Lecture 10: Development of Self and Peer Relationships Flashcards
implicit self
the sense that one has a body that can experience and act on the world and that this body is separate from the world
when does the implicit self emerge?
it’s present from birth
how do we know when the implicit sense of self emerges?
the rooting reflex
self-concept
an organized set of beliefs about oneself
what question does the self-concept answer?
“Who am I?”
what does the self-concept include?
personality traits, physical characteristics, abilities, values, and roles
when does the self-concept emerge?
around 18 months
how do we know when the self-concept emerges?
the rouge test
when do children start using the “me” pronoun and start calling themselves by their name
around 18 months
how does a child’s self-concept develop?
primarily by internalizing others’ perceptions of them
direct development of the self-concept
The caregiver describes a child in a certain way and the child incorporates that description into their self-concept
example of direct development of the self-concept
being told they’re good at math
indirect development of the self-concept
how children are treated
example of indirect development of the self-concept
caregiving experiences shape internal working models
what is the first characteristic present in children’s self-concept?
gender
when do children form a basic sense of gender identity?
2.5-3 years old
how does gender identity begin
by identifying as a boy or girl and labelling others as boys or girls
gender socialization
The process through which children learn about the social expectations, attitudes, and behaviours associated with girls and boys by internalizing the messages received about gender and caregivers and wider society
when does gender socialization begin?
from birth
gender socialization at birth
Parents of day-old infants describe newborn girls as softer, less strong, more delicate, and quieter than newborn boys
baby x studies
studies in which researchers label the same infant as a boy or a girl and then observe how adults interact with the infant
baby x studies findings
- Infants labelled as boys are rated as bigger, stronger, louder, and more likely to be encouraged to be active
- Infants labelled as girls received more talk and nurturance
gender socialization and crawling study question
how does gender shape parents’ expectations about motor skills?
gender socialization and crawling study method
parents of 11-month-olds estimated the steepest slope their infants could safely crawl down without falling by setting the angle on a mechanical sloping walkway. Infants were then tested on their actual crawling skills down slopes of different angles
gender socialization and crawling study results
- Parents of girls tended to underestimate their infant’s crawling ability
- Parents of boys more accurately estimated their ability
- When tested on their actual skills, boys and girls did not differ on the slopes they could safely crawl down
gender socialization and crawling study takeaway
this suggests that gender differences in motor skills only exist in the parent’s perception
gender socialization and play
- Parents present boys with more physical challenges than girls
- They are more likely to offer girls more help
gender socialization and language differences
- Parents are more likely to use emotional words with girls than boys in early childhood
- Emotional understanding thus develops earlier in girls
gender socialization and toy purchases
boys have more toy trucks and girls have 5x more pink toys by 12-month-olds
gender socialization and division of household chores
home in which parents take on more traditional gender roles in completing chores are communicating gender roles
gender socialization and media exposure
more TV viewing by preschoolers is associated with them being more likely to see boys as better than girls
gender self-socialization
- Once a child identify with a gender, they actively seek out gender-related information and conform their behaviour to this information
- This highlights children’s role in their gender development
gender self-socialization of 3-5-year-olds
- rigid, gender-stereotyped behaviour
- They show a preference for toys and clothes that are consistent with gender identity
- Preference for same-gender playmates
- Due to the lack of gender constancy
gender self-socialization across cultures
This is cross-cultural
gender constancy
the understanding that gender remains the same regardless of superficial changes to appearance or behaviour
gender self-socialization of 6-year-olds
- rigid, gendered behaviour relaxes because gender constancy is achieved
- They accept more non-gendered appearance and toy preferences in themselves and others
gender self-socialization of older children
- they acquire more complex ideas and expectations about gender that include traits, roles, abilities, etc.
- they incorporate these into their self-concepts and adjust their behaviour accordingly
implications of gender identity
- Gender is a central characteristic that organizes children’s self-concepts
- Adherence to gender stereotypes can unnecessarily limit children’s development in educational aspirations, social development, and emotional expression
- The extent to which a child behaves in gender-consistent ways is associated with their level of peer acceptance
peer acceptance and gender-inconsistent behaviour
- Even though children increase their gender flexibility with age, they tend to reject peers who do not behave in typically gendered ways
- Greater engagement with peers of the same gender is a powerful way that gender stereotypes and identities are reinforced
impacts of gender-neutral parents on children
When parents have more egalitarian views and behaviours, children tend to have less traditional gender-role attitudes
gender-neutral parenting
conscious parenting practices to encourage children to explore and express themselves in a way that is not defined by traditional gender roles
where is gender-neutral parenting most common?
