Lecture 6 stress readings Flashcards
(71 cards)
1
Q
Homeostasis
A
The body’s ability to maintain steady physiological states despite environmental changes.
2
Q
Cannon’s fight or flight response
A
Stress results from external environmental demands disturbing homeostasis. The individual must either fight or flee from threats. Stress is viewed as a reactive stimulus-response process emphasizing external demands. Recovery occurs when the threat is removed; chronic stress arises if the threat persists, potentially leading to health issues
3
Q
Selye’s General Adaptation Syndrome
A
- Stress is a process of adaptation to demands.
-
Stages of GAS:
- Alarm Reaction: Hormonal changes (cortisol, adrenaline), similar to fight-or-flight.
- Resistance Stage: Body attempts to adapt and minimize alarm effects.
- Exhaustion Stage: Prolonged stress leads to exhaustion and potential death without intervention.
- Stress is a nonspecific response to demands, whether pleasant (eustress) or unpleasant (distress). Physiological reactions occur similarly in both, though distress causes more harm
4
Q
Allostatic load model
A
Recognizes many physiological systems operate within acceptable ranges. - Allostasis: “Stability through change”—physiological systems adjust to environmental demands and anticipated needs.
- The central nervous system plays a critical role by using experience and anticipation to regulate responses.
- Allostatic state: Chronic overactivation of regulatory systems.
- Allostatic load: Pathological consequences of chronic allostatic states.
- allows for many physiological responses rather than a single stress response, emphasizes mind-body connection where stress effects occur through cognitive processing, aligns with transactional model of stress
5
Q
What is the role of the transactional model of stress?
A
- Stress results from the complex interaction between the person and environment.
- Stressors are subjective; what stresses one may not stress another.
- Emphasizes cognitive appraisal over purely physiological responses.
6
Q
Components of the transactional model of stress
A
- Primary Appraisal: Individual evaluates if an event is a threat, challenge, or benign.
- Secondary Appraisal: Assessment of coping options available.
-
Coping Strategies:
- Emotion-focused coping: Managing emotional responses when the stressor seems uncontrollable (e.g., meditation).
- Problem-focused coping: Attempting to alter the stressor when it is controllable.
- The model bridges biological and psychological perspectives by integrating cognitive appraisal with physiological responses
7
Q
Criticisms of transactional model
A
- Zajonc (1984) argued affect can occur without prior cognitive processing, suggesting some stress responses may bypass appraisal.
- The model does not specify which workplace events are stressors, leaving that to occupational stress theories
8
Q
Conservation of resources theory
A
- Stress occurs due to:
- Actual or threatened resource loss.
- Lack of resource gain after resource investment.
- Four primary resource categories:
- Object/material: e.g., car, home.
- Conditional/environmental: e.g., socioeconomic status.
- Personal/individual: e.g., self-efficacy, self-esteem.
- Energy: e.g., time, money.
- Loss spirals: Initial losses make further losses more likely, reducing resilience.
- Resources can buffer stress if perceived as sufficient to meet demands.
9
Q
Corollaries related to COR
A
- Existing resources prevent further loss.
- Those with more resources gain more and lose less.
- Those with fewer resources are more vulnerable to loss spirals.
- People with more resources are more likely to take risks for gains.
10
Q
Resources
A
Objects, energies, personal characteristics, and conditions valued by individuals or useful for goal attainment.
11
Q
Effort reward imbalance theory
A
- Based on social reciprocity and exchange theory.
- Stress arises when there is an imbalance between effort spent at work and rewards received. Rewards: money, esteem and career opportunities, Effort-reward imbalance increases health risks beyond effort or reward alone, overcommitment increases health risks. Greatest health risks= effort-reward imbalance and overcommitment. Incomplete social contracts and labour market constraints can cause imbalances. Psychological factors may distort perception of demands and coping resources
12
Q
Job demand-control model
A
- Classifies job characteristics into:
- Demands: Task requirements (e.g., role conflict, time pressure).
- Control (decision latitude): Worker’s authority and skill use.
- Four job types:
- Low strain (high control, low demands).
- High strain (low control, high demands).
- Passive (low control, low demands).
- Active (high control, high demands).
- Later expanded to include social support (demand–control–support model).
