Memory Flashcards
(27 cards)
≥Process of memory
What is storage?
AO1
When information is kept in your brain for a period of time, even up to a lifetime.
Process of memory
What is encoding (input)?
AO1
Translating information into a form the brain can understand.
Process of memory
What is retrieval (output)?
AO1
When information is located in the brain and brought back.
Process of memory
List 3 ways to retrieve memories and what they mean.
AO1
1) Recognition - remembering an item based on the fact that you have seen it before.
2) Cued recall - when you are struggling to recall information and are given a ‘clue/cue’ which can help you retrieve information.
3) Free recall - when you are able to retrieve information without any ‘clues/cues’.
Process of memory
What are the 3 types of encoding?
AO1
- visual encoding (appearance)
- acoustic encoding (sound)
- semantic encoding (meaning)
Process of memory
Outline Baddeley’s research (4).
AO1
The aim in this investigation was to see if there was any difference between the type of encoding for STM and LTM. He used 4 groups of participants and gave each a list of words. The investigation was carried out in a laboratory (highly controlled) and each group of participants were read 12 sets of 5 words and had 1 second for each word; after every 5 words the participants were asked to recall the words. Group A and B volunteered for immediate recall, with group A recalling 10% of the acoustically similar words, and group B recalling 82% of the acoustically dissimilar words. Group C and D volunteered for delayed recall (participants spent 20 minutes doing another task before recalling the words), with group C recalling 57% of the semantically similar words, and group D recalling 85% of the semantically dissimilar words. In conclusion, we encode acoustically in our STM and semantically in our LTM.
Process of memory
Evaluate Baddeley’s research.
AO3
A strength of Baddeley’s research into encoding is that the extraneous variables were controlled. For example, hearing was controlled by giving participants a hearing test. Therefore, we can be more certain that the type of words used was the factor that affected participants’ recall and not any other factors. This increases the overall internal validity of the research.
On the other hand, a weakness of the research is that long term memory may not have been tested in the study. Participants were asked to wait 20 minutes before recall of the words. One could argue this does not mean the words are in long term memory. Therefore, the conclusion that long term memory encodes semantically may not be accurate.
Another weakness is that encoding in short-term memory does not always involve sound. Other studies (e.g. Brandimonte et al.) have found that if pictures are used rather than words then visual encoding is used. This suggests that information does not always go into out short-term memory in acoustic form.
ADD: lab experiments are highly controlled, but lack ecological validity
Process of memory
List the 3 types of long-term memory and what they mean/refer to.
AO1
1) episodic - based on our experiences in life (events), often remembered through who, what, when, why, where etc.
2) semantic - revolved around meaning, being based on knowledge that you share with others, or may not remember learning.
3) procedural - based on remembering how to do things (muscle memory); not much thought is required.
Process of memory
Evaluate the (research into) different types of LTM.
AO3
Research to support the different types of LTM was conducted by Tulving. Using a PET brain scanner and radioactive gold isotope, he showed activation in the temporal and fronal lobes for episodic memories and activation in the parietal and occipital lobes for semantic memories. This suggests the LTM stores are separate and associated with different regions of the brain.
Another strength of different types of LTM is that it is supported by case studies of amnesic patients. For example, Clive Wearing lost most of his episodic memories but not his procedural memories as he could still play the piano. This supports the existence of different LTM types as two tasks require different types of memory.
However, a weakness is that distinctive types of long-term memory are difficult to separate. There isn’t a clear difference between episodic and semantic memories because memories are often a mixture of types. Therefore, having different types of LTM may be oversimplified.
Structures of memory
Draw and label the Multi Store Model of Memory (MSM).
AO1
https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%2Fonline-learning-college.com%2Fknowledge-hub%2Fgcses%2Fgcse-psychology-help%2Fatkinson-and-shiffrin-theory%2F&psig=AOvVaw05jC4UrpQOnFQ00Yd3D3Qh&ust=1696429774154000&source=images&cd=vfe&opi=89978449&ved=0CBEQjRxqFwoTCLCK58iL2oEDFQAAAAAdAAAAABAD
Structures of memory
Outline and explain the Multi Store Model of Memory (MSM).
AO1
The MSM of memory describes the flow between three permanent storage systems of memory: the sensory register, short-term memory, and long-term memory.
The SM is where information from the senses is stored by only for a duration of approximately half a second before it is forgotten. It is sense-specific, so whiever sense is registered will match the way it is consequently held in the brain.
However, if attended to, sensory information moves into the STM for temporary storage, which will be encoded visually (as an image), acoustically (as a sound) or, less often, semantically (through its meaning). STM is thought to have a capacity of 5-9 items and duration of around 30 seconds.