WEIRD countries
examples of gender-neutral parenting
not enforcing gender-specific colours, encouraging all activities
sex
assigned at birth and usually based on external genitalia
cisgender children
children who identify with their assigned sex
transgender children
children who don’t identify with their assigned sex
socially transitioned
a transgender person whose outward appearance and pronoun use is consistent with gender identity
gender development of trans vs. cisgender kids study aim
comparison of gender development of transgender and cisgender children
gender development of trans vs. cisgender kids study method
- 317 transgender children aged 3-12 who had socially transitioned
- 316 age and gender-matched cisgender children
- 189 cisgender siblings of the transgender children
- Reported on the strength of gender identity and gender-stereotyped preferences
gender development of trans vs. cisgender kids study findings
transgender children show strong identification and preferences aligned with their current gender in a way that is very similar to cisgender children
gender development of trans vs. cisgender kids study implications
- Transgender children’s gender development follows similar patterns to cisgender children’s development
- The lack of differences between siblings and controls suggests that there is nothing unique about the home gender socialization of transgender children
- Self-socialization plays a strong role in gender identity
implications of self-socialization on gender identity
- Suggests that there is something internal about gender identity; it isn’t just the role of socialization
- Children, from an early age, may be selectively attending to broader societal messages regarding the gender they feel they are
self-concept in early childhood
- Gender is central to self-concept
- Concrete, observable characteristics that tend to focus on physical attributes and physical activities
- Unrealistically positive and confident (the result of cognitive limitations)
what ages make up early childhood?
3-5 years old
what ages make up middle childhood?
7-12 years old
self-concept in middle childhood
- Describe the self using personality traits and inner qualities
- The self-concept is more balanced and accurate (includes weaknesses but is still positive overall)
what explains the changes in self-concept from early childhood to middle childhood?
- Increased cognitive ability to use higher-order concepts and to think about multiple qualities simultaneously
- Greater engagement in social comparison and more strongly influenced by the opinions of others
what ages make up adolescence?
13-18 years old
self-concept in adolescence
- Can think of themselves in increasingly abstract ways
- They have more intense concerns about social acceptance, which heavily influences their self-concept
- Egocentrism
- Imaginary audience
- Aware of differences in behaviour in different social settings leading to confusion and many questions about identity
egocentrism in adolescence
- Especially in early-mid adolescence
- They assume their thoughts and feelings are more unique than they are
imaginary audience
the belief that everyone is very focused on their appearance and behaviour
forming an identity
Forming an identity is the primary psychosocial task of adolescence/early adulthood
how is identity formed?
exploration and commitment
exploration
- questioning of parental and societal values and experimenting with various facets of identity
- This includes appearance, hobbies, traits, friends, etc.
committment
consolidation and acceptance of who one is as indicated by the choices one makes
typical trajectory of identity formation
diffusion -> moratorium/foreclosure -> achievement
identity diffusion
- lack of exploration of options and no commitments made
- Due to a lack of interest in one’s identity or indecision
what age group is associated with identity diffusion?
children
what happens if identity diffusion persists into late adolescence/ adulthood
it is associated with feeling disconnected, being easily influenced by others, and having little sense of purpose
moratorium
- the active exploration of various roles but no commitment yet
- Brought about by awareness of multiple selves and exposure to different identity options
- Feelings of confusion and anxiety are normal at this status
- Necessary for identity achievement
foreclosure
commitment to a life path without having explored alternatives
what causes foreclosure?
- Parents making decisions for teens without their input
- Teen strongly identifies with a parent and wishes to follow in their footsteps
who is most likely to experience foreclosure?
obedient children with authoritarian parenting
potential problems of foreclosure
- Committed to an identity that is not a good fit for their authentic self
- Commitment is less strong
what identity status are most teens in?
moratorium or foreclosure
identity acheivement
- completed phase of exploration and commitment to an internally-driven identity
- Associated with the most positive mental health and social outcomes
when does identity achievement usually occur?
- Usually achieved in early adulthood
- Biggest gains in identity are in university due to greater exposure to different lifestyles, beliefs, and career options
marcia’s identity status theory
argues that there are four identity statuses
what are marcia’s four identity statuses?
- identity achievement
- foreclosure
- moratorium
- identity diffusion
criticisms of marcia’s identity status theory
- Research into identity statuses conducted in WEIRD samples
- Identity development is a continuous process, not limited to adolescence
play
Voluntary activities done for inherent enjoyment
play across ages
Play looks different depending on the child’s age
non-social play
Play that doesn’t involve the participation of peers
3 types of non-social play
- unoccupied play
- solitary play
- onlooker play
unoccupied play
the child briefly watches things around them, but nothing holds their attention for long
when does unoccupied play begin?
birth-3 months
solitary play
the child is focused on their own activity and is uninterested in playing with others
when does solitary play begin?