- Control can buffer the effects of demands but only when matched appropriately.
- individual differences like self-efficacy can moderate effects, criticized for simplicity and inconsistent support (additive rather than interaction effects are more common)
13
Q
Job demands-resources model
A
- Expands JDC model by classifying all job characteristics as either:
- Job demands: Aspects requiring sustained effort, potentially causing stress.
- Job resources: Physical, psychological, social, or organizational aspects aiding in achieving work goals and reducing demands.
- Includes personal resources (optimism, self-efficacy) alongside job resources.
- Predicts that high job demands increase stress, while high resources foster motivation and engagement
- emphasizes agency and proactivity in employees like job crafting
14
Q
Challenge-hindrance distinction
A
- Challenge stressors: Job demands like workload and responsibility, associated with motivation.
- Hindrance stressors: Obstacles like organizational politics and job insecurity, associated with negative outcomes.
15
Q
P-E Fit approach
A
- Stress results from lack of fit between:
- (a) Job outcomes and worker needs/preferences.
- (b) Job demands and worker skills/abilities.
- Fit predicts strain better than job or person characteristics alone.
- Criticized for methodological issues:
- Lack of clear model specification for different fit types.
- Overreliance on self-reports and difference scores.
- Proposed use of polynomial regression and response surface analysis to improve measurement.
- Less prominent recently but underlies many current stress conceptualizations.
16
Q
Suggestions for future research? (don’t need to learn)
A
- The reviewed theories are complementary, not competing.
- Combining elements from different models can enhance understanding of work stress and health.
- Research should incorporate objective environment measures and physiological markers of the allostatic state.
- Measuring allostasis in work stress is crucial as it links workplace conditions to health outcomes.
- Long-term health effects are difficult to study experimentally due to slow disease development.
- future research: effects of work stress beyond the individual, personality changes from stress
17
Q
What is the role of self-regulation?
A
- State self-regulation (e.g., willpower) is depleted by stress.
- Trait self-regulation moderates reactions to stress (e.g., suppressing retaliation increases job tension).
18
Q
How is the occupational-stress relationship conceptualized (Nixon et al)?
A
As a stimulus response relationship where: - Job stressors (aspects of work environment) lead to strains (psychological, physical, behavioral reactions)
- This relationship is mediated by perceptions of the environment
- Emotional responses (anxiety, frustration) are often immediate psychological strain responses associated with physiological changes
19
Q
Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical (HPA) axis
A
- Follows Selye’s general adaptation syndrome (alarm, resistance, exhaustion)
- Hypothalamus releases corticotrophin-releasing factor (CRF)
- Stimulates pituitary gland to secrete growth hormone, prolactin, and ACTH
- ACTH affects adrenal cortex, releasing corticosteroids
- Release of enzymes like beta-endorphin and enkephalin can disrupt immune system function
20
Q
Sympathetic-adrenomedullary (SAM) system
A
- Activates fight-or-flight response
- Stimulates adrenal medulla to secrete catecholamines (epinephrine and norepinephrine)
- Leads to increased pulse rate, blood pressure, and sweating
- Over time, can result in physical symptoms like stomach distress, headache, backache, and musculoskeletal pain
21
Q
Backache
A
- Includes musculoskeletal pains in upper back, lower back, shoulders, and neck
- Muscle tenderness in soft tissues influenced by daily stressors
- Mechanism: Low cortisol and elevated prolactin during stress may increase pain sensitivity through down-regulation of immune system and increased inflammation
22
Q
Headache
A
- Particularly tension-type headaches are associated with stress exposure
- Mechanism: Pain-signaling pathways in the brain become overly sensitive to painful stimuli
- Increased nerve excitability translates minor sensations into pain signals
- Often co-occurs with back and body aches due to heightened muscle tension
23
Q
Eyestrain
A
- Refers to itchy, sore, or heavy eyes, blurred or double vision
- Considered a type of musculoskeletal disorder (MSD) from muscular tension
- Mechanism: Biochemical reaction promotes inflammation and increases pain sensitivity
- Workplace visual tasks (e.g., computer use) cause inner eye muscles to tighten and fatigue
- Effects combine with heightened pain sensitivity and are cumulative
