Learning theories Flashcards

Question

what did Garcia discover?

Answer 1

What Garcia discovered is different from a regular taste aversion. He discovered conditioned taste aversion. The difference is that, as demonstrated by the rats, one may become nauseous after eating a certain food, but their nausea is unrelated to the food they ate.

Answer 2

Cancer patients undergoing chemotherapy have a similar experience as some people refuse to eat as they connect the taste of food with the bad feelings of radiation treatment.

Answer 3

Garcia and Koelling (1966) decided to check if all stimuli can be conditioned with the same easiness or if there is a kind of biological preparedness to learn some things and not others, if it is easier to create some associations and more difficult to create other associations. During the experiment, rats were exposed to 3 different stimuli at the same time: saccharin-flavoured water, bright light and loud sound. Later half the rats would be exposed to radiation that would make them sick and vomit. Other rats would be given an electric shock. As a result the rats that were exposed to radiation, experienced nausea and showed a taste aversion to the water but not the light or sound. In contrast, the rats exposed to electric shock avoided the light and sound but not the water. Thus half the rats learned to associate being sick with taste, and the other half of the rats learned to associate shock with light and sound.

Answer 4

What Garcia found makes sense because one would associate contaminated food most often with a taste. So there is a biological readiness to associate some stimuli together, but not others. This is an example of preparedness.

Answer 5

the elimination of the conditioned response

Answer 6

if the conditioned stimulus is still presented but it is not longer followed by an unconditioned stimulus then eventually the conditioned reaction will be eliminated this only occurs if the conditioned stimulus occurs but not the unconditioned stimulus if neither stimulus is presented extinction will not occur

Answer 7

sometimes, after responding has been extinguished, the conditioned reaction would suddenly reappear after conditioned stimulus. If CS will be again followed by UNS, the conditional response will be acquired very quickly - much faster than before. Classical conditioning is adaptable but the associations created must be updated often to be maintained

Answer 8

founder of behaviourism

Answer 9

- personality is mainly a result of conditioning and personality is nothing else but a collection of various learned habits - the only appropriate subject of psychology is behaviour because it is readily observable and it is a function of the environment. - our behaviour is determined by the associations we learn to make between stimuli and outcomes. - he argued that personality was best viewed as a collection of learned habits. - claimed that control over stimuli is a control over personality.

Answer 10

Laboratory research on Little Albert and the white rat Illustration of the conditioning of an emotional reaction Albert was given a white rat to play with and liked it But then, every time a rat was present a loud noise was introduced. Loud noise makes children cry and be afraid. After several trials, the white rat brought forth a very strong fear response in Albert that generalised to similar furry objects.

Answer 11

a response produced by a particular conditioned stimulus will also occur when a similar stimulus is presented. The more closely the other stimulus resembles the conditioned stimulus, the more likely it will elicit the conditioned reaction.

Answer 12

involves learning the difference between stimulus (when to respond to one stimulus and not to respond to a similar but different one)

Answer 13

aversion therapy flooding systematic desensitisation counter-conditioning

Answer 14

For learning theorists, psychopathology was a learnt maladaptive response to a situation, which could then be generalised to other situations and similar stimuli. If it could be learnt it can be unlearnt.

Answer 15

a form of psychological therapy that is designed to eliminate a behaviour (e.g. drinking behaviour) by associating an aversive stimulus (e.g. nausea with alcohol) thus creating a taste aversion towards alcohol

Answer 16

a form of phobias treatment. Phobias are learned through association of an object and something negative. Using flooding we would expose a person to vast amounts of the feared stimulus e.g. lock someone scared of spiders in a room full of spiders. Whilst a person will initially be anxious, the body cannot stay anxious forever. When nothing bad happens, the person will begin to calm down and so from that moment on associate a feeling of calm with the previously feared object

Answer 17

a patient must use the relaxation skills learnt to overcome fearful situations. The fear hierarchy is established and patient must learn to cope with fears in each step of this hierarchy

Answer 18

involves pairing the stimulus (CS) that elicits fear with a stimulus (US) that elicits position emotion (UR). Cannot be anxious and happy at the same time

Answer 19

operant conditioning

Answer 20

association forming between a behaviour and a consequence

Answer 21

Operant conditioning tells us about the relations between environmental stimuli and our own behaviour (instrumental learning) and how the environment will respond to the given behaviour. Our own behaviour is an instrument to get something or to avoid something Skinner believed that what we learn and how we behave in everyday life are heavily influenced by the conditioning experiences we have had throughout our lives.

