Lecture 3

Question 1

Pangenesis

Answer 1

that every cell in the body generates an invisible blueprint of itself (gemmule) and stored in the reproductive cells (gametes)
REJECTED

Question 2

Blended Inheritance

Answer 2

Theory passed on by Darwin
offspring were a uniform plant of it’s parents characteristics and each parents contributes to the gemmules of the offspring equally

Question 3

Gregor Mendel

Answer 3

explained inheritance of traits by using plants
Figured out there was a mathematical ratio that you could use in order to figure out the phenotype and genotypes off offspring
Able to identify which genes were dominant and which were recessive by using self breeding and cross breeding plants. F1 generation were all heterogenous plants and then when crossed again there was a 3:1 ratio of dominant to recessive phenotypes

Question 4

Allele

Answer 4

one of more variant of a gene

ex: the seed can be wrinkled or smooth

Question 5

principles of segregation

Answer 5

principle deemed by Gregor Mendel
genes occurs in pairs, then they segregate from each other during cell division and results in each gamete having 1 copy, so when fertilized there will be 2 copies again for the daughter cell

Question 6

principle of independent assortment

Answer 6

Gregor Mendel
the distribution of one pair of alleles does not influence the distribution of any other pair of genes (ie just because the seed is wrinkled doesn’t mean that it will always be yellow)
EXCEPTION: if the genes are very close together on the same chromosome they tend to assort together

Question 7

Genetics:

Answer 7

study of genes and how traits are transmitted from one generation to the next

Question 8

Gene

Answer 8

sequence of DNA that codes for a protein

Question 9

Prokaryote

Answer 9

single celled organism that has no nucleus

bacteria and blue-green algae

Question 10

Eukaryote

Answer 10

Have a nucleus that contains DNA
can be mutlicelled or single celled but must have a nucleus with DNA
composed of carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids and proteins

Question 11

DNA

Answer 11

deoxyribonucleic acid
Discovered by Watson, Franklin, and Crick
Formed of nucleotides that contain a phopshate, sugar, and 1 of 4 bases which are A, T, C, or G. adenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine. A goes with T, C goes with G
backbone is the phosphate bound to the sugar
Double stranded
DNA is found in long condensed strand in chromosomes and in the nucleus of the cell
only 1.5% of DNA is coding while everything else is noncoding - variation lies within the alternative splicing of introns to turn genes on and off

Question 12

mtDNA

Answer 12

Mitochondrail DNA
only found in the mitochondria of the cell and it gives energy to the cell
is only inherited from the mother

Question 13

Replication of DNA

Answer 13

1) dna is separated via the H bonds
2) single strand DNA is replicated into mRNA
3) mRNA leaves the nucleus and goes into the cytoplasm
4) Ribosome attaches to mRNA and reads it attracting tRNA that have the anticodon for the codon of the amino acids attached
5) tRNA waits for their 3 codon triplet to appear and then attaches the amino acids together to make a polypeptide
6) polypeptides are proteins
7) proteins serve as functions

Question 14

Mutations that can occur

Answer 14

Point mutation: SNP, occurs in translation of mRNA to amino acids. 
Deletion: deletion of a base 
Insertion: insertion of a base
Inversion: DNA is reversed 
other: sunlight, chemicals, radiation

Question 15

Intron Splicing

Answer 15

Introns are considered junk DNA, do not code for any proteins, they just turn genes on and off via the alternative splicing
Introns are spliced at certain places for the exons to connect and code for proteins
Allows for variation

Question 16

Sickle Cell Anemia

Answer 16

point mutation that has an A instead of T producing valine instead of glutatmic acid
This causes the hemoglobin protein to not be in the same 3D shape as a normal hemoglobin and so it does not carry oxygen well or at all. This causes cells to die
We see sickle cell anemia selected for in areas of Malaria because the malaria cannot attack the hemoglobin the same way and cause the same effect, making sickle cell anemia patients resistant to malaria

Question 17

Industrial Revolution

Answer 17

more pollution in the air caused the trees to go from light to dark which cause epigenetic in the moths to change their body color from light to dark in order to hide from predators
also known as industrial melanism: increased pigmentation resulting from human modification of the environment

Question 18

Functions of Proteins

Answer 18

Enzymes: catalyze chemical reactions (lactase)
Structural proteins: give structure and support tissues (keratin)
Gas transport proteins: carry vital gases to tissues (hemoglobin)
Antibodies: part of immune system (Anti-A)
Hormones: regulate metabolism (insulin)
Mechanical proteins: carry out specific functions or work (mysoin)
Nutrients: provide nutrients to tissues (ovalbumin)

