Learning and Memory Flashcards
1
Q
What is learning?
A
The prices of quiring new and relatively permanent information or behaviours
2
Q
What are the three types of learning?
A
Nonassociative; associative; and observational
3
Q
What is nonassociative learning?
A
A change in response to a stimulus due to repeated exposure to that stimulus
4
Q
What is a stimulus?
A
Any event or situation that evokes a response
5
Q
What are the two types of non-associative learning?
A
Habituation and sensitisation
6
Q
What is habituation?
A
A process in which the magnitude of response to a specific stimulus decreases with repeated exposure to the stimulus
7
Q
What for key properties characterise habituation?
A
1) frequency of stimulus presentation
2) strength of stimulus
3) dishabituation
4) habituation of dishabituation
8
Q
What properties of habituation define the magnitude of response?
A
Frequency and strength
9
Q
What is dishabituation?
A
Following habituation, a single presentation of a different stimulus restores the response to the original stimulus
10
Q
What is habituation of dishabituation?
A
The more the response to return the response of the original stimulus, the less effect the new stimulus presents
11
Q
What is sensory adaptation?
A
A physiological phenomenon that occurs when an animal can no longer detect a repeated stimulus
12
Q
What is fatigue?
A
It reveals a progressive decrease in response due to incapacitated muscles
13
Q
What is sensitisation?
A
The process in which the magnitude of response to a stimulus increases with repeated exposure to that stimulus
14
Q
What is the dual process theory of habituation and sensitisation?
A
It states that both neural processes occur at the same time and the resulting behavioural responses is a net effect of the two processes
15
Q
What system does habituation stimulate? When is this system activated?
A
S-R system; is stimulated every time a stimulus elicits a response
16
Q
What system does sensitisation stimulate? When is this system activated?
A
State system; only activated with particularly arousing events
17
Q
What is associative learning?
A
Learn that one event occurs with another
18
Q
What are the two types of associative learning?
A
Classical conditioning and operant conditioning
19
Q
What is conditioning?
A
The process in which a particular behaviour becomes dependent upon the presence of a stimulus
20
Q
What is a stimulus?
A
Any event or situation that evokes a response
21
Q
What are three types of stimuli?
A
Neutral, conditioned, and unconditioned
22
Q
What is a neutral stimulus?
A
A stimulus then usually produces no specific response other than focusing attention
23
Q
What is an unconditioned stimulus?
A
A stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response
24
Q
What is a conditioned stimulus?
A
A stimulus that was previously neutral, but after becoming associated with the unconditioned stimulus it eventually elicits a conditioned response
25
What is an unconditioned response?
A response that is unlearned and occurs naturally with presentation of an unconditioned stimulus
26
What is a conditioned response?
A learned response to previously neutral but now conditioned stimulus
27
When does classical conditioning occur?
Occurs when a condition stimulus is paired with an unconditioned stimuli us, causing an association to form between the two
28
Who started classical conditioning?
Ivan Pavlov
29
What is acquisition?
The initial learning of the stimulus response relationship
30
In what order are the condition stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus presented in forward conditioning?
The condition stimulus precedes the presentation of the unconditioned stimulus
31
In what order are the condition stimulus and the unconditioned stimuli us presented in simultaneous conditioning?
The condition stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus are presented and terminated simultaneously
32
What is another name for higher-order conditioning?
Second order conditioning
33
What is higher-order conditioning?
And existing condition stimulus is paired with the neutral stimulus creating a second and often weaker condition stimulus
34
When are the unconditioned stimulus and conditioned stimulus presented in backward conditioning?
The unconditioned stimulus is presented before the condition stimulus
35
What happens in trace conditioning?
The condition stimulus is presented and then the unconditioned stimulus is presented; there is no overlap
36
What happens in delay conditioning?
The conditioned stimulus is presented before the unconditioned stimulus and continues throughout the presentation of the unconditioned stimulus
37
What are the two types of forward conditioning?
Trace conditioning and delay conditioning
38
What is extinction in relation to classical conditioning?
The diminishing of a conditioned response due to repeated exposure of the conditioned stimulus in the absence of the unconditioned stimulus
39
What is spontaneous recovery?
