduction is as important as this passes on the advantageous genes. * Characteristics and behaviours that promote survival and reproduction are adaptive. Some behaviours have evolved to promote reproductive chances. * Darwin said that non-verbal communication has evolved in animals as a way of expressing emotion, which are known as serviceable habits. These are characteristics that would have been adaptive and aided in survival and/or reproduction. * They have been passed down the gene pool and may no longer have the same purpose but still show how others feel. For example, an animal who is about to bite may bare its teeth. Humans do not bite others, however baring teeth is still a sign of aggression.

Question 35

# Language, Thought, and Communication Evaluate Darwin's evolutionary theory. | AO3 ## Footnote Non-verbal communication

Answer 35

One strength of Darwin's theory is research from studies into newborn babies. These studies have shown babies have social releasers from birth, which are non-verbal behaviors such as smiling, laughing and making eye contact. This makes adults want to take care of children and look after them. Without an adult looking after them, they wouldn't survive. This supports Darwin's evolutionary explanation because it shows that non-verbal communication in innate and present from birth to help infants survive. One weakness of Darwin's theory comes from research into cultural differences in non-verbal communication. Research has found that English men maintain a personal space of 1 - 1.5 meters when communicating with someone, whereas for Arab men, it is much closer. Arab men also preferred English men who maintained a closer distance and maintained eye contact with them. Cultural differences go against Darwin's evolutionary explanation because it suggests that behaviour is learnt depending on the norms of that culture. If they were innate, the behaviours would be universal (the same in every culture).

Question 36

# Language, Thought, and Communication Outline Yuki's study of emoticons. | AO1 ## Footnote Non-verbal communication

Answer 36

Yuki's aim was to investigate cultural differences in reading facial expressions between Japanese and American participants. 95 students from Japan and 118 students from America were presented with 6 emoticons with different combinations of eyes and mouths. Some mouths were happy, some sad, and some neutral. This was the same for the eyes. The participants were asked to rate each emoticon based on how happy they thought it was on a scale of 1-9 (9 being happiest, 1 being the saddest). They found that Japanese ppts gave higher ratings to faces with happy eyes compared to American ppts. This was particularly true when the mouth was sad. On the other hand, the American ppt gave higher ratings of happiness when the mouths were happy, even when the eyes were sad. Therefore, Yuki concluded that Japanese and American people interpret facial expressions differently. Japanese people were more likely to focus on the eyes whereas American people were more like to focus on the mouth.

Question 37

# Language, Thought, and Communication Evaluate Yuki's study of emoticons. | AO3 ## Footnote Non-verbal communication

Answer 37

One weakness of Yuki's research into emoticons is that it has low population validity. This is because they used a small sample of only 95 participants from Japan and 118 from America which makes it harder to generalise the findings into non-verbal communication to the wider population lowering the validity of the research into cultural differences in non-verbal communication. A further weakness of Yuki's study is that the study used an artificial task. This is because the participants were asked to rate thew happiness of emoticons which is non a task representative of nonverbal communication in real life. There are other tell-tale signs of how someone is feeling, such as tone of voice not just the eyes and the mouth. They also only focus on happy and sad, what about other emotions such as anger or fear. This reduces the validity of Yuki's study into non-verbal communication. However, Yuki's findings have high reliability. He repeated his study again but with pictures of real faces rather than emotions. He found the same cultural differences between Japan and the USA suggesting high reliability of his research into facial expressions.