3 months- 2 years
onlooker play
- the child watches other children play
- May ask questions but won’t join in
when does onlooker play begin?
around 2 years old
social play
Play that involves the participation of peers
3 forms of social play
- parallel play
- associative play
- cooperative play
parallel play
children play next to each other, possibly doing the same activity, but do not interact much
when does parallel play begin?
2-3 years old
associative play
children play together, engaging sometimes, but have different goals
when does associative play begin?
between 2-4 years old
cooperative play
children play together and are working toward a common goal
when does cooperative play begin?
4+ years old
progressing to more advanced form of play
the progression onto more advanced forms of play doesn’t mean that children no longer engage in less advanced forms of play
what is play important for?
- social-emotional development
- cognitive development
- motor development
social-emotional development and play
- Learn to cooperate
- Develop theory of mind
cognitive development and play
- Practice problem-solving
- Learning about the world through trial and error
- Develop language skills
motor development and play
Unoccupied play fosters motor skills
the UN on play
The UN recognizes a child’s right “to engage in play and recreational activities appropriate to the age of the child”
adults interfering with play study question
how does teaching affect exploratory play?
adults interfering with play study method
4-6-year-olds were shown a toy with many plastic tubes
adults interfering with play study conditions
- Accident: an adult accidentally bumped into the tube, making it squeak
- Teaching: an adult showed the child that the tube squeaks
adults interfering with play study findings
- Children played longer and tried more different actions when the experimenter squeaked the toy accidentally
- Teaching discouraged the children from discovery during play
adults interfering with play study takeaways
- Letting children play spontaneously allows them to learn
- Adults can best support play by following children’s lead so that a child can build knowledge themselves
friend
A person who’s not a relative with whom an individual has an intimate, reciprocated, and positive relationship
what are the most important factors in children’s friendships?
similarity & proximity
similarity in friendships
- Age
- Acceptance by peers
- Personality
- Level of negative emotions
- Academic motivation
proximity in friendships
- Live in the same neighbourhood
- Go to the same school
- Participate in the same extracurricular activities
gender and choice of friends
- More likely to be friends with kids of the same gender
- This preference emerges around 3 and peaks around 13
- At age 13, different gender friends increase, especially for girls
friendships at 1-2 years old
- show preference of some children over others
- Touch them more
- Smile at them more
friendships at 2-3 years old
- developing more complex social behaviours
- Ex. imitating peers’ behaviours, cooperative problem solving, turn-taking
- Emergence of parallel play
friendships at 3-5 years old
- kids have a concept of friendship
- Most kids have at least one friend
- Friendship is defined as playing together
- Best friend= peer a child plays with the most
- But friends also have more conflict than non-friends
- More likely to cooperate to resolve conflict than non-friends
- Emergence of preference for same-gender peers emerges around 3-4 years old
friendships at 6-8 years old
define friendship based on shared activities with friends
friendships at 9-12 years
the definition of friendship expands to include trust, care, and help
friendships in adolescence
- friendship is primarily defined by self-disclosure and intimacy
- Friendship takes on central importance
gender differences in friendships
- As children get older, gender differences emerge in what they want out of friendship
- Girls desire more closeness and dependency in friendships
- This comes with more worrying and stress about friendships
gender similarities in friendship
Girls and boys show similar levels of conflict and stability in friendships
sociometric status
the degree to which children are liked vs. disliked by peers
how is sociometric status measured?
by having children anonymously nominate peers in their class that they like (positive nominations) and peers in their class that they dislike (negative nominations)
5 sociometric status groups
- Popular
- Rejected
- Average
- Neglected
- Controversial
(PRANC)
popular kids
Liked by many peers and disliked by few
prevalence of popular kids
11% of kids
popular kids tend to be:
- Socially skilled
- Good at emotional regulation
- Assertive, but not aggressive
- Tend to have factors that give them high status
rejected kids
Liked by few peers and disliked by many
prevalence of rejected kids
13% of kids
rejected kids tend to:
have fewer positive social skills compared to peers
2 types of rejected kids
- rejected-aggressive
- rejected-withdrawn
rejected-aggressive kids
- tend to show high levels of hostility, threatening behaviour, physical aggression, and delinquency
- 40-50% of rejected kids
rejected-withdrawn kids
- tend to be socially withdrawn, timid, and socially anxious
- Frequently victimized and feel lonely, isolated, and depressed
- 10-25% of rejected kids
controversial kids
- Liked by many but also disliked by many
- Characteristics of rejected-aggressive and popular kids
- Aggressive, disruptive, and prone to anger
- Compensate for this with many positive social skills like being cooperative, sociable, and funny
prevalence of controversial kids
7% of kids
prevalence of neglected kids
9% of kids
neglected kids
- Neutral/not noticed
- Less social and less disruptive than average children
- But not at risk for negative outcomes
- Simply prefer solitary activities
- Can be socially skilled in more structured activities
prevalence of average kids
60%
average kids
- Moderate number of likes and dislikes
- More social than rejected and neglected kids, but not as social as popular or controversial kids
short-term (weeks-months) stability of sociometric status
- Neglected or controversial children are likely to change their status
- Popular, rejected, and average children tend to remain so
long-term (years) stability of sociometric status
- Sociometric status is more likely to change
- Average and rejected status is the most stable
importance of friendship
- Provides social validation and support
- Fosters the development of positive social skills
validation/support in friendship
- This is especially important during transitions
- Kids tend to rely more on friends than parents starting in adolescence
- Chronic friendlessness is associated with increased loneliness and depression
- Friendship buffers against negative experiences
development of social skills in friendship
- Builds cooperation, theory of mind, and conflict resolution skills
- Gossip allows children to learn about social norms
- Childhood friendships are “practice” for adult relationships
friends as buffers study question
does friendship buffer against negative experiences?