The reappearance of a weekend conditioned response after a rest period
40
When the stimulus generalisation occur?
It occurs when a conditioned response to a specific stimulus transfer to the other stimuli to the conditioned stimulus
41
What is stimulus discrimination in classical conditioning?
The learned ability to distinguish between a condition stimulus and other stimuli that have not been associated with an unconditioned stimulus
42
What is operant conditioning?
Learning that occurs by associating in action with the consequence
43
What is another term for operant conditioning?
Instrumental conditioning
44
What are two names for behaviour that is a result of operant conditioning?
Instrumental behaviour or goal directed behaviour
45
What does the Law of Effect contend?
Favourable consequences strengthen behaviour and unfavourable consequences weaken behaviour
46
What is the procedure by which operant conditioning behaviour is learned?
Shaping
47
What does shaping look like in operant conditioning?
Reinforcement of successive approximations toward a desired response
48
What is instinctive behaviour in operant conditioning?
Species specific unlearned behaviour that is often a response to particular environmental stimuli
49
What is extinction within operant conditioning?
The reduction of an instrumental behaviour when it is no longer reinforced
50
In operant conditioning what does a discriminative stimulus project?
The presence of reinforcement
51
In operant conditioning what does a extinction stimulus project?
The absence of reinforcement
52
What is acquisition in classical conditioning?
The period of time where the condition stimulus comes to elicit the conditioned response
53
What is extinction in classical conditioning?
Diminishing of a conditioned response through repeated exposure of the conditioned stimulus in the absence of the unconditioned stimulus
54
What is spontaneous recovery in classical conditioning?
Reappearance of a weekend conditioned response after a rest period
55
What is generalisation in classical conditioning?
The tendency to respond to other stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus
56
What is discrimination in classical conditioning?
The learned ability to distinguish between a condition stimulus and other stimuli that have not been associated with an unconditioned stimulus
57
What is acquisition in operant conditioning?
The period in time where behaviour becomes associated with a consequence
58
What is extinction in operant conditioning?
Reduction of an instrumental behaviour when it is no longer reinforced
59
What is spontaneous recovery in operant conditioning?
Reappearance of a goal directed behaviour after a rest period
60
What is generalisation in operant conditioning?
The tendency to respond to stimuli similar to the reward paired stimuli
61
What is discrimination in operant conditioning?
The learned ability to distinguish between responses that are reinforced and responses that are not reinforced
62
What is reinforcement?
Any event that strengthens or increases the behaviour it follows
63
What are the four types of reinforcement?
Positive, negative, primary, and conditional
64
What is positive reinforcement?
Reinforcement strengthens a response by presenting a pleasurable event or outcome after the response
65
What is negative reinforcement?
Reinforcement strengthens our response by removing or reducing an unfavourable event or outcome
66
How does negative reinforcement differ from punishment?
Negative reinforcement increases a response by ending an aversive event
67
What is primary reinforcement?
It strengthens our response by presenting in unlearned reinforcing stimulus of innate biological values (food)
68
What is conditioned reinforcement? What is another term for this?
Secondary reinforcement; it strengthens our response by presenting a learned stimulus that game is reinforcing power to repairing with the primary reinforcer (grades and money)
69
What are two types of behaviours that describe negative reinforcement?
Escape and avoidance
70
What is escape in negative reinforcement?
Behavioural response that terminates and unpleasant stimulus that is already present
71
What is avoidance in negative reinforcement?
Behaviour that prevents an unpleasant stimulus
72
In operant conditioning what is a reinforcement schedule?
A pattern of the timing and reliability of the presentation
73
What are the two types of reinforcement schedules?
Continuous and partial (intermittent)
74
When is the response reinforced with continuous reinforcement?
A response is reinforced every time it occurs
75
When is the response reinforced with partial reinforcement?
A response is only sometimes reinforced
76
What are the four schedules of partial reinforcement
Fixed ratio, variable ratio, fixed interval, and variable interval
77
What are fixed ratio schedules?
A set number of responses is required for a reward
78
Where are variable ratio schedules?
A random number of responses required to earn a reward
79
What is a fixed interval schedule?
A set amount of time required before a response is rewarded
80
What is a variable interval schedule?