Answer 22

Placed a wild cat in a puzzle box. The animal could escape only after it pulled the string opening the door. At first, the cat engaged in random behaviour and eventually it would accidentally open the door. Thorndike would then catch the cat and put it back in the box. On successive trails, the animal's behaviour would become more and more efficient until it would be pulling the string without hesitation.

Answer 23

when particular action has food consequences, the action will tend to be repeated. When it has bad consequences or no consequences it will not be repeated. The favourable outcomes strengthen the response that produced them Responses to a situation which are followed by a rewarding state of affairs will be strengthened and become habitual responses to that situation

Answer 24

The animals that Skinner worked with were rats and pigeons. The rats pressed levers and the pigeons pecked keys. These were the behaviours that they “emitted” in response to rewarding stimuli (e.g., food pellets) and punishing stimuli (e.g., electric stocks). All this took place in a “Skinner Box”. Skinner also made a special “box” for his daughter, called a “baby tender” or “air crib”. It was a “climate-controlled, glass-lined enclosure that he considered far superior to the standard baby crib.“ Basically, it kept his daughter warm without the need for bedclothes, which have to be washed, and restrict movement. His daughter said: "He spent an enormous amount of time with us […] He was a wonderful father.“ “I loved my father dearly. He was fantastically devoted and affectionate.”

Answer 25

- positive reinforcement - negative reinforcement - positive punishment - negative punishment

Answer 26

consequence that causes a behaviour to occur with greater frequency

Answer 27

a behaviour is followed by the addition of a pleasant stimulus, thereby increasing that behaviour's frequency

Answer 28

a behaviour is followed by the removal of an unpleasant stimulus, thereby increasing that behaviour's frequency

Answer 29

consequence that causes a behaviour to occur with lower frequency

Answer 30

a behaviour is followed by the addition of an unpleasant stimulus, thereby decreasing that behaviour's frequency

Answer 31

a behaviour is followed by the removal of a pleasant stimulus, thereby decreasing that behaviour's frequency

Answer 32

continuous reinforcement partial reinforcement fixed interval variable interval fixed ratio variable ratio

Answer 33

desired response is reinforced every time it occurs; preferable until behaviour is mastered

Answer 34

desired response is reinforced on a ratio or interval schedule; greater resistance to extinction

Answer 35

passage of time

Answer 36

reinforce the behaviour after a fixed period of time e.g. monthly pay-check

Answer 37

reinforce the behaviour after an unpredictable period of time e.g. crew of fishing boat is reward with a catch after 20 minutes or 2 days

Answer 38

number of behavioural responses

Answer 39

provides reinforcement after a fixed number of responses e.g. piecework in a factory

Answer 40

provides reinforcement after an unpredictable number of responses e.g. payouts on a slot machine

Answer 41

The results of many experiments lead to the conclusion that responses (behaviours) that have been reinforced partially, on some schedule, are more resistant to extinction. This is because, where reinforcement has been continuous (after every response), and then stops, the difference is clear. However, where reinforcement has been partial (or intermittent, only after some responses), it is not clear whether it has stopped yet. In addition, a variable ratio schedule of reinforcement both (i) produces a steady high rate of response and (ii) is often the most resistant to extinction. This is because there is only a short gap between trials (unlike in the fixed and variable interval cases), keeping the responses steady; and because the number of responses needed to secure the reward is unpredictable (unlike in the fixed ratio case), so it keeps the animal or person actively producing responses to see how many are needed. Hence: slot machines can be addictive!