Question 19

Mitosis

Answer 19

only in somatic cells
asexual reproduction
1 cell division
Prophase (DNA is duplicated) diploid
Metaphase (homologous pairs align at the middle of the cell)
Anaphase (homologous pairs are pulled apart to opposite ends of the cell)
Telophase (cell is cut into 2) cells are still diploid

Question 20

Meiosis

Answer 20

in gametes (sex cells)
sexual reproduction
oogenesis occurs in oogonia and resulting in 1 vital ovum and 3 polar bodies
spermatogenesis occurs in spermatogonia and results in 4 vital gametes
2 cell divisions
crossing over/recombination occurs in metaphase 1
Gametes end after telophase 2 in haploid form.

Question 21

Chromosomes

Answer 21

condensed form of DNA that is only found in the nucleus
has a centromere which is a constricted part of the chromosome
Humans have 46 chromosomes, 22 pairs of somatic chromosomes and 1 pair of 2 sex chromosomes
Males have the Y chromosome
Females have 2 X chromosome

Question 22

Problems that arise from Meiosis

Answer 22

Trisomy which is downsyndrome when crossing over does not occur properly
Monosomy which is turner syndrome found in females

Question 23

Mendelian Trait

Answer 23

traits that are controlled by a single locus

Question 24

Codominance traits

Answer 24

When 2 alleles are both equally dominant so you would see both phenotypically
ex: AB blood

Question 25

Sex linked genes

Answer 25

traits that are controlled by genes located on the sex chromosomes ex: red green color blindness - most females are carriers because it is recessive, while males who have the recessive gene will show for that phenotype

Question 26

X linked genes

Answer 26

traits that are controlled by genes located on the x chromosome ex: Hemophilia is X linked recessive Queen had it and gave it to her son (r) and that resulted in the son having the disease and passing it down

Question 27

Pleiotropy

Answer 27

a single gene can cause multiple phenotypes most genes are this PKU - inability to convert phenylalaine into tyrosine due to lack of the enzyme hydroxyalse this also effects production of melanin, so the person will have a phenotype of light hair, skin and eyes

Question 28

Polygenic traits

Answer 28

continuous traits that are influenced by multiple genes | EX: beak size, is influenced by multiple gene locus' which gave it that continuous trend we saw

Question 29

Behavioral Genetics

Answer 29

Can be inherited | Much of our behaviour is within our genes but we are able to modify and changing out behaviour

Question 30

PCR

Answer 30

discovered and used in 1980's | amplifies DNA in order for us to analyze it

Question 31

Evolutionary Synthesis

Answer 31

combination of Darwin's theory of natural selection and Mendel's theory in inheritance

Question 32

Homologous Pair

Answer 32

chromosomal pairs that are alike in size and position of the centromere, they carry genetic information influencing the same traits

Question 33

Karyotype

Answer 33

Pictograph of all 23 chromosomal pairs for a human | Arranged in pairs according to size and position of the centromere

Question 34

chromatin

Answer 34

uncoiled non-condensed DNA strands that is seen in interphase when the DNA is being used for metabolic processes and also being duplicated to go into prophase

Question 35

Antigens RH found in blood

Answer 35

Can be + or - makes for there to be 8 phenotypes of blood in pregnancy is the mother is - and the baby is + there will be no issues, but during birth there is some blood transfusion which causes the mother to develop antibodies for the Rh protein During second pregnancy this can cause an issue because the mothers immune system will start to attack the fetus that is + for Rh.

Question 36

How does variation occur

Answer 36

mutations, genetic drift (founders effect), gene flow

Question 37

Genetic Drift

Answer 37

random change in allele frequency to a small population over time greater effect on small populations and mendelian traits (traits that are controlled by one gene) Founders effect: when a small colonizing population effects the frequency of the allele If the population that is colonizing carries most of the frequency for the allele in observation, then when it colonizes a new location, it will create that frequency to be greater, and cause a total loss of that allele in the original location

Question 38

Gene flow

Answer 38

Movement of genes from one population to another with or without migration Result from interbreeding

Question 39

Hardy Weinberg Equation

Answer 39

Mathematical equation that deems that there will be no evolution if 5 things are help accountable

Question 40

5 assumptions of the Hardy Weingberg Equation

Answer 40

1) No natural selection 2) No sexual selection (all individuals have an equal and random chance at mating) 3) no migration 4) Population in effect is infinitely large 5) Mutation does not occur

Question 41

Hidden Variation

Answer 41

This was seen in the finches after the daphne's draught in the late 1970s. The beak size had become dominantly large and wide due to the seeds that were available, as the smaller beak sizes were not able to eat the bigger seeds After the draught however we saw that the beak size had gone back to the original variation from before the draught this helped us determine that there were multiple loci in determining the beak size and when the environmental stressors were not present to influence the alleles, then all were able to be expressed giving the original continuous range of beak size.

