Lecture 2: Motivation

Question 1

motivation

Answer 1

• ‘the direction and intensity of one’s effort’ (Sage, 1977)

Question 2

in what directions can we be motivated?

Answer 2

• Can be motivated towards or away from doing something so direction is important

Question 3

how can the intensity of motivation differ?

Answer 3

• Can have high or low intensity motivation

Question 4

what are the approaches to motivation?

Answer 4

person centred view (trait) and situational factors both go into participant and situation interaction. this then goes to participant motivation

Question 5

person centred view

Answer 5

Person centred view = trait view (part of our make up and who we are - personality, needs, interests, goals)

Question 6

situational factors

Answer 6

Situational factors = state approach (coaching style, environment win-loss ratio)

Question 7

key study on motivation

Answer 7

Sorrentino and Sheppard (1978)

Question 8

sample used for Sorrentino and Sheppard (1978) study

Answer 8

44 males and 33 female swimmers

Question 9

method used for Sorrentino and Sheppard (1978) study

Answer 9

200 yard freestyle time trial
○ Individually and relay team
- Situational factor
○ Swimming alone/part of a relay team
- Personality characteristic - affiliation motivation
○ Degree to which see group involvement as opportunity for social approval
○ Social rejection

Question 10

object of Sorrentino and Sheppard (1978) study

Answer 10

see whether each swimmer was orientated toward social approval or toward rejection and how their motivational orientation influenced their performance.

Question 11

findings of Sorrentino and Sheppard study

Answer 11

• Trait and state interact with each other

table:
alone+approval-oriented = lower performance
on team+approval-oriented = best performance
alone+rejection-threatened = best performance
on team+rejection-threatened = lower performance

Question 12

which theory would you use to answer: Does it matter if we have a choice?

Answer 12

Self-determination theory

Question 13

who developed self determination theory?

Answer 13

Deci and Ryan (1985, 2000)

Question 14

focus

Answer 14

extent to which behaviours such as sport and exercise participation undertaken voluntarily (not controlled by external agent such as a coach, or contingency such as rewards).

Question 15

what does SDT stand for?

Answer 15

self determination theory

Question 16

what is SDT a general theory of?

Answer 16

○ General theory on what motivates people (as opposed to how).

Question 17

assumption of SDT?

Answer 17

○ Assumption: humans growth oriented organisms who actively seek optimal challenges and new learning experiences to master.

Question 18

what is manifested within SDT and how?

Answer 18

○ Inherent tendency for growth is manifested within SDT through the concept of intrinsic motivation.

Question 19

what does SDT propose?

Answer 19

Proposes we have 3 basic psychological needs

Question 20

what does Deci and Ryan suggest happens when people experience the 3 basic psychological needs?

Answer 20

○ Proposes we have 3 basic psychological needs: Deci and Ryan suggest when people experience these 3 things, they become more self-determined and able to be intrinsically motivated to pursue that the things that interest them.

Question 21

3 basic psychological needs in SDT

Answer 21

§ Autonomy
§ Relatedness
§ Competence

Question 22

autonomy

Answer 22

§ Autonomy: people need to feel in control of own behaviours and goals.

Question 23

relatedness

Answer 23

Relatedness: people need to experience a sense of belonging and attachment to other people.

Question 24

competence

Answer 24

§ Competence: people need to gain mastery of tasks and learn different skills.

Question 25

intrinsic motivation

Answer 25

Intrinsic motivation: participation in sport that is inherently pleasurable when effort is based on enjoyment of competition, excitement, or the desire to learn and improve.

Question 26

extrinsic motivation

Answer 26

Extrinsic motivation: when sport involvement is driven by trophies, ribbons, salaries or scholarships, or the approval of others.

Question 27

amotivation

Answer 27

Amotivation: relative absence (inherent lack) of motivation

Question 28

what does SDT say athletes are driven by?

Answer 28

○ Athletes driven mainly by personal goals and achievements rather than financial incentives. But competing against and defeating an opponent is still important for some.