Answer 42

stable connection between stimulus and response personality is composed mainly of learned habits

Answer 43

Dollard and Miller tried to apply the concepts derived from learning theory and from psychoanalytical approach to personality. According to them our behaviour does not consist only of responding to environmental stimuli, but we can also respond to inner stimuli. They treated thoughts and memories as behaviour. And according to them people are capable to plan ahead and anticipate events. Learning theorists believed that personality is composed mainly of learned habits. Dollard and Miller developed a theory about the ways habits develop. People (and animals) are born with some primary drives – these are physiological drives associated with survival (hunger, thirst, the need for sleep, avoidance of pain). Reduction of these drives is the most powerful reinforcement. The primary reinforcers are food, water, sleep and so on. Secondary drives are learned to help us cope with our primary drives. Secondary reinforcers are initially neutral stimuli consistently paired with a primary reinforcer (money, smiles, recognition). For Dollard and Miller behaviour is motivated by the need to reduce our primary or secondary drives. It is again a deterministic perspective in human development.

Answer 44

1. the initial drive (e.g. hunger) – drives stimulate the person to act (I want something) 2. the cue to act (information how to act – e.g. advert of ready meals) 3. the response (buying a ready meal) 4. reinforcement (the meal was good, I am happy) If the response satisfies the drive, the habit may be created. If the meal was nasty (or portions very small), the probability one will buy a ready meal again decreases.

Answer 45

approach-approach conflict avoidance-avoidance conflict approach-avoidance conflict double approach-avoidance conflict

Answer 46

there are two equally desirable but incompatible goals (which of two great girls to choose for a girl-friend, to go to the pub with a good friend or to watch an interesting film on TV?)

Answer 47

there are two undesirable alternatives (to study or to clean the house?)

Answer 48

there is one goal, but some aspects of it are attractive, some are unattractive (to go to a great party with someone I hate?)

Answer 49

This is a choice between two alternatives, with advantages and disadvantages to each. For example, I might be trying to decide which of two political candidates to vote for. One is moral, but incompetent. The other is competent, but immoral. It is like a combination of an approach-approach conflict (e.g., moral vs competent) and avoidance-avoidance conflict (e.g., incompetent vs immoral).

Answer 50

collection of learned habits behaviour is determined by external environment no place for free will overlooked fact that people think

Answer 51

perception, thinking, and other mental events in its view of personality

Answer 52

father of SLT Said we have to study the environment carefully to understand why people behave as they do but also believes that cognitive processes are important in determining how someone will behave. Individual differences in behaviour in a given situation occur in part because individuals differ in their cognitive processes An individual is an active player responding both to inner stimuli and the external environment

Answer 53

Concluded that environment causes behaviour but that behaviour causes environment too Referred to this idea as 'triadic reciprocal determination' believing that an individual's actions and the actions of the world around him are intertwined. In this theory, personality is an interaction of outside influences (environment), behaviour and an individual's psychological processes Bandura does not believe that either personal characteristics (traits) or the environment alone determines our behaviour and our personality. He argues for reciprocal determinism, the idea that behaviour, environmental variables and person variables such as perception or expectations interact to determine personality. Our actions can affect the environment. The environment can affect our behaviour. Likewise our thoughts may affect the ways in which we behave to change the environment, and in turn, these changes can influence our thoughts.

Answer 54

In contrast to Skinner, Bandura believes that people possess free will According to behaviourism to learn we have to experience things. Bandura argues that people represent external events symbolically and later use verbal representations or imaginal representations to guide our behaviour. Thus, we can solve problems symbolically, without performing actual, trial-and-error behaviour. We foresee the probable consequences of our behaviour and modify our actions accordingly. So most of our behaviour is not controlled by immediate external reinforcement. As a result of earlier experiences, we tend to expect that certain kinds of behaviour will have effects we desire and others will produce unwanted outcomes. Our behaviour is therefore regulated to a large extent by anticipated outcomes. We make decisions based on our anticipation of consequences.