Question 42

Correlated Traits

Answer 42

Traits that correlate with each other and are statistically associated in a population ex: arm length and leg length usually seen in pleiotropic effects (1 gene causing many phenotypes, also makes us proportional)

Question 43

Maladaptive Traits

Answer 43

Traits that do not help us survive | ex: Finches only having a large beak but not a deep beak, you need both to survive during the draught

Question 44

Inheriting Behaviour

Answer 44

Scott P. Carroll used soapberry bugs and studied their mate guarding found that the soapberry bugs in oklahoma would only mate guard if the ratio of males to females was either 1:1 or 2:l they would not mate guard with a ration of 1:2 Soapberry bugs found in florida however mate guarded regardless of the ratio of males to females

Question 45

Behaviors can evolve if

Answer 45

1) they vary 2) the variation has an impact on reproductive success of the individual with that character trait 3) the behaviour must be heritable -> passed on to the next generation

Question 46

Canalized behaviour trait

Answer 46

Will do the behaviour no matter what environmental situation the organism is in

Question 47

Plastic behaviour trait

Answer 47

The behaviour will depend on the environment and the circumstances usually quite costly, ie the soapberry bugs mate guard and lose their opportunity to mate with another female humans behaviour traits are 99.9% plastic

Question 48

Types of Natural Selection

Answer 48

1) Directional 2) Stable 3) Disruptive 4) NONE

Question 49

Directional Natural selection

Answer 49

Driving a trait into a certain + or - direction ex: draught caused the finches' beak size to be directionally bigger acts as an agent for microevolution

Question 50

Stabilizing natural Selection

Answer 50

There is selection for the most common allele/phenotype but also some selection for both extreme phenotypes/ alleles this will cause the population to stay the same for the traits seen over time

Question 51

Disruptive Natural Selection

Answer 51

There is selection for both extreme phenotypes/alleles and no selection for the most common This causes the population to see increases in both extreme traits Found in sympatric speciation

Question 52

No selection

Answer 52

absence of selection the population will have a variety of phenotypes/alleles there will be no change over time

Question 53

Species

Answer 53

organism that can recognize its members within a population, mate with them, and produce viable offspring

Question 54

Genetic relatedness

Answer 54

determined by anatomy and morphology | genomes are related

Question 55

Deme

Answer 55

population of organisms that have similar genes, inter-breed, and produce offspring bound together by morphology, ecology, genome, reproduction, and behaviour

Question 56

Gene pool

Answer 56

Genetic information available in a breeding population

Question 57

Reproductive Isolation

Answer 57

When some mechanism prevents two populations of the same species from interbreeding and exchanging genetic material physical ex: mountains, river, ocean social ex in humans: religion, politics

Question 58

Microevolution

Answer 58

Evolution within a species such as a change in allele frequency from one generation to the next results in variation

Question 59

Macroevolution

Answer 59

Evolution of a new species, families, and higher taxa which occurs after hundreds and thousands of years. results in speciation maintained through gene flow

Question 60

Hyena EX

Answer 60

closest relative is a mongoose but they morphologically look like dogs this is because they behave like mongoose, they chitter chatter to communicate, they make underground burrows, live in groups, the groups are lead by alpha females How they respond to situations is more similar to a mongoose than to a dog

Question 61

Biological Species concept

Answer 61

a species is a group of organisms that interbreed in nature and are reproductively isolated gene flow torpedos this

Question 62

Recognition Species Concept

Answer 62

a species is a group whose members can identify potential mates with whom might successfully interbreed based on - morphology - behavior - calls - chemical signals

Question 63

Ecological Species Concept

Answer 63

View that emphasizes selecting in creating and maintain a species in which gene flow can occur between species species are maintain both by behavioural and environmental pressures This is why baboons in south africa cannot reproduce with a baboon from saudi arabia

Question 64

Absence of Gene flow

Answer 64

ex: checkerspot butterfly the butterfly is found in san diego and pockets of the states but the San Diego butterfly does not mate with the others no gene flow which means no new species

Question 65

Allopatric Speciation

Answer 65

occurs when a population is divided by some type of barrier or gene flow and different parts of the population adapt to different environments leading to new species species that live apart and have genetic isolation

Question 66

ex of allopatric speciation

Answer 66

Finches live on an island that have distinct regions (wet, dry) and so there is a variation of beak size on this island Storm comes and blows some finches to a new island that only has a dry region The beak size of the finch will only be a successful trait if it is large and deep beak size, so that is directionally selected for. There is reproductive isolation between the two island populations so there is a new species that evolves