Frequently rehearsing information helps to retain information in the STM, and merge it to LTM, which is mainly encoded semantically. Information can be stored and retrieved for up to any duration, and equally has a seemingly unlimited capacity.
Structures of memory
Evaluate the MSM of Memory.
AO3
(Multi-Store Model of Memory)
A strength of the MSM of memory is that there is support for the existence of different memory stores. Baddeley’s research on encoding shows that STM and LTM encode information differently. He found that individuals encode acoustically in their short-term memory and semantically in their long-term memory. This supports the idea that there are different stores for the two types of memory.
However, the research that supports it, such as Baddeley’s study, uses artificial tasks. For example, participants are often asked to learn a list of words or nonsense syllables. This is not representative of how we would use memory is every day life. Therefore, this lowers the overall internal validity of the research and weakens the support for the MSM of memory.
Additionally, the the model is oversimplified because it suggest we only have one store for STM and one story for LTM. Research has shown that STM can be divided further into visual and acoustic stores, and LTM into episodic, semantic, and procedural memory. Therefore, memory is more complex than the model proposes and cannot be used solely to explain the structure of memory.
ADD: it supports Baddeley’s use of artificial materials
Structures of memory
Define the primacy effect and recency effect.
AO1
- Primary effect: an individual’s tendency to better remember the first piece of information they encounter than the information they receive later on.
- Recency effect: an individual’s tendency to better remember the most recent piece of information they encounter than the information they first receive.
Structures of memory
Outline Murdock’s
serial position curve.
AO1
(on specification)
The aim was to provide evidence for the existence of the separate stores for memory (STM and LTM). It was conducted in a laboratory to control possible extraneous variables. Procedures were standardised to ensure the study could be replicated easily. 16 Participants were presented with a list of 20 words at the rate of 1 word per second. Once they heard all 20 words, they were given 90 seconds to recall as many words from the list as they could remember (in any order). This is called free recall. The test was repeated with the same participants 80 times over a few days, each time with a different list of 20 words. Murdock found that the words at the end of the lists were recalled first (recency effect), and the words at the start of the list were also recalled well (primacy effect), whereas the words in the middle of the list were not recalled as accurately. These results were displayed in a line graph called the serial position curve. Murdock concluded that the serial position curve provides evidence for the separate STM and LTM stores in the MSM of memory. The last few words were recalled because they were still readily available in the STM, and the first words were rehearsed and passed to the LTM store.
Structures of memory
Evaluate Murdock’s
serial position curve.
AO1
(on specification)
A strength of Murdock’s serial position curve study is that it was carried out in laboratory conditions. This meant there was a high control over extraneous variables such as the familiarity of the words. Therefore, we can be certain that it was the position of the words that affected the recall and not any other extraneous factors. This allows us to establish a cause and effect between the position of the word in the list and the likelihood of accurate recall.
However, a weakness of Murdock’s serial position curve study is that the task was artificial. Murdock used lists of words which relates to just one type of memory. Therefore, the results don’t relate to how we use our memories in other ways, such as for personal events. This lowers the overall internal validity of the research into the primacy and recency effect.
Another strength of Murdock’s serial position curve study is that research with amnesiacs supports the conclusions of the study. Carlesimo et al found that found that some amnesiacs cannot store long-term memories and do not show primacy effect but do show recency effect.This shows that primacy effect is related to LTM, strengthening the support for primacy and recency effect.
strength applies to all laboratory experiments
Active Process of Memory
What is (Bartlett’s) theory of reconstructive memory? Outline the theory.
AO1
(on specification)
- The theory of reconstructive memory states that recollections are altered so they make more sense to us. Bartlett proposed that human memory is not a literal reproduction of the past, but instead relies on constructive processes that are sometimes prone to error or distortion (change).
- We change our memories to fit in with what we already know about the world. This means that memories may not be an accurate version of events.
- Memory is an active process in which we try to make sense of events and information using our previous knowledge and experience (effort after meaning). Individuals recall the meaning of events rather than specific details. After an event. individuals may make an effort to interpret the meaning in more familiar terms to make sense of fragments.
- We alter our memories so that they fit in with our social and cultural expectations/schemas. The way we store and recall information can therefore be influenced by stereotypes we develop (e.g. from film or peers).
- Bartlett’s War of the Ghosts study supports reconstructive memory as an active process.
Active Process of Memory
Describe Bartlett’s War of the Ghosts study.
AO1
Bartlett conducted a series of studies to show how memories are formed through reconstruction. His hypothesis was that if a person was given a story or picture then asked to recall it over a period of weeks or years, their recollection would be endlessly transformed.
