Lecture 2

Question 1

3 types of attention

Answer 1

1. Selective attention: a spotlight that moves the focus of attention from one things to another.
2. Focused attention: a gatekeeper that decides which information will be seen or not.
3. Divided attention: for doing things at the same time / multi-tasking.

Selective attention and focused attention is controlled by executive functions.

Question 2

Sustained attention

Answer 2

The active focussing and dividing attention over a long period of time. This depends on our altertnes and the intensity of our attention.

Question 3

Attention is defined through 2 processes:

Answer 3

1. Selectivity: choosing of different information and ignoring irrelevant information, and shifting between different tasks.
2. Intensity: the level of consciousness. How alert we are and if we can focus. Our attention intensity can be lower and higher (depends on phasic and tonic alertnes).

Question 4

Phasic alertnes

Answer 4

Getting startles by a sudden noise.

Question 5

Tonic alertness

Answer 5

Intrinsic arousal that fluctuates over time.

Question 6

Mental Schema Theory

Answer 6

Thinking and actions are controlled by the schema’s in our brain. These schema’s are triggered by our environment.
We apply contention scheduling to select relevant information in the overload of information that we receive. This adds information to our schema’s.
The supervisory attentional system (SAS) can inhibit the contention scheduling and activate the executive functions.

Question 7

Attentional control of behaviour

Answer 7

The central executive controls our attention processes by diving attention between 3 subsystems:
1. The phonological loop: maintains verbal and phonological information.
2. The visuospatial sketchpad: visual and spatial information processing.
3. Episodic buffer: stands for leng-term memory.

Question 8

Brain model

Answer 8

Our attention is focused in the:
- Posterior attention system: orienting, awareness, environmental and visual spatial information.
- Anterior attention system: active and selective part of attention.
- Vigilance network: influences our alertness (default mode network).

Question 9

Attention Networks Theory

Answer 9

There are 2 attentional systems:
1. Bottom-up attention (ventral): is passive and activated by external stimuli.
2. Top-down attention (dorsal): is active an activated by selective processes.

Question 10

How attention is assessed

Answer 10

Ideally attention tasks need 2 conditions:
1. Perform a task as fast as possible (speed tasks)
2. Timed task, where selection is needed (selection / switching).

Question 11

Executive functions

Answer 11

Abilities that allow a person to adapt to new situations and develop and follow their life goals in a productive and constructive manner.

Question 12

Shielding and shifting dilemma

Answer 12

Executive function includes goal setting and control of behavior to achieve a goal. This causes a dilemma of control: protection against distraction (shielding) vs. being flexible in the adaptation of the goal (shifting).

Question 13

Fractionated view of executive functions

Answer 13

Executive functions is an umbrella term for a lot of different functions/processes at the same time. There are multiple processes involved in executive function and these functions are present in different brain regions.

Question 14

Unitary view of executive functions

Answer 14

There is a central operator of the executive function (Central executive or SAS). This collaborates with other brain regions. But who is controlling this controller?

Question 15

Criticism on views of executive functions

Answer 15

• They both fail to explain how the brain controls itself.
• The same areas in the brain are activated by different processes.

Question 16

Network view (current view of executive functions)

Answer 16

The executive functions arise from the activation of different brain regions that are not structurally connected but communicate with each other in a network (combination of both views).

Question 17

How are executive functions assessed?

Answer 17

They are hard to measure and often undetected in neuropsychological evaluation. But they can be measures in 3 ways:
1. Operational tasks: stimulus driven.
2. Tactical tasks: memory driven.
3. Strategic tasks: strategy driven.

Examples: stroop task, trail making task, looking for keys task.

Question 18

Fronto-subcortical networks

Answer 18

• Dorsolateral prefrontal network: important for executive functions, planning and problems solving. Consists of the caudate nucleus, globus pallidus and thalamus.
• Orbitofrontal network: important for social-cognitive and behavioral functions. Consists of the thalamus, nucleus and globus pallidus. Causes change in personality and disinhibition when damaged.
• Anterior cingulate network: controls motivation. Consist of the ventral striatrum, thalamus and susbstantia nigra. Causes apathy and lack of drive when damaged.

Question 19

fMRI (functional MRI)

Answer 19

Time-varying changes in the brain metabolism on the basis of blood flow. Measures the BOLD-signal: blood oxygen level dependent signal.

Question 20

Attention networks

Answer 20

• Frontoparietal control network: initiation of executive control in tasks.
• Cingulo-opercular network: sustained control, tonic alertness.
• Default mode network: monitored by frontoparietal network. Important in self-related processes.

Question 21

Attention/executive functions over the lifespan

Answer 21

• 7-12 months: working memory and inhibitory control is developed.
• 3-5 years: goal directed behaviour and selective attention.
• 8-10 years: cognitive flexibility.
• 15 years: working memory and inhibitory control increases.
• 20-29: peak of executive functions.
• 50 years: decline of working memory.
• 70 years: decline of cognitive flexibility and executive functions.

Question 22

Causes of impairment of attention/ executive functions

Answer 22

• Traumatic brain injury
• ADHD
• Stroke
• Alzheimers
• MS

Question 23

Can we improve attention / executive functions?

Answer 23

If you had injury to the brain, your brain can reorganise itself due to brain plasticity. Cognitive training can lead to more cognitive plasticity, changes in flexibilty and better cognitive performance, but research shows mixed results.

We should focus less on IF it works, but more on WHY and WHEN it works and WHAT function is trained.