Learning theories Flashcards
(82 cards)
1
Q
Explain the classical conditioning theory
A
explains how behaviours are learned = association
UCS (unconditioned stimulus) —> UCR (unconditioned response)
UCS + NS (neutral stimulus) —-> UCR
CS (conditioned stimulus) —-> CR (conditioned response)
Extinction = occurs when the learned association between UCS + NS ends and the CS no longer elicits a CR and so it becomes a NS again.
2
Q
What is spontaneous recovery?
A
suddenly after extinction without reconditioning and pairing the learned association reappears and the CS starts to elicit the CR again.
3
Q
What is stimulus generalisation?
A
when a stimulus similar to the original CS can elicit the same CR e.g. in little Albert the white rabbit elicits the same fear response as the white rat
4
Q
What is the aim of Pavlov (1927)?
A
finding out if reflexive behaviour can be produced in new situations by learning, associating reflex with a NS to produce a CR
5
Q
What is the procedure of Pavlov (1927)?
A
- study occurred in a special room for dogs so the dog isn’t distracted by footsteps from the researcher
dogs strapped into a harness and mouth is linked to a surgically attached tube to collect saliva - check reflex = pavlov put meat into the dogs mouth to check the salivation reflex, salivation to meat = UCR
- pairing = pavlov paired metronome and giving the dogs food to get the dog to salivate when it heard the metronome(pairing took place at least 20x)
UCS food —-> UCR salivation
UCS food + NS metronome/ bell —-> UCR salivation
CS metronome/ bell —-> CR salivation
6
Q
What is the findings of Pavlov (1927)?
A
checking natural reflex = immediate salivation as expected
metronome study = salivation started after 9s and by 45s 11 drops had been collected
electric buzzer = after meat no salivation but with pairing once it gave saliva
7
Q
What is the conclusion of Pavlov (1927)?
A
- signalisation in brain links food and metronome to give reflex
- food must be in dogs mouth before salivation occurs in the natural reflex
- external stimuli could disrupt conditioning sensitive to extraneous variables
8
Q
What is the sample of Pavlov (1927)?
A
35 dogs, variety of breeds raised in kennels in a lab
9
Q
Describe Skinner’s pigeons (1948) experiment?
A
- pigeons put into a cage where a food dispenser would swing into the cage and dispense food at regular intervals every 15 seconds
- when the food was due to appear, pigeons started acting strange as they were repeating whatever behaviour they were doing when the food was first offered.
10
Q
What is the operant conditioning theory?
A
theory that behaviour is learnt based on the consequences of past behaviour
behaviour —-> consequence —-> likelehood of repetition
- consequence can be punishment or reinforcement
11
Q
How does reinforcement affect behaviour?
A
it strengthens the behaviour, so it is more likely to be repeated
12
Q
What is the difference between primary and secondary reinforcement?
A
- primary = reward is a basic need e.g. food, water
- secondary = the reward itself isn’t a basic need but it can be used to access a basic need e.g. money can be used to buy food.
13
Q
What is positive reinforcement?
A
a pleasant reward/ consequence that makes behaviour more likely
e.g. pocket money
14
Q
What is negative reinforcement?
A
removing an undesired consequence to make behaviour more likely
e.g. behave well to avoid punishment
15
Q
How does punishment affect behaviour?
A
weakens the behaviour, behaviour is less likely to be repeated
16
Q
What is positive punishment?
A
an unpleasant consequence that makes behaviour less likely
e.g. speeding ticket
17
Q
What is negative punishment?
A
removal of something pleasant makes behaviour less likely
e.g. bad behaviour = phone taken away
18
Q
What is Bandura’s social learning theory (SLT)?
A
looks at how we learn behaviour by observing other people and imitating them without conditioning
19
Q
What does modelling mean?
A
it is when behaviour is modelled by a role model and the person observing the role model identifies with them.
20
Q
What is imitation?
A
it is when someone copies the observed behaviour of others
21
Q
What is vicarious reinforcement?
A
It is copying other peoples behaviour as you have seen them being rewarded for it
22
Q
Describe the stages of social learning theory?