His aim was to investigate whether people’s memory of a story is affected by previous knowledge (schemas) and the extent of which memory is reconstructed. Bartlett asked British participants to read a native American Folk story (a story from a different culture). After a while (e.g. 15 minutes) participants were asked to repeat the story to another person, who then recalled it to another person. Each time the story was reproduced, a record was made of the story that each person told. He asked them again and again over a period of months and years, which he called serial reproduction.
Bartlett found that participants remembered the main idea of the story, but changed unfamiliar elements to make sense of the story by using terms more familiar to their own cultural expectations. For example, the story was shorted, mainly by ommisions. Some phrases were changed to language/concepts from the participants’ own culture (e.g. boat instead of canoe). Bartlett concluded that our memory is not an exact copy of what we hear, and is instead distorted by what we already know about the world (schemas). We remember fragments and use our own knowledge of social situations to reconstruct memory.
Active Process of Memory
What is a schema?
AO1
a cognitive framework or (of a) concept that helps organise and interpret information
Active Process of Memory
What is meant by ‘effort after meaning’?
AO1
the effort to piece together fragments of memory - we try to fit what we remember with what we really know and understand about the world.
Active Process of Memory
Evaluate the theory of reconstructive behaviour (memory).
AO3
Research to support was conducted by Bartlett (1932). It reflects how memory is used in real life and is more realistic than research that uses word lists. Before Bartlett, researchers used nonsense syllables to research memory. This is an artificial task and therefore does not reflect how we use our memory in real life. From this reserch we can be more certain of how reconstructive memory works in every day life, as people often hear stories and are asked to retell them to other friends or family.
A weakness is that the theory suggests that all memories are inaccurate or affected by social expectations. Other research has shown that memory can be very accurate, for example in the War of the Ghosts study many people remembered the line ‘something black came out of his mouth’ because it was quite a distinctive phrase. This shows that people do not always actively reconstruct memories; it may only happen on a few occasions.
On the other hand, a further strength of the theory of reconstructive memory is that it demonstrates problems with Eyewitness testimony (EWT). Eyewitnesses are regarded as very important as evidence in court to give an accurate picture of what happened during the crime. Some witnesses are required to swear under oath. Bartlett’s research shows that memory isn’t always accurate and can be affected by our expectations of what happened. Research has shown the inaccuracy of EWT, and now more reliance is paid on DNA results.
Active Process of Memory
Give one strength and one weakness of Bartlett’s research.
AO3
War of the Ghost
Bartlett’s original study was conducted with students from Cambridge University who were studying English. One may argue that Bartlett’s sample was biased. Students studying English will be accustomed to reading different pieces of texts and comprehension tasks will therefore have a better recall of the story compared to other types of students. Therefore, this reduces the external validity of Bartlett’s study and limits the support for memory being a reconstructive process.
Study was conducted rather casually with no set standards about where and how people recalled the information. The participants were not given very specific instruction on the outset about what they should do. Another study found that recall was much more accurate when participants were told from the beginning that accurate recall was important (Gauld and Stephenson), although participants still made errors. This suggests that recall is more accurate than what Bartlett suggests.
Active Process of Memory
Define the 3 factors that can affect memory.
AO1
- Interference: a memory phenomenon in which some memories interfere with the retrieval of others, usually because they are similar
- Context: the environment in which an event or memory happens - can act as a cue (trigger) to recall previously encoded memories
- False memory: when an individual remembers something that hasn’t actually happened, sometimes due to memory reconstruction.
Active Process of Memory
What is the difference between proactive and retroactive interference?
AO1
Proactive interference is when a past memory interferes with a new piece of information. Retroactive interference is when a recent/new memory interferes with an old piece of information.
proactive-past / retroactive-recent
Active Process of Memory
Evaluate interference as a factor affecting the accuracy of memory.
AO3
Research to support the theory of interference was conducted by McGeoch and McDonald. They aimed to see whether the accuracy of recalling a list of words would be affected by a competing set of words. They found that when participants recalled the initial list of words, their memory was affected by the new list, especially when the new list of words had similar meanings. This shows that interference from a second set of information reduces the accuracy of memory, and that the effect is strongest when the two sets of information are similar.
However, a weakness of this study is that the task is artificial. People do not usually have to recall a list of similar words in real life when testing their memory, reducing the ecological validity and generalizability of the research. Therefore, the research may not reflect the accuracy of memory in real life, and should be supplemented for more reflective memory tests to support interference as a factor affecting memory accuracy.
Furthermore, the research ignores other reasons why the accuracy of memory may be affected. Interference may not be the only reason people forget. For example, the context we learn information in can also have an effect on our recall, Therefore, interference is not a complete explanation of why our memories are inaccurate.