24
Q
Sleep disturbance
A
- Most frequently reported cause of sleep difficulties is work-related stress
- Negatively related to workplace productivity; positively related to health service use and sick leave
- Mechanism: Increased ACTH and cortisol concentrations from CRH release reduce night-time melatonin levels
- This disruption may provoke insomnia and sleep disturbances
25
Dizziness
- Stress process can lead to feelings of dizziness or light-headedness
- Mechanism: Changes in metabolic rate (blood pressure and heart rate)
- May be related to hyperventilation during stress, altering body chemistry and acid/base levels
- This disrupts neural responses to balance and coordination
- Typically increases gradually over minutes and resolves when stressor is removed
26
Fatigue
- One of the most common symptoms reported during stressful situations
- Often co-occurs with other symptoms (muscle pains, sore throats, inattentiveness, headaches, unrefreshing sleep)
- Mechanism: Several endocrine and metabolic dysfunctions proposed, including undersecretion of CRH and cortisol
- Genetic studies suggest individual variation in stress response through the HPA axis and sympathetic nervous system
- Often chronic and disabling, leading to decreased health and job performance
27
Appetite
- Stress exposure associated with both increased and decreased appetite
- Mechanisms for decreased appetite: Melanocortinergic pathways rapidly increase ACTH and MSH production, mediating stress-induced anorexia
- Mechanisms for increased appetite: Sympathetic nervous system releases ghrelin from stomach, creating hunger response
- Chronic high levels of cortisol and ghrelin increase body fat stores, which release leptin (decreasing appetite)
- Occupational stress literature primarily focuses on appetite loss
28
Gastrointestinal problems
- Includes nausea, acid indigestion, heartburn, stomach cramps, and irritable bowel syndrome
- Mechanisms:
- ACTH delays stomach emptying phase of digestion, causing cramping and aches
- Stress reduces stomach's pain threshold, increasing perceived severity of symptoms
- Stress responses in nerve fibers lower tolerance for stomach expansion
- Increased colonic muscle contractions may result in irritable bowel symptoms or diarrhea
- Overactive production and release of CRF mediates these stress responses
29
Inclusion criteria Dixon
1. Individual employee level of analysis (not group/team/organization)
2. Include one or more occupational stressor measures
3. Include one or more physical symptom measures
4. Report correlation coefficient or convertible statistic
5. Conducted with working populations in natural job settings (no lab/scenario studies)
6. Data must be self-reported by employee experiencing the stressor
7. Longitudinal data must report relationship between stressors at time one and symptoms measured later
30
Stressor variables Dixon
1. **Interpersonal conflict**: Negative workplace interactions; measured primarily with the Interpersonal Conflict at Work Scale (ICAWS)
2. **Lack of control**: Limited employee control over tasks; measured with Job Content Questionnaire, Job Diagnostic Survey, or Leiden Quality of Work Questionnaire
3. **Organizational constraints**: Situations hindering job performance; measured with Organizational Constraints Scale or Job Effectiveness Survey
4. **Role ambiguity**: Unclear job information; commonly measured with Rizzo, House, and Lirtzman scale
5. **Role conflict**: Inconsistent job information from different sources; commonly measured with Rizzo et al. scale
6. **Workload**: Amount of work and effort required; commonly measured with Quantitative Workload Inventory
7. **Work hours**: Time spent working per unit of time
31
What were the results of Dixon et al?
Organizational constraints, role conflict, interpersonal conflict, workload and role ambiguity were strong relationships, while work hours and lack of control were weaker. Interpersonal conflict, role conflict, workload were significantly smaller in longitudinal analyses, while lack of control was significantly larger.
Interpersonal conflict had the strongest relationship with sleep disturbance, org constraints with fatigue and gastrointestinal, workload had the strongest relationship with fatigue, followed by eye strain. Role ambiguity was only significantly related to fatigue. Gastrointestinal and sleep problems were significantly related to stressors, while appetite changes, dizziness and headaches showed the least significant relationships. Interpersonal conflict, organizational constraints, and workload were significantly related to all physical symptoms
32
How can physiological reactions explain different patterns across stressor-symptom relationships?