Question 29

what are the perceived locus' of causality on the continuum proposed by Deci and Ryan?

Answer 29

``` intrinsic motivation integrated motivation identified regulation introjected regulation external regulation amotivation ```

Question 30

what are the extrinsic motivation locus of causality on Deci and Ryan's continuum?

Answer 30

integrated regulation identified regulation introjected regulation external regulation

Question 31

what are the defining features for intrinsic motivation?

Answer 31

for enjoyment, pleasure and fun | no discernible reinforcement or reward

Question 32

what are the defining features of integrated regulation?

Answer 32

behaviours that are fully incorporated into the repertoire of behaviours that satisfy psychological needs

Question 33

what are the defining features of identified regulation?

Answer 33

for personally held clues such as learning new skills; internally referenced contingency

Question 34

what are the defining features of introjected regulation?

Answer 34

for avoiding external sources of disapproval, or gaining externally reference approval

Question 35

what are the defining features of external regulation?

Answer 35

for external reinforcement such as gaining rewards or avoiding punishment

Question 36

what are the defining features of amotivation?

Answer 36

lack of intentionality and personal causation

Question 37

How does self-determination theory link with sport and exercise behaviour?

Answer 37

○ Supported endorsement of self-determined motives associated. ○ Increased effort in physical education classes and intention to be physically active (standage et al., 2003), exercise intensity (Edmunds et al., 2006), and training outcomes such as burnout in elite rugby athletes (Creswell and Eklund, 2005). - Cognitive evaluation theory supports extrinsic rewards undermining intrinsic motivation

Question 38

key theory aswering the question: does it matter if we hold different views about what constitutes success?

Answer 38

achievement goal theory (Nicholls, 1989)

Question 39

what question does achievement goal theory answer?

Answer 39

does it matter if we hold different views about what constitutes success?

Question 40

what is achievement goal theory about understanding?

Answer 40

the role of competence or ability.

Question 41

achievement goal theory

Answer 41

○ A theory of motivation that focuses on differences in how individuals evaluate competence and define success and failure.

Question 42

what does achievement goal theory include?

Answer 42

dispositional factors and achievement goal orientations

Question 43

dispositional factors

Answer 43

individual characteristics that influence behaviour and actions in a person.

Question 44

what are the 2 achievement goal orientations in achievement goal theory?

Answer 44

task-mastery orientation and ego orientation

Question 45

task-mastery orientation:

Answer 45

take pride in the progressive improvement of their knowledge and ability relative to their own past performances. □ Self referenced (don't worry about actions of others and instead focus on themselves) □ Focus on improving ability rather than current ability less important ® Process orientation (one step at a time). ® Conductive maintaining high perceptions competence/ability.

Question 46

ego orientation

Answer 46

intent on demonstrating superiority over others (motivated by social comparison). □ Want to be the best - demonstrated by showing superiority over others □ Other reference perceptions of competence. □ Current ability is important ® Superior to others ® Equal with less effort □ Outcome orientation □ Not conductive maintaining perceptions high competence/ability.

Question 47

characteristics of goal profile: high ego, low task

Answer 47

anxiety | focus on winning

Question 48

characteristics of goal profile: high ego, high task

Answer 48

focus on winning or what it take to win | uses feedback constructively

Question 49

characteristics of goal profile: low ego, low task

Answer 49

disinterested | low perceived ability

Question 50

characteristics of goal profile: low ego, high task

Answer 50

low anxiety | high enjoyment

Question 51

individual differences in achievement goals (achievement goal theory)

Answer 51

○ Goal orientations considered independent (orthogonal) - combination of high, moderated, low (Nicholls, 1984). ○ Individual differences in orientation result of socialisation of task or ego involvement in home or experiences in achievement (i.e. classroom) (Nicholls, 1989). ○ Adoption of task and ego goals for specific activity involve both individual goal orientations and situation cues. ○ Try to balance high levels of ego orientation with high levels of task orientation.

Question 52

what if the environment values winning over improvement (achievement goal theory)?

Answer 52

○ Goal orientations are dispositional and motivational climates are situational. ○ Motivational climate (Ames, 1992). ○ Mastery (Task-involving) climate - focused on individual improvement, effort and cooperative learning. ○ Performance (ego-involving) climate - highlighted by competition, outperforming others, viewing mistakes as failures and achieving success with minimal effort. ○ What the environment promotes can have an effect on the orientation of the individual

Question 53

motivational climate and target (achievement Goal theory)

Answer 53

○ Epstein (1989) - 6 achievement structures (TARGET) ○ Manipulating the TARGET structures to support the development of a mastery-oriented motivational climate have also been shown to significantly impact the motivational climate. ○ Manipulating these 6 things can create different types of climate

Question 54

what are the 6 achievement structures (achievement goal theory)

Answer 54

