Learning

Question 1

What results from interactions between an organism and its environment?

Answer 1

Behaviour

Includes reflexive, instinctual, and learned behaviours.

Question 2

Define reflexive behaviour.

Answer 2

Automatic, inborn responses

Example: newborn eye-blinking.

Question 3

What is instinctual behaviour?

Answer 3

Complex inherited behaviours

Example: imprinting, migration.

Question 4

What is learned behaviour?

Answer 4

Behaviour changes due to experience.

Question 5

Define learning.

Answer 5

A relatively permanent change in behaviour or knowledge due to experience.

Question 6

What is habituation?

Answer 6

Decreased response to repeated stimulus.

Question 7

What is classical conditioning?

Answer 7

Learning by associating two stimuli.

Question 8

What is instrumental (operant) conditioning?

Answer 8

Learning based on behaviour consequences (reward/punishment).

Question 9

What is observational learning?

Answer 9

Learning by watching others.

Question 10

What is the process of classical conditioning?

Answer 10

1. Neutral Stimulus (NS) causes no response; 2. Unconditioned Stimulus (US) causes Unconditioned Response (UR); 3. NS paired with US → NS becomes Conditioned Stimulus (CS); 4. CS triggers Conditioned Response (CR).

Question 11

Who discovered classical conditioning?

Answer 11

Ivan Pavlov.

Question 12

Provide an example of classical conditioning.

Answer 12

Tone (CS) + food (US) → salivation (UR); tone alone → salivation (CR).

Question 13

What is stimulus substitution?

Answer 13

CS replaces US in triggering response (CR ≈ UR).

Question 14

What is the compensatory-reaction hypothesis?

Answer 14

CR can be opposite of UR (e.g., drug tolerance).

Question 15

What is drug tolerance?

Answer 15

Conditioning to environmental cues can cause tolerance; overdose risk rises in new environments.

Question 16

What is acquisition in classical conditioning?

Answer 16

Learning the CS-US association.

Question 17

What timing is most effective for classical conditioning?

Answer 17

Delayed conditioning.

Question 18

What is extinction in the context of classical conditioning?

Answer 18

CR fades if CS presented without US.

Question 19

What is spontaneous recovery?

Answer 19

CR can reappear after rest.

Question 20

What is stimulus generalization?

Answer 20

CR responds to stimuli similar to CS.

Question 21

What is stimulus discrimination?

Answer 21

Learning to respond only to CS, not similar stimuli.

Question 22

What is flooding in behaviour therapy?

Answer 22

Prolonged exposure to feared stimulus to extinguish fear.

Question 23

What is systematic desensitization?

Answer 23

Gradual exposure + relaxation to reduce fear.

Question 24

What is blocking in classical conditioning?

Answer 24

Learning blocked if a strong CS already predicts US.

Question 25

What is higher-order conditioning?

Answer 25

CS used to condition new stimulus.

Question 26

What is latent learning?

Answer 26

Learning occurs without reinforcement; revealed later.

Question 27

What are primary reinforcers?

Answer 27

Innately affect behaviour (e.g., food, pain).

Question 28

What is positive reinforcement?

Answer 28

Add stimulus to increase behaviour.

Question 29

What is negative reinforcement?

Answer 29

Remove aversive stimulus to increase behaviour.

Question 30

What is positive punishment?

Answer 30

Add stimulus to decrease behaviour.

Question 31

What is negative punishment?

Answer 31

Remove stimulus to decrease behaviour.

Question 32

What is Premack's Principle?

Answer 32

High-probability behaviours can reinforce low-probability behaviours.

Question 33

What is continuous reinforcement (CRF)?

Answer 33

Every response reinforced—good for learning.

Question 34

What is partial reinforcement?

Answer 34

Some responses reinforced—better for maintaining behaviour.

Question 35

What is extinction in operant conditioning?

Answer 35

Behaviour weakens when reinforcement stops.

Question 36

What is time out in behaviour modification?

Answer 36

Negative punishment: removal of positive reinforcers to reduce behaviour.

Question 37

What is stimulus control?

Answer 37

Behaviour controlled by antecedent stimuli.

Question 38

What is the significance of biological constraints in conditioning?

Answer 38

Instinctive behaviours can interfere with conditioning.

Question 39

What is the challenge in studying comparative cognition?

Answer 39

Anthropocentrism biases interpretation.

Question 40

What are the key differences between animal communication and human language?

Answer 40

Lacks symbolic representation, syntax, productivity, and displacement.

Question 41

What was significant about Washoe's sign language learning?

Answer 41

Learned ~160 signs, but lacked syntax.

Question 42

What is Kanzi known for?

Answer 42

Learned ~200 lexigrams, shows some syntax understanding.

Question 43

What can animal cognition and communication help us understand?

Answer 43

Evolution of language and cognition.