- Gastrointestinal problems and sleep disturbances related to most stressors possibly because they are immediate physiological reactions
- Gastrointestinal reaction: Elevated ACTH and sympathetic nervous system agonists immediately slow digestion, causing upset stomach
- Sleep disruption: Sympathetic nervous system activity elevates hormones that disrupt mechanisms needed for sleep
- Other symptoms (backaches, headaches, eye strain, appetite loss) generally develop over time as the body's pain threshold decreases and pain signaling pathways become increasingly sensitive
- Transient symptoms like dizziness may be less reported because they pass quickly and are easier to miss or explain away
33
How is fatigue a unique symptom?
- Unlike other symptoms, fatigue is a condition associated with multiple symptoms (muscle pains, headaches, unrefreshing sleep)
- May be most easily recognizable and often disabling consequence of chronic stress
- Multidimensional nature may account for frequency of reporting
- If individuals report fatigue when any combination of symptoms is present, it might receive more frequent endorsements than uni-dimensional symptoms
34
Nervous system
1. **Central Nervous System (CNS)**: Consists of the brain and spinal cord
2. **Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)**: Comprises all neural pathways to the extremities
35
Vegetative level
- Located at the lowest level of the brain
- Consists of the reticular formation and brain stem
- The **reticular activating system (RAS)** connects the brain to the spinal cord
- Functions as a communications link between mind and body
- The brain stem (pons, medulla oblongata, and mesencephalon) is responsible for involuntary functions like heartbeat, respiration, and vasomotor activity
- Considered the most primitive section of the human brain
36
The limbic system
- The mid-level portion of the brain
- Functions as the emotional control center
- Contains tissue centers directly responsible for the biochemical chain of events in the stress response
- Components include:
- Thalamus
- Hypothalamus (controls appetite and body-core temperature; registers pain and pleasure; often called the "seat of emotions")
- Amygdala (where fear is first registered)
- Pituitary gland (the master endocrine gland)
- These glands work together to maintain homeostasis
37
Functions of hypothalamus
1. Activates the autonomic nervous system
2. Stimulates the secretion of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
3. Produces antidiuretic hormone (ADH) or vasopressin
4. Stimulates the thyroid gland to produce thyroxine
38
Neocortical level
- The highest and most sophisticated level of the brain
- Processes sensory information as either threat or non-threat
- Houses neural mechanisms for analysis, imagination, creativity, intuition, logic, memory, and organization
- This highly developed area distinguishes humans from other species [[46]]
39
Why are the positions of these structures important?
allow higher levels to override lower levels of the brain, meaning conscious thought can influence emotional responses and even intercede in involuntary control of vegetative functions
40
Autonomic nervous system
regulates visceral activities and vital organs without conscious thought or voluntary control. It has two branches : SNS and PNS
41
Sympathetic nervous system
- Responsible for the fight-or-flight response
- Releases **catecholamines** (epinephrine and norepinephrine)
- Causes acceleration of heart rate, increased force of myocardial contraction, vasodilation in working muscles, vasoconstriction in non-working muscles, dilation of pupils and bronchi, increased ventilation, reduction of digestive activity, and release of glucose from the liver
- Associated with energy expenditure (**catabolic functioning**)
- Effects are categorized as immediate, lasting only seconds
42
Parasympathetic Nervous System
- Responsible for energy conservation and relaxation
- Associated with **anabolic functioning** (regeneration of body cells)
- Dominated by the vagus nerve
- Releases **acetylcholine (ACh)**, which decreases metabolic activity and returns the body to homeostasis
- Reduces heart rate, ventilation, blood pressure, and muscle tension
43
How does the SNS and PNS work together?
Both systems are partially active at all times but are mutually exclusive in that they cannot dominate visceral activity simultaneously. This allows precise regulation of visceral organ activity, similar to using an accelerator and brake when driving
44
What is the endocrine system?