A very able or random amount of time is required before a response is rewarded
81
In operant conditioning what is punishment?
Any event that weekends or decreases the behaviour it follows
82
What are the two types of punishments?
Positive and negative punishments
83
What is positive punishment?
Weakens a response after presenting an aversive stimulus after the response
84
What is negative punishment?
It weakens a response by removing a desirable stimulus following the response
85
What is expectancy in classical conditioning?
A belief that something will happen
86
What is a surprise in classical conditioning?
A discrepancy between what you expect and what you get
87
What is the incentive in operant conditioning?
The value of award, or the expectation in anticipation of its pleasure
88
What do operant conditionists use to control the environment?
Produce deliver actions
89
What do you behaviourists attribute changes in instrumental behaviour to?
Various consequences
90
What do cognitive theorists attribute learning to?
The incentive of a reward rather than the reward itself
91
How do behaviourists and cognitive theorists argue that learning relates to a reward?
Behaviourists argue that the presence of a reward was sufficient for learning
Cognitive theorists believe that a mental representation of the reward might also play a role
92
What is latent learning?
Learning that is not shown in performance until rewards are given for performance
93
What is a cognitive map?
A mental representation of an animals environment environment
94
What is biological predisposition?
The increased chance of developing a pattern of behaviour based on a genetic make up
95
What is instinctive drift?
The tendency of an animal to revert to instinctive, species typical behaviours that interfere with the conditioned response
96
What is another name for autoshaping? What does this term mean?
Sign tracking; and instinctive response to certain stimuli that has not been reinforced by reward or punishment
97
What is observational learning?
Type of learning by watching and imitating others
98
What is modelling?
The process of observing and learning specific behaviour
99
Observational learning is a form of what type of learning?
Social learning
100
What is social learning?
Learning that introduces the influential effects of a model
101
What is the model in social learning?
Someone of authority whose own behaviour changes the behaviour of another
102
Who performed the bobo doll experiment? What did this experiment demonstrate?
Albert Bandura; demonstrated that violence and aggressive actions by adults are learned and later performed by children
103
Who is the father of operant conditioning
B. F. Skinner
104
What was the BF Skinner's main experiment?
Skinner Box; A box that contained a lever, speaker, light, a food dispenser, and advice that recorded responses. This design allowed Skinner to observe and animals control over its responses based upon their associated consequences
105
What main principle of operant conditioning did BF Skinner discover?
Reinforcement
106
What concept of cognitive factors influence did Albert Bandura introduce?
Cognitive factors influence observational learning through vicarious reinforcement and vicarious punishment
107
What is mirror neuron?
A type of neurons that fires both when the animal performs a specific behaviour and when an animal observes another performing that specific behaviour
108
What does the theory of mind refer to?
One's ability to infer another person's mental state and explain and predict their behaviour
109
What is empathy?
The capacity to share or recognise another persons beliefs, desires, and emotions
110
What disorder is dysfunction of the mirror neuron system play a role in?
Autism
111
What is autism?
A neurodevelopmental disorder characterised by impaired social interaction
112
What can the antisocial effects of observational learning do?
Increase undesirable maladaptive behaviours as well as decrease desirable behaviours
113
What are antisocial effects?
Negative effects
114
What are prosocial effects?
Positive effects
115
What can the prosocial effects of observational learning do?
Decrease undesirable and maladaptive behaviours as well as increased desirable behaviours
116
What are two ways the brain changes in response to experience?
Memory and learning
117
What is memory?
The persistence of learning overtime through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information
118
What are the three possible stages the process of memory refers to?
Encoding, storage, and retrieval
119
What is encoding?
The process of transferring information into usable construct that can be stored within the brain
120
Which area of the brain sorts sensory information to determine if it eventually becomes a stored memory?
Hippocampus
121
What is the first step of creating a new memory?
Attention to sensory input which then becomes included with in the various sensory areas of the cortex. These are combined into a single construct in the hippocampus
122
What types of changes occur in the brain during encoding?
Chemical and electrical changes
123
What is synaptic plasticity?
The ability of neuronal synapses to strengthen or weaken in response to increases or decreases in their activity
124
What is the term for sensory information transformed into usable construct become?
