Learning and Memory COPY

Question 1

What are the two types of memory?

Answer 1

declarative and procedural memory

Question 2

what are the anatomical substrates involved in procedural memory?

Answer 2

the cerebellum and the nucleus accumbens

Question 3

where are habits stored?

Answer 3

in the nucleus accumbens

Question 4

what are the two subdivisions of declarative memory?

Answer 4

episodic and semantic

Question 5

what is episodic memory?

Answer 5

memory of events

Question 6

what is semantic memory?

Answer 6

memory of words, language, and rules

Question 7

how long is short term memory?

Answer 7

seconds to hours

Question 8

how long is long term memory?

Answer 8

years

Question 9

what is working memory?

Answer 9

recalling a fact for use in a test question; you’ve learned it, now youre retrieving it for use

Question 10

the production of memory and learning requires the induction of what?

Answer 10

neuronal and synaptic plasticity

Question 11

what are two forms of changes in synaptic functioning?

Answer 11

post-tetanic potentiation and long-term potentiation

Question 12

what is plasticity?

Answer 12

alterations in the CNS based on use

Question 13

what does post-tetanic stimulation result from?

Answer 13

PTPs are thought to result primarily from the buildup of calcium concentration in the axon terminal of the presynaptic neuron during the stimulus train. It is a brief high-frequency discharge of a presynapse that produces an increase in NT release that lasts about 60 seconds

Question 14

what is the mechanism of post-tetanic stimulation?

Answer 14

the high level of stimulation allowed more calcium to enter the terminal than can be “dealt” with–> the [Ca2+] concentration in the pre-synaptic terminal stays higher longer

Question 15

what happens when there is more Ca2+ in the presynaptic terminal?

Answer 15

there is more Ca to bind to the docking proteins, which means that there will be more NT release

Question 16

what is the result of post tetanic stimulation?

Answer 16

greater NT release and a greater probability of action potentials in the post-synaptic cell

Question 17

what is long-term potentiation?

Answer 17

Long-term potentiation (LTP) is a process involving persistent strengthening of synapses that leads to a long-lasting increase in signal transmission between neurons. It is an important process in the context of synaptic plasticity. LTP recording is widely recognized as a cellular model for the study of memory.

Question 18

How long do long-term potentiation changes last?

Answer 18

more than 30 minutes

Question 19

what does long term potentiation begin with?

Answer 19

more calcium in the post-synaptic terminal

Question 20

what happens once calcium is inside the cell?

Answer 20

it binds with calmodulin

Question 21

what happens once calcium binds with calmodulin?

Answer 21

there will be an increase in adenyl cyclase/ cAMP

Question 22

what happens when there is an increase in cAMP?

Answer 22

the AMPA receptor will be phosphorylated

Question 23

what happens when the AMPA receptor is phosphorylated?

Answer 23

we allow greater sodium influx to response to the same binding of the excitatory amino acids–> we get more depolarization

Question 24

what is activated when calcium enters the cell?

Answer 24

nitric oxide synthase (NOS)

Question 25

what does Nitric oxide synthases produce?

Answer 25

nitric oxide

Question 26

what is the effect of the nitric oxide production in the post synpatic cell?

Answer 26

the nitric oxide will diffuse across the synapse, back into the presynaptic cell and increase cGMP

Question 27

what is the effect of the increased cGMP in the presynaptic cell?

Answer 27

this leads to an increase in the amount of NT released

Question 28

what does increased cAMP cause a gene transcription of?

Answer 28

increase of CREB

Question 29

what leads to the changes in the structures of the neurons?

Answer 29

CREB

Question 30

where does neuronal plasticity take place?

Answer 30

in both the pre and post synaptic cells

Question 31

what are the proteins produced during neuronal plasticity?

Answer 31

NT synthetic enzymes (I can make more NT), NT receptors, proteins required for growth/synapse formation

Question 32

forming new memories and learning can be blocked by what?

Answer 32

blocking protein synthesis

Question 33

creating a declarative/explicit memory requires what 4 steps?

Answer 33

encoding, storage, consolidation, and retrieval

Question 34

what is associated with encoding of information?

Answer 34

focus, attention, and emotion

Question 35

What are the anatomical substrates involved in short term memory?

Answer 35

hippocampus, parahippocampal cortex, and prefrontal cortex

Question 36

what connects the neocortex to the amygdala?

Answer 36

the nucleus basalis of Meynert

Question 37

what physiologically creates our short term memories?

Answer 37

long-term potentiation

Question 38

what is consolidation?

Answer 38

it is the process of making a memory permanent

Question 39

what does consolidation involve?

Answer 39

physical changes in synaptic structure

Question 40

what anatomical structures does consolidating a memory from short-term to long-term require?

Answer 40

hippocampus, temporal lobes, and the papez circuit

Question 41

where do we store factual information?

Answer 41

temporal lobes

Question 42

to make a synapse permanent, what must i do and how do i do this?

Answer 42

i have to reuse that synapse over and over again. I do this through the Papez circuit

Question 43

What is involved in the papez circuit?

Answer 43

the hypothalamus, the anterior thalamus, the cingulate cortex, and the hippocampus

Question 44

Where are long-term memories stored?

Answer 44

in the area of the cortex related to the modality of the individual components

Question 45

what does recalling a memory or reassembling a memory require? anatomically

Answer 45

the neocortex, the parahippocampal regions, and the hippocampus

Question 46

where is the information related to each component of the memory i'm trying to recall sent to first?

Answer 46

to the parahippocampal region first

Question 47

where is the entire memory reconstructed?

Answer 47

in the hippocampus

Question 48

where is the memory sent once the hippocampus reconstructs it?

Answer 48

back out to the parahippocampus and then to the pre frontal cortex

Question 49

what happens if a patient has damage to the parahippocampus?

Answer 49

the memory can still be retrieved, but it will "die out" much sooner than expected

Question 50

what is involved in working memory/ using retrieved memories?

Answer 50

the three component model

Question 51

what makes up the three component model?

Answer 51

the central executive, the phonological loop, and the visuospatial loop

Question 52

what acts as the central executive in the brain?

Answer 52

the prefrontal cortex

Question 53

what acts as the phonological loop?

Answer 53

broca's and wernicke's area

Question 54

what acts as the visuospatial loop?

Answer 54

the occipital cortex associated with vision

Question 55

What does the hippocampus use as an anchor for the reconstruction of memory?

Answer 55

place cells

Question 56

what type of cells are place cells and where are they located?

Answer 56

pyramidal cells located in CA1

Question 57

what inputs do place cells receive?

Answer 57

grid cells, head direction cells, and border neurons

Question 58

where are grid cells located?

Answer 58

in the entorhinal cortex

Question 59

what is the final mediator of spatial memory?

Answer 59

place cells