friends as buffers study method
- 10-11-year-olds reported on their negative experiences over the course of 4 days
- After each experience, they indicated their self-worth and whether their best friend was present or not
- They also measured salivary cortisol as an indicator of stress reaction
friends as buffers study findings
- if the child’s best friend wasn’t present, more negative experiences were associated with increased cortisol and lower self-worth
- But, this wasn’t the case if their best friend was present
friendship and attachment study question
how does friendship quality shape early adult attachment?
friendship and attachment study method
a longitudinal study of 707 participants from childhood to age 18 using data from SECCYD
what did the friendship and attachment study assess?
- Quality of caregiving experiences: at age 15 months, 24 months, 36 months, 54 months, and each year from grade 1-6
- Child’s social competence: assessed by parents and teachers each year from grades 1-6
- Self-reported best friendship quality in grades 3, 4, 5, and 6
- Attachment avoidance and anxiety at age 18
friendship and attachment study results
less supportive parenting, lower social competence, and lower quality friendships across childhood predicted more adult attachment insecurity
Avoidance at age 18 was predicted by:
- Lower maternal sensitivity
- Higher maternal depression
- Lower social competence in childhood
- Best friendship quality
Anxiety at age 18 was predicted by:
- Higher maternal depression
- Lower social competence in childhood
- Best friendship quality
friendship vs. parenting and attachment
The effect of social skills and friendship experiences on adult attachment is similar to (if not larger than) the effect of caregiving experiences
longitudinal benefits of childhood friendships study method
Friendship was assessed at age 10 and then followed up on at age 22
longitudinal benefits of childhood friendships study results for 10-year-olds
At age 10, kids who had a best friend (vs. those that didn’t) were seen as:
Less aggressive
More popular/well-liked
longitudinal benefits of childhood friendships study results for 22-year-olds
At age 22, those who had a best friend at age 10
Were more successful in university
Had better family and social lives
Had higher self-esteem and less anxiety & depression
longitudinal benefits of childhood friendships study takeaway
this shows that having a close friendship in childhood has both short-term and long-term benefits for social and psychological well-being
Being rejected, especially aggressive-rejected in childhood is associated with:
- More aggression
- Delinquency in teens
- Substance abuse
- Continued unhealthy relationships into adolescence and adulthood
- Lower self-esteem
- Less education and limited work success
- Crime in adulthood
deviancy training
negative peer pressure wherein peers model and reinforce aggression and deviance by making these behaviours seem acceptable
examples of deviancy training
- Kids that have aggressive/delinquent friends are more likely to also become aggressive and delinquent
- Similar effects with drug and alcohol use
when does deviancy training begin?
can begin as early as age 5
deviancy training as a selection effect
- Children choose peers who are similar to them
- This implies that kids choose and contribute to “the wrong crowd”
how do parents shape their children’s peer relationships in a positive way?
monitoring & emotional coaching
monitoring
parents decide whom children interact with and how much time they spend doing particular activities
monitoring at different ages
This looks different depending on the child’s age, but it matters for all ages
emotional coaching
parents teach kids how to effectively manage emotions to interact with peers and handle conflict
kids who have more age-appropriate monitoring & emotional coaching
are more socially competent and liked by their peers
school interventions
School interventions aim to improve children’s peer relationships by enhancing their emotional development
Promoting Alternative Thinking Strategies (PATHS)
A school intervention that aims to change how rejected children interact with their peers
what age group does PATHS study?
ages 4-11
what do children learn in PATHS?
- To identify emotional expressions
- Think about the causes and consequences of different ways of expressing emotions
- Strategies for self-regulation
Children who participate in PATHS (vs. control) show:
- Increased emotion understanding and regulation
- Increased social problem-solving
- Decreased externalizing behaviour (aggression, acting out)
- Decreased depression