Engram
125
What is the process of creating an engram?
1) sensory information. -> 2) biochemical changes in the brain. -> 3) engram
126
What are the four types of encoding?
Visual, acoustic, tactile and semantic
127
What is visual encoding?
Process of transforming visual sensory information
128
Sensory inputs such as colour, shape, or size that is perceived is temporarily stored within?
The iconic memory
129
What is acoustic encoding?
The process of transforming auditory sensory information
130
Auditory input that his words, melodies, and noises or temporarily stored within what?
Echoic memory
131
What is tactile encoding?
The process of encoding the sense of touch
132
Sensory inputs such as vibration, texture, and pressure or temporarily encoded within?
Haptic memory
133
What is semantic encoding?
Encoding of meaningful or contextual sensory information; generally easier to recall because it is been associated with something that already has meaning
134
What two types of processing describe how well information is encoded?
Shallow processing and deep processing
135
What is shallow processing?
Encoding on a rudimentary level based on sensory features
136
What is deep processing?
Something that encode semantically based on meaning and relationships
137
What are the two ways the process of encoding can happen?
Automatically (without conscious effort) or effortfully (processing that requires attention and conscious awareness for encoding to occur)
138
What is chunking?
A processing strategy that organises information into familiar, manageable units enabling better retrieval
139
What is a mnemonic?
A memory aid that translates information into a more retainable form through organisation
140
What type of mnemonic aids especially in the memorisation of lists by taking the first letter of each word with the list to create a memorable phrase?
Acronyms
141
What learning strategy aids in memory formation by distributing study or practice over time for a better encoding?
Distributed practice
142
What is another name for distributed practice?
Spacing effect
143
In memory, what is storage?
The process of retaining information
144
What is the earliest stage of memory that record sensory information?
Sensory memory
145
What are the three types of sensory memory?
Iconic, echoic, haptic
146
How long is sensory memory stored?
A few seconds
147
How long does short-term memory last?
Seconds and minutes
148
Information from sensory memory they get prices into short-term memory is considered our?
Active memory store
149
What does are active memory store?
It holds the information we are currently thinking about, our conscious thoughts and perceptions at any given moment
150
What is the capacity of the short-term memory?
7+/-2
151
Is working memory the same as short-term memory?
No, working memory is the support system for short term memory
152
What working memory?
The STM's underline support system that processes, manipulates, and stores current information
153
Are working memory and short-term memory static or dynamic?
Working memory is dynamic; short-term memory is static
154
What are the four components of working memory?
1) phonological loop
2) visuospatial sketch pad
3) episodic buffer
4) central executive
155
What is the phonological loop?
The subsystem of working memory dedicated to the temporary storage of auditory information
156
What is the visuospatial sketch pad?
The subsystem of working memory dedicated to the temporary storage of visual information
157
What is the episodic buffer?
The portion of working memory that serves to integrate representations for the phonological loop and the visuospatial sketch pad in an ordered, timely, and coherent sequence
158
What is the central executive responsible for in working memory?
Controlling and coordinating the activities of the other three memory systems, ensuring that attention and resources are allocated properly
159
What is rehearsal in memory?
The mental techniques that strengthen the retention of memories
160
What are the two types of rehearsal?
Maintenance rehearsal and elaborative rehearsal
161
What happens in maintenance rehearsal?
The target piece of information is continuously repeated
162
Which type of rehearsal results in long-term storage?
Elaborative rehearsal
163
What type of rehearsal only allows for short-term memory?
Maintenance rehearsal
164
What happens in elaborative rehearsal?
The meaning of the target piece of information is considered and further associated with previously stored information
165
What is long-term memory?
LTM store is a relatively limitless amount of information for a relatively indefinite amount of time
166
What is consolidation in LTM?
The process of stabilising memory
167
More attention that is given to a memory trace in short-term memory, how will this affect the strength of an engram with long-term memory?
The greater the strength
168
What is consolidation?
The process of stabilising a memory
169
What is Long-term potentiation?
The increasing strength of the synapse due to the repeated firing of its neurons
170
What does long-term potentiation enable?
Learning
171
With new experiences and information, these neuronal connections grow and expand to create what?