``` tasks authority recognition grouping evaluation time ```

Question 55

tasks in TARGET

Answer 55

challenging and divers | absence of variety and challenge

Question 56

authority in TARGET

Answer 56

students are given choices and leadership roles students do not take part in the decision-making processes

Question 57

recognition in TARGET

Answer 57

private and based on individual progress public and based on social comparison

Question 58

grouping in TARGET

Answer 58

promotion of cooperative learning and peer interaction groups are formed on the basis of ability

Question 59

evaluation in TARGET

Answer 59

based on mastery of tasks and on individual improvement based on winning or out-performing others

Question 60

time in TARGET

Answer 60

time requirements are adjusted to personal capabilities time allocated for learning is uniform to all students

Question 61

theory answering the question: does it matter how we attribute success or failure?

Answer 61

attribution theory (Weiner, 1985/86)

Question 62

question that attribution theory answers

Answer 62

does it matter how we attribute success or failure?

Question 63

attributions

Answer 63

specific causes used to explain outcome/behaviour § May not be the actual cause but perceived to be the cause. ○ Can effect expectations and emotional reactions § Influence future achievement motivation.

Question 64

4 attributions in attribution theory

Answer 64

§ Ability § Effort § Task difficulty § Luck

Question 65

2 dimensions of attribution theory

Answer 65

locus of causality | stability

Question 66

locus of causality

Answer 66

□ Internal factors (under the control of performer) (ability/effort) □ External factors (beyond performers control) (task difficulty/luck)

Question 67

internal factors

Answer 67

(under the control of performer) (ability/effort)

Question 68

external factors

Answer 68

(beyond performers control) (task difficulty/luck)

Question 69

stability

Answer 69

□ Stable factors: fixed factors (don't change over time) (ability/task difficulty) □ Unstable factors: vary with time (effort/luck)

Question 70

stable factors

Answer 70

□ Stable factors: fixed factors (don't change over time) (ability/task difficulty)

Question 71

unstable factors

Answer 71

□ Unstable factors: vary with time (effort/luck)

Question 72

describe high achievers using Weiner's model

Answer 72

§ Attribute success to internal factors § Failure is attributed to external factors § Creates approach behaviours

Question 73

describe low achievers using Weiner's model

Answer 73

§ Attribute success to external factors § Attribute failure to internal factors § Avoidance behaviour

Question 74

what is self-serving bias?

Answer 74

§ Successful performers take credit for success □ Done by attributing success to their own qualities (natural ability, ability to respond to competitive stress). § Enhances feeling of pride, self-worth and self-esteem § Also tend to blame external factors for failure □ Done automatically to avoid internal controllable and stable factors (even if such factors may be true). □ Self-serving bias - give attributions to protect self-esteem rather than look for true attributions which would reflect reality. § Unsuccessful performers - don't always attribute failure to external factors □ Don't protect self-esteem and tends to reduce motivation.

Question 75

what are the 3 theoretical approaches to motivation and what question do they each answer?

Answer 75

self-determination theory - does it matter if we have a choice? achievement goal theory - does it matter if we hold different views about what constitutes success? attribution theory - does it matter how we attribute success or failure?