The endocrine system consists of glands throughout the body that regulate metabolic functions requiring endurance rather than speed. It has four components :
1. Glands
2. Hormones
3. Circulation
4. Target organs
**Hormones** are chemical messengers made of protein compounds that attach to specific cell receptor sites to alter cell metabolism. They travel through the bloodstream from the glands that produced them to their target organs
45
Pituitary gland
- Called the "master gland"
- Manufactures several important hormones that trigger hormone release in other organs
- Located below the hypothalamus
- Upon command from the hypothalamus, releases ACTH and commands the adrenal glands to secrete stress hormones
46
Thyroid gland
Increases the general metabolic rate
47
Adrenal gland
Known as "the stress gland"
Sits on top of each kidney
48
Adrenal cortex exterior
- Manufactures and releases **corticosteroids**
- Two types of corticosteroids:
a) **Glucocorticoids** (cortisol and cortisone):
- Help generate glucose through gluconeogenesis
- Involved in lipolysis (breakdown of fats for energy)
- Linked to suppression of the immune system
- Can direct excess cholesterol into the blood
b) **Mineralocorticoids** (specifically aldosterone):
- Maintain plasma volume and electrolyte balance
- Essential for regulation of circulation
49
Adrenal medulla interior
- Secretes catecholamines (epinephrine and norepinephrine)
- Releases 80% epinephrine and 20% norepinephrine
- Under stress, epinephrine levels can increase up to 300 times normal resting levels
50
What are the different effects of neuroendocrine pathways?
These are classified based on reaction time: 1. **Immediate effects** (2-3 seconds): Epinephrine and norepinephrine from the sympathetic nervous system
2. **Intermediate effects** (20-30 seconds, possibly minutes): Epinephrine and norepinephrine from the adrenal medulla
3. **Prolonged effects** (minutes, hours, days, or weeks): ACTH, vasopressin, and thyroxine neuroendocrine pathways
51
The ACTH axis (HPA axis)
- Begins with release of corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) from the anterior hypothalamus
- CRF activates the pituitary gland to release ACTH
- ACTH travels via bloodstream to activate the adrenal cortex
- Adrenal cortex releases corticosteroids (cortisol and aldosterone)
- Effects are considered prolonged (minutes to hours)
- Cortisol ensures adequate blood glucose for energy metabolism
- Chronically high cortisol levels compromise several physiological systems
52
The Vasopressin Axis
- Vasopressin or antidiuretic hormone (ADH) is synthesized in the hypothalamus but released by the pituitary
- Primary purpose is to regulate fluid loss through the urinary tract
- Alters blood volume, affecting stroke volume (amount of blood pumped through the left ventricle with each contraction)
- Under normal circumstances, regulates blood pressure by increasing or decreasing blood volume
- Under chronic stress, increased secretions of vasopressin will increase blood pressure even when resting values are already elevated
53
Thyroxine axis
- Begins with hypothalamic stimulation triggering release of thyrotropic hormone-releasing factor (TRF)
- TRF stimulates anterior pituitary to secrete thyrotropic hormone (TTH)
- TTH stimulates thyroid gland to release thyroxine and triiodothyronine
- These hormones increase overall metabolism or basal metabolic rate (BMR)
- Thyroxine is powerful enough to double one's rate of metabolism
- Effects are very prolonged (10 days to 2 weeks)
- Metabolic effects include increased workload on the heart, increased gastrointestinal activity, and possibly **cerebration** (cerebral excitivity associated with anxiety attacks and/or insomnia)
54
What was recent research regarding brain imaging found?
- The hippocampus and amygdala together form conscious memories of emotional events
- The hippocampus is highly sensitive to cortisol, which aids in memory formation of stress
- The hippocampus is rich in receptor sites for glucocorticoids
- The amygdala is responsible for emotional content of memory, particularly fear
- Repeated excessive exposure to cortisol accelerates aging of the hippocampus and may damage or shrink brain cells
- Damage to brain cells caused by chronic stress appears to be irreversible
- The human brain is "wired for stress" or "allostatic load"
55
Psychophysiology
Field of study based on the principle that mind and body are one, where thoughts and perceptions affect all aspects of physiology
56
Epinephrine
A catecholamine responsible for immediate physical readiness for stress
57
Norepinephrine
A catecholamine that works with epinephrine for stress readiness
58
Catabolic functioning
Metabolic process in which metabolites are broken down for energy
59
Anabolic functioning
Physiological process in which body cells regenerate or grow
60
Acetylcholine
Chemical released by the parasympathetic nervous system to help return to homeostasis
61
Hypothalamus
The "seat of emotions" involved with emotional processing
62
Adrenal medulla
Portion of the adrenal gland secreting epinephrine and norepinephrine
63
Corticosteroids