Neural networks-- thousands of different connections
172
What is the process of recalling previously stored information and consolidating it again in order to maintain, strengthen, or modify a memory?
Reconsolidation
173
What does reconsolidation allow a memory to become? What does this mean?
Labile--ready and open to change
174
What is retrieval?
The process of accessing stored memories
175
What is a node in memory?
One single memory
176
How do you bring back a long term memory into our working memory?
Weaving together many nodes to create a neural network
177
If one node reaches the threshold level of activation, the node will fire and spread what to other nodes in all directions?
Spreading activation
178
Multiple sub threshold levels of activation of a node can also cause the node to do what to cause the node to fire?
Summate
179
What are informative environmental prompts that facilitate memory retrieval?
Retrieval cues
180
What is context dependent memory?
The idea that external cues can ease one's ability to remember something
181
What is the term for internal emotions influencing the facilitation of memory retrieval?
State dependent
182
What is the tendency to remember the first and last items in the list best?
The serial position effect
183
When given a list and you are able to most easily remember The first few terms is called
The primary effect
184
When given a list of the ease of ability to remember the last few terms is considered?
Recency effect
185
Is it easier to retrieve information from a short term storage or long-term storage?
Short-term storage
186
What are three types of memory retrieval?
Recall, recognition, and relearning
187
What is recall?
Remembering information that was previously learned but is currently not physically present
188
What is recognition?
Identifying information that was previously learned, after being cued
189
What is the feeling that you know a stimulus, but either cannot place memory or identify last time it was encountered?
Familiarity
190
What is relearning?
The increased rate of learning information that has previously been learned
191
What is the failure to remember significant information?
Forgetting
192
What are the six main ways we forget something?
1) ineffective coding
2) decay theory
3) interference theory
4) cue dependent forgetting
5) motivated forgetting
6) organic causes
193
What is Information from working/short-term memory they asked to enter a long-term storage?
Ineffective coding
194
What does the decay theory memory loss to a function of?
Time
195
What curve did Hermann Ebbinghaus create? What did this curve explain?
Forgetting curve; explain the ability to retain information as a function of time
196
What theory suggests forgetting occurs due to memory disruptions from both previously learned information and newly presented information?
Interference theory
197
What are the two forms of interference that can occur?
Proactive and retroactive
198
What is proactive interference?
Old memories disrupt the retrieval of newer memories
199
What is retroactive interference?
New memories disrupt the retrieval of older memories
200
What is another term for cue dependent forgetting?
Context dependent forgetting
201
What is cue dependent forgetting?
The idea that target information is present in long-term memory, but is currently and temporarily in accessible
202
What is the tip of the tongue phenomenon?
When someone cannot recall something but feel retrieval is imminent
203
What is another term for motivated forgetting?
Repression
204
What is a defence mechanism the mind employs to forget unpleasant memories?
Motivated forgetting or repression
205
Any deficit in memory due to trauma, no logical disease, and ageing is called?
Amnesia
206
What are the two types of amnesia ?
Anterograde and retrograde
207
People suffering from anterograde amnesia have an inability to do what?
Form new long-term memories
208
What do people suffering from retrograde amnesia have any ability to do?
Retrieve old memories prior to a particular date
209
Physical trauma causes what type of damage to the brain? Neurological diseases and ageing have what kind of a deteriorating effect ?
Immediate; progressively
210
Different memory functions can be attributed to what regions of the brain?
Different
211
Where are the two types of long-term memory?
Explicit memory and implicit memory
212
What is another word for explicit memory?
Declarative memory
213
Define explicit memory
Information you know and can tell
214
What are the two types of explicit memory?
Episodic and semantic memory
215
What type of memory describes specific events or experiences?
Episodic
216
What type of memory describes memory for general knowledge and facts?
Semantic memory
217
What are the two main structures of the brain involved in processing explicit memories?
Frontal lobes and hippocampus
218
When a person retrieves explicit memories, the brain sends a collection of information where? To be processed by working memory
Frontal lobes
219
Patients who suffer from large prefrontal cortex lesions have deficits in what type of memory?
Working memory
220
What structure serves as a temporary holding zone for new explicit memories, giving them just long enough to be moved to long-term storage or forgotten?