Question 67

Character Displacement

Answer 67

STORM #2 occurs and blows the finches that got blown the first time back to the original island, they are going to be most successful in the dry regions of the original island. they will outcompete the original finches as they can only survive there. When competition for food, mates and other resources increases the morphologically differences between the immigrants and residents

Question 68

Reinforcement

Answer 68

When selection acts against the viability of a hybrid offspring thus favouring speciation of the 2 types of finches

Question 69

Parapatric Speciation

Answer 69

holds that selection alone is not sufficient to result in a new species, but needs to be combine with some other force like partial genetic isolation (reinforcement) to maintain the differences between the species species whose ranges are continuous but not overlapping

Question 70

Sympatric Speciation

Answer 70

ONLY THEORETICAL different phenotypes can result in a new species over time due to population reproduction dynamics subdeems can only reproduce with subdeems species that coexist in the same geographical region

Question 71

Richard Owen

Answer 71

Went against darwin and said that not all traits are adaptive

Question 72

Phylogeny

Answer 72

arrangement of living organisms into a family tree based on shared ancestral traits 1) basis for taxonomy 2) explains why a species evolved certain characteristics and not others 3) deduces the function of morphological functions or behaviour through comparison with the traits of a different species

Question 73

Cladistic Taxonomy

Answer 73

direct relatedness | how related organisms are due to evolutionary history

Question 74

Evolutionary taxonomy

Answer 74

both descent (relatedness) and overall similarity in morphology and behaviour should be used to determine classification

Question 75

Convergent evolution

Answer 75

Traits that have evolved within different species to have the similar morphology but no actual genetic relatedness ex: eyeball - something that can sense if it is light or dark, have a depression that can be able to detect where the light is coming from, membrane for sensitive cells, a lens to focus that light and a layer to reflect that light

Question 76

Variant

Answer 76

individual within populations having different expressions of a trait

Question 77

variability

Answer 77

tendency for members of a population to exhibit different versions of a particular trait

Question 78

variation

Answer 78

expression of differences for a characteristic amount members of a population

Question 79

Population Genetics

Answer 79

science that studies how variation in gene frequency within populations are effected bu the forces that modify them over time

Question 80

Heterosis

Answer 80

heterozygote advantage the tendency for offspring of genetically distinct individuals to have increased vigour as they are less likely to express deleterious recessive alleles occurs when males and females of similar genetic background mate

Question 81

Neodarwinism

Answer 81

Huxley 1) selection is the paramount force in evolution 2) evolution entails gradual change over many generations 3) evolutions occurs within populations mutation is the source of variation with natural selection as the mechanisms that determines whether a mutation is helpful or otherwise

Question 82

Epigenetics

Answer 82

mechanism acting during motions (development) that modify gene expression without changing the DNA sequence

Question 83

Phenotypic plasticity

Answer 83

potential for individuals to modify their phenotype in response to variation in external conditions in order to maintain homeostasis and function change to survive

Question 84

Transgenic epigenetic inheritance

Answer 84

transmission of novel phenotypic features from parent to offspring acquired without recourse to modification in DNA base sequence environmentally mediated development can result in new phenotypes EIS - use chromatin markers to be inherited

Question 85

biogeography

Answer 85

geographic distribution of organisms, habitats and evolutionary history as it relates to landscape and ecology

Question 86

Hybrid zone

Answer 86

ecological regions in which closely related species overlap in occurrences, allowing for interbreeding to produce a hybrid offspring however these offspring are usually sterile

Question 87

Reproductive Isolation Types

Answer 87

space: physical barriers preventing species to mate time: activity cycles/seasons behavior: calls and mating rituals function: other species have different forms/sizes/ attributions from reproductive parts gamete incompatibility: the sperm and egg will not be compatible with each other biochemically inviability: organism is not viable, will die in development or right after birth sterility: the offspring are not sterile and so they cannot pass their genes on

Question 88

Anagensis

Answer 88

pattern of slow linear evolutionary change darwinian gradualism traits for more successful competition will become more dominant and selected for overtime there will be a phenotypic change for adaptive traits and previous form that was selected against will disappear and be an ancestor

Question 89

Cladogenesis

Answer 89

branching single species may give rise to a daughter species that diverges into two distinct clades no change in population then a sudden burst of morphological evolution

Question 90

bottleneck

Answer 90

sudden constriction of genetic diversity appearing in a generation, commonly associated with a reduction in population size usually with a natural disaster, political unrest, or a virulent disease