Answer 55

Occurs as a consequence of watching the behaviour of some other person Less self-confident individuals are more likely to imitate the model Individuals are more likely to adopt a modeled behaviour if the model is similar to them or if the model is competent and powerful Individuals are more likely to adopt a modeled behaviour if it results in outcomes they value (vicarious reinforcement) Tend to learn from others as trial and error behaviour is too costly due to its dangerous consequences - learn from the mistakes of others

Answer 56

1) The characteristics of the model – we tend to follow people who are similar to us, competent and powerful, trustworthy, attractive 2) The characteristics of the observer – less confident individuals with lower self-esteem and those who feel incompetent in a given situations are more likely to imitate the model 3) The consequences of the observed behaviour also matters: film with Bobo doll: a man behaved aggressively towards the doll, another film - the same man was rewarded (with soda pop and candy) or punished (spanked with a rolled-up newspaper and threatened with beating if aggressive behaviour happens again). Children left with Bobo doll displayed aggressive behaviour after watching only the first film or when the model was rewarded for his behaviour (but not when they had seen model being punished).

Answer 57

14-months infants watched an adult model turning on the light using his forehead and not hands. If the model’s hands were free, 69% of infants copied his behaviour. When his hands were not free – only 21% copied the behaviour.

Answer 58

Bandura believes that media facilitate aggression in people: By the time the average child graduates from elementary school, he or she will have witnessed more than 8,000 murders and about 100,000 other acts of violence on television. And about 75% of these acts would go unpunished

Answer 59

Efficacy expectations are individuals’ beliefs that they can produce certain behaviours. Efficacy expectations are not equal to people’s actual skills. Sometimes people know what to do and have skills required to do it, but they don’t perform well because they have serious self-doubts about their capabilities. Thus, different people with the same skills may perform poorly, adequately or extraordinarily. Competent functioning requires not only skills but the judgement of self-efficacy to permit their effective use. Efficacy expectations influence people’s choices of activities and determine how much effort people will expend on these activities and how long they will persist on challenging tasks in the face of aversive experiences.

Answer 60

avoid threatening situations as they are sure they could not cope with them. If they have to perform in threatening situations they focus on possible negative outcomes, expend little effort and give up after a short time. As a result they remain defensive and fearful as they have no chance to get the experiences that would enhance their sense of efficacy.

Answer 61

want to engage in challenging tasks where they have an opportunity to develop new skills. If these challenging situations they expend maximum effort and persist in pursuing their goals against possible obstacles. This increases the probability of eventual success.

Answer 62

- Shy away from difficult tasks (personal threats) - Have low aspirations and weak commitment to the goals they choose - Maintain a self-diagnostic focus (rather than how to perform) - Dwell on personal deficiencies, obstacles and adverse outcomes - Attribute failures to deficient capabilities - Slacken their efforts or give up quickly in face of difficulty - Are slow to recover their sense of efficacy after failures or setbacks - Are prone to stress and depression

Answer 63

- Set challenging goals and sustain strong commitments to their goals - Approach difficult tasks as challenges rather than as threats - Maintain a task diagnostic focus - Attribute failures to insufficient effort - Heighten effort in face of difficulties - Quickly recover their sense of efficacy after failure or setback - Display low vulnerability to stress and depression

Answer 64

Locus of control describes general expectancies. On the basis of learning experiences people come to believe that either reinforcement is controlled by outside forces (higher power, luck, other people etc.) or that it is controlled by their own behaviour. Rotter has shown that the fact that individual possesses rather internal or rather external locus of control has impact on their behaviour in many different situations. Rotter also described differences in reinforcement value. These also affect likelihood of engaging in a behaviour. Rotter also emphasized how reinforcement value was often partly subjective: people found different rewards and punishments to be more or less rewarding and punishing for them personally. However, reinforcement value was independent of locus of control (i.e., general expectancies). Indeed, generalized expectancies, like internal or external locus of control, combined with reinforcement values, to determine behaviour potential: the likelihood of engaging in a behaviour.