Hippocampus
221
Is the hippocampus a temporary or permanent place of memory storage?
Temporary
222
If they have a campus is removed what type of amnesia does a person develop?
Anterograde amnesia
223
What is another term for implicit memory?
Non-declarative memory
224
What is implicit memory?
Information you know and can show
225
What type of memory is thought of as memory without awareness and is both unconscious and unintentional?
Implicit memory
226
What are the three types of implicit memory?
Priming, procedural, and classical conditioning
227
What is priming in implicit memory?
A persons future behaviour is influenced by previous unconscious preparation
228
In priming, describe the word stem completion task?
Participants are given a long list of words to read. There are then presented with a three letter words dam and subsequently asked to complete the word. Participants were more likely to complete the word stem with words they had previously read in the list then any other word.
229
What are three types of implicit memory?
Priming, procedural, and classical conditioning
230
What is procedural memory?
It allows us to perform daily tasks, especially motor skills, without thought
231
How does implicit memory influence behaviour in classical conditioning?
Implicit memories influence behaviour based on previously learned associations
232
What are the two main structures involved in processing implicit memories?
Cerebellum and basal ganglia
233
What is the cerebellum responsible for?
It is responsible for both the formation of new implicit memories and the storage of implicit memories created by classical conditioning
234
Patients who suffer from damage to the cerebellum are unable to learn what type of associations?
Conditioned stimulus unconditioned stimulus associations
235
What is the basal ganglia responsible for in implicit memory?
Responsible for the formation and retrieval of procedural memories
236
What role does the amygdala play in the formation of memories?
Hormones recruit the amygdala to strengthen emotionally significant memories stored elsewhere; emotionally charged memories are stronger
237
What is the term for a clear, that account and emotionally significant experience?
Flashbulb memory
238
What is the term for questions that suggest a particular answer?
Leading questions
239
What is the term that the idea of that misleading information presented after event can alter one's memory of the actual event?
Misinformation effect
240
The system in the brain responsible for sifting through the different features of a memory to Determine its context is?
Source monitoring
241
What is it false memory?
The remembering of events that never occurred or remembering events quite differently than how they occurred
242
What is the inability to remember the source of previously learned information?
Source amnesia
243
What is déjà vu?
A strong sense that the current experience has happened before
244
Which area of the brain is responsible for encoding and retrieval? How does this processing change with age?
Hippocampus ; physiological changes in the brain is slow memory related processes, further increasing errors
245
What does the term when memory loss begins to interfere severely with a person's daily functioning?
Dementia
246
What occurs in people that are suffering from dementia?
A decline in memory, social abilities, difficulties with communication, and personality changes they make everyday activities a challenge
247
Is dementia a specific brain disease or a symptom of other diseases?
A symptom of other diseases
248
What is Alzheimer's disease?
A major cause of dementia, characterised by general atrophy of the brain
249
What is the formation of Alzheimer's disease attributed to?
1) formation of amyloid plaques
| 2) neurofribrillary tangles
250
What are amyloid plaques?
Deposit of protein fragments that build up around neurons
251
What are neurofibrillary tangles?
Fibers of tau protein that build up inside neurons
252
What does the progression of Alzheimer's disease correlate with?
Increase development of plaques and tangles with in regions of the brain responsible for memory
253
How do Alzheimer's disease symptoms begin? How do these symptoms progress?
Begin as age related memory dysfunction; progresses over time and dementia develops so memory for basic functions (eating, communication) deteriorates
254
What is Korsakoff syndrome?
A brain disease characterised by thiamine (Vitamin B1) deficiency
255
What behaviour is Korsakoff's syndrome often associated with?
Alcohol abuse
256
What is the limbic system responsible for?
Memory and emotion
257
What do deficiencies in thiamine cause?
Affect the limbic system (memory and emotion) and cause general neuronal loss throughout the brain.
258
What are symptoms of Korsakoff's disease?
Anterograde and retrograde amnesia, confabulation, and apathy
259
What is confabulation?
Invented memories to compensate for memory gaps
260
With Korsakoff's disease, what happens to explicit and implicit memories?
Explicit memory loss occurs well implicit memory loss remains largely intact