A
- Attention = observer must pay attention to modelled behaviour, attending to behaviour means it is moved to STM
- Retention = episodic memory of behaviour must be retained (encoded and stored) in memory
- Reproduction = modelled behaviour is carried out if/when the opportunity arises (only reproduced depending on motivation)
- Motivation = reproduction happens because of motivation which depends on reinforcement or punishment ( motivation = reinforcement) (demotivation = punishment)
23
Q
What is the aim of Watson and Rayner (1920)?
classic study
A
could they cause a baby to develop a fear he did not previously have through classical conditioning
- could fear be transferred to other animals/objects
- effect of time on the conditioned response
24
Q
What is the procedure of Watson and Rayner (1920)?
classic study
A
- labratory study
- first tested to see if NS (white rat) elicited a fear repsonse - it didn’t
- UCS = loud noise made when researchers hid behind a curtain and hit a steel rod with a hammer —-> UCR fear
- conditioned a fear of the rat by pairing loud noise when white rat was presented Albert whimpered and didn’t touch it
- fear could be transferred to other things such as a dog and rabbit
25
What is the sample of Watson and Rayner (1920)?
classic study
Albert B = healthy, unemotional baby who was reared in a hospital his mom was a wet nurse
26
What is the findings of Watson and Rayner (1920)?
classic study
UCS loud noise ---> UCR fear
UCS fear + NS white rat ----> UCR fear
CS white rat ----> CR fear
fear response could be generalised to objects that looked similar to the white rat
response could be transferred to other settings, fear response to the rat occurred in the lab and a lecture theatre
27
What is the conclusion of Watson and Rayner (1920)?
classic study
A CR can occur in humans after a few pairings of stimuli and the CR can be transferred to other stimuli
- as albert was removed from the study we can't see if the CR can be extinguished
- fear response can be transferred and generalised.
28
What is shaping?
Used to establish a target behaviour when it is more complex
e.g. bird turning in a circle
learning to swim
29
What are the steps of shaping?
1. reinforce any slight version of target behaviour
| 2. reinforce closer and closer approximations of the target behaviour
30
What is primary reinforcement?
- reinforcement given is something that is desirable like food
31
What is secondary reinforcement?
- reinforcement given is something that is associated with something desirable
like money to buy food
32
What are schedules of reinforcement?
- a plan for how and when reinforcement is given
33
What is continuous reinforcement?
- reinforcement is given every time desired behaviour is displayed
34
What is partial reinforcement?
- reinforcement is given at specific times
35
What is fixed ratio reinforcement?
- reinforcement is given when the desired behaviour is displayed a certain number of times
- e.g. every 5 times
36
What if variable ratio reinforcement?
- reinforcement is given around every ____ times behaviour is conducted
37
What is fixed interval reinforcement?
- reinforcement is given every 5 mins, at set intervals of time
38
What if variable interval reinforcement?
- reinforcement is around every ___ interval of time
39
What was BANDURA ROSS & ROSS (1961) study about?
imitating real life aggressive models
| transmission of aggression through aggressive models
40
What was the aim of BANDURA ROSS & ROSS (1961) ?
- to see if children would imitate behaviour after seeing it
- see if children would show more aggressive behaviour after seeing an aggressive role model, and if they would show less aggressive behaviour when exposed to a non aggressive role model
- if children where more likely to imitate a model who was the same sex as them
- if boys were more aggressive than girls
41
What was sample of BANDURA ROSS & ROSS (1961) ?
72 children
36 boys and 36 girls
3- 5 yo from stanford uni nursery
matched pairs
42
what was the procedure of BANDURA ROSS & ROSS (1961) ?
1 male model, 1 female model and 1 experimenter were used
- control group = 24 children who saw no model
- 8 experimental groups = 48 kids split into these 8 groups, 6 children in each 3 boys/3 girls
- half of the experimental groups had an aggressive model the other half had a non aggressive model
- half had a same sex model and half had an opposite sex
1. ppts taken to corner of a room to play at table w toys (bobo doll, mallet,toy set)
- non aggressive condition = model played nicely w toys
- aggressive condition = model played nice for 1 min then acted verbally and physically aggressive to bobo doll
2. ppts then taken to another room and showed the toys but told they can't play with them = to increase emotional frustration
3. ppts then taken to another room w similar toys to the model
- ppts observed through a one way mirror by 2 observers
43
What was IV of BANDURA ROSS & ROSS (1961) ?
- aggressive model or non aggressive model
| - same sec or opposite sex model
44
What was DV BANDURA ROSS & ROSS (1961) ?
- verbal and physical aggression with toys
45
What was the findings of BANDURA ROSS & ROSS (1961) ?
- in the aggressive condition = aggression resembled models
- in non aggressive condition = very little aggression observed 70% ppts had 0 aggression score
- boys physical aggression after male aggressive model was 25.8, girls aggression after female aggressive model = 5.5
- girls verbal aggression after female model 13.7, boys after male aggressive model 12.7
modelling non aggressive behaviour leads to less aggression
46
What were the conclusions of BANDURA ROSS & ROSS (1961) ?
- behaviour can be learnt by imitation without reinforcement
- cultural expectations = boys more likely to show physical aggression, male models are more influential in aggression than female
- observing aggression weakens social inhibitions
47
What was BANDURA + ROSS (1963) study about?
- real life, film, cartoon models of aggression and imitation of aggressive
imitation of film mediated aggressive models
48
What was the aim of BANDURA & ROSS (1963) ?
- see if aggression seen in aggressive role models in a film or in a cartoon would be imitated as aggression was imitated from live models
- see if watching aggression in films is cathartic
49
What was sample of BANDURA & ROSS (1963) ?
96 children
48 boys/ 48 girls
3-5 yo from Stanford uni nursery
50
What was the procedure of BANDURA & ROSS (1963) ?
1 control group and some experimental groups = 24 ppts in each, groups split into boys and girls and different gender models, so some ppts watched same sex models
- data for aggression imitated after seeing real life model taken from 1962 study
human film aggression = ppts in a dark room work on potato prints while a film was playing 6ft away from on a projector and screen
cartoon model = female model dressed as a black cat behaving as a cartoon cat, artificial grass/flowers and cartoon music. TV turned on casually by experimenter
1. ppts watch a video depending on their experimental group
2. ppts made mildly aggressive before entering room to measure aggression
3. same play toys as 1961 study in the room, ppts observed for 20 mins in 5 second intervals by 2 observers behind one way mirror
51
What was the findings of BANDURA & ROSS (1963) ?
control group had almost half the mean aggression score of the other aggressive experimental groups - 50
real life aggression = 83
film aggression = 92
cartoon aggression = 99
Wilcoxon signed ranks test found the ppts score from all 3 groups differed significantly to the control but real life and film don't differ
- gender of model affected displayed aggression
- human film aggression = more aggression than control
52
What was IV of BANDURA & ROSS (1963) ?
- filmed, real or cartoon aggressive model
53
What was DV of BANDURA & ROSS (1963) ?
- number of aggressive acts and non imitative actions
54
What were the conclusions of BANDURA & ROSS (1963) ?
- observing aggression in films leads to aggressive acts in children
- watching violence is not cathartic
- cartoon model aggression was imitated despite being less realistic
55
What was BANDURA (1965) study about?
- affects of reinforcement and punishment on aggression
| - influence of models reinforcement contingencies on the acquisition of imitative responses
56
What was the aim of BANDURA (1965) ?
- see if consequences to the model wold affect whether children performed imitative acts
- if the children would be more likely to imitate if they were offered direct rewards
57
What was sample of BANDURA (1965) ?
66 children
33 boys/ 33 girls
3-5 yo from Stanford uni nursery
58
What was the procedure of BANDURA (1965) ?
- children watched model on TV like in 1963 study, shown a new sequence of physical and verbal aggression to bobo doll
3 experimental groups = 11 boys and 11 girls in each
model rewarded = another adult enters room and gives model sweets, praises model for superb aggressive performance
model punished = another person comes into the film, hits model with rolled up newspaper and calls the model a big bully
no consequences = nothing happens to model
1. ppts watch video
2. immediately after ppts taken to a different room and secretly observed playing for 10 mins
3. incentive or no incentive condition
incentive condition = ppt brought juice and a sticker book, told that they would be given more if they imitated the model ( tell me what he said, show me what he did) and then rewarded straight away for imitative response
59
What was IV of BANDURA (1965) ?
- reward, punishment or no consequence
- incentive or no incentive
- no consequence
60
What was DV of BANDURA (1965) ?
aggressive and non imitative actions
61
What was the findings of BANDURA (1965) ?
- in the incentive condition = no. of imitative responses was higher in all 3 conditions
- model punished condition with no incentive = much fewer imitative for boys and girls
- no incentive condition = more aggression shown in boys in model rewarded and no consequences conditon
62
What were the conclusions of BANDURA (1965) ?
- children are less likely to imitate models when they see them being punished
- motivation with an incentive strongly affects imitation
- no consequences condition shows that behaviour is imitated without consequence or rewards
- with an incentive girls imitate acts as much as boys
63
What is a phobia?
irrational life limiting fear that means people avoid certain situations
most phobics know that their fear is irrational but they still feel fear
64
How does classical conditioning explain the acquisition of phobias?
```
- learning fear of an object or situation through association ( best explanation for phobia acquisition)
UCS ---> UCR
UCS paired with an NS ---> UCR
NS now elicits UCR
CS ----> CR
e.g. dog bite
```
65
How does Social learning theory explain the acquisition of phobias?
evidence
- fear something and acquire phobia because you have observed someone else exhibiting fear to that object or situation
LIEB ET AL 2000 = children with parents who have social phobias are more likely to have it
66
How does operant conditioning explain the acquisition of phobias?
- explains it as a sequence of rewards and punishments leading to a fear
but this explanation is underpinned by classical conditioning so it is not as good
67
Which theory is best at explaining the acquisition of phobias?
- classical conditioning
supported by carefully controlled findings
W - can't generalise animal findings
68
How does classical conditioning explain the maintenance of phobias?
not very well
| - phobia does not last long without repeated pairings
69
How does social learning theory explain the maintenance of phobias?
- explains that if a person sees a role model show maintenance of fear probs through OC, the person may maintain their fear through observation
70
How does operant conditioning explain the maintenance of phobias?
extinction of learned response is prevented by avoidance
negative reinforcement = absence of fear and anxiety that phobic object provokes, this is a desirable consequence so person is more likely to avoid phobic object
avoidance = person never gets exposed to phobic object long enough to learn that it is not fearful
71
What are the aims of CAPAFONS ET AL. (1998)?
to see if systematic desensitisation is still a successful therapy for a fear of flying.
In 1998 they felt it might be seen as an old therapy and so wanted to show that it is still a good choice to treat fear of flying.
72
What is the sample of CAPAFONS ET AL. (1998)?
random assignment of 41 ppts to a waiting (control) group or therapy (treatment) group, matched pairs in age, gender, strength of fear and physical group. Volunteer sample.
20 ppts in therapy group (8M and 12F mean age 30)
21 ppts in the control group (9M and 12F mean age 35)
73
What is the procedure of CAPAFONS ET AL. (1998)?
Measures
- using self report scales = Aerophobia scale to measure anxiety in different situations. 2 scales to measure a person's thoughts about catastrophe.
- clinical interviewing = Interview about each ppts aerophobia and life history-
- physical variables recorded = heart rate, muscular tension and skin temp,taken while watching a video of a plane trip from packing to landing at destination
Dependant variable = level of aerophobia
2 questionnaires about a fear of flying (explained above) + physical variables taken before and after treatment (after 2 flights, 1st flight after seven days of treatment)
Treatment SD
All ppts interviewed, then shown flight video individually on a tv screen and physical measures taken. Treatment took place at uni 2 1 hour sessions per week for 12-15 sessions total for experimental group + control group had no treatment. Treatment involved training relation, imagination and breathing techniques and teaching the stop thinking technique for phobic situation
74
What are the findings of CAPAFONS ET AL. (1998)?
There were no significant differences between the control group and the treatment group prior to the treatment (matched well before treatment) Significant differences after the treatment.
Before and after measures for treatment group showed significant changes Before and after measures for control group showed passing of time
- Fear during flight went from 25.6 to 13.3. Control group's fear was 35.8.
- Catastrophic thoughts went from 10.3 to 5.0. Control group was 9.67.
Just 10% of ppts with aerophobia did not show significant changes in their fear after treatment.
75
What are the conclusions of CAPAFONS ET AL. (1998)?
Treatment groups showed significant improvement in their aerophobia than the control group, and the two groups did not differ enough before the treatment to say that the differences between groups caused the differences between post treatment scores.
- The intervention program successfully reduced fear of flying in the treatment group.
- There was no corresponding reduction of fear in the control group, showing that the passing of time isn't enough to reduce fear.
76
What are the 2 treatments for phobias?
flooding and systematic desensitisation
77
What is flooding?
| steps
- client is placed in or imagines the most fearful situation possible
- in this situation they are extremely fearful and in an alarm stage
- eventually the body becomes exhausted and so they become calm
- learned fear response is extinguished and replaced with a no fear response
- client can't leave until their fear subsides
78
What evidence is there to support the effectiveness of flooding?
WOLPE (1960, 1973)
| - driving around for hours with person scared of car travel works at extinguishing phobia
79
What are the strengths and weaknesses of flooding as a treatment for phobias?
Strengths
- may be better for clients who can't relax
- good evidence to support
- based of CC theory and biological knowledge so there is a clear explanation
Weakness
- frightening
- unethical
- spontaneous recovery means re association could be made between fear and phobic object so short lived results
80
What is systematic desensitisation?
| steps
1. person is taught relaxation techniques (control breathing, relax muscles)
2. client creates a hierarchy of fearful situations (e.g. least fearful = picture of a phobic object, most fearful = holding phobic object)
3. client experiences each stage of hierarchy and uses relaxation techniques to be relaxed before moving to next stage
4. desensitise client to phobia so they associate it with a relaxed sate
81
What evidence is there to support the effectiveness of systematic desensitisation?
CAPAFONS ET AL. (1998)
20/41 aerophobia sufferers were effectively treated with SD
TOOZANDEJHANI (2011)
effective treatment for social phobia but symptoms later return so it is effective but not 100% effective
82
What are the strengths and weaknesses of systematic desensitisation as a treatment for phobias?
Strengths
- ethical
- cc principles clear to explain
- evidence to support effectiveness
Weaknesses
- reasoning can be questioned
- not useful for other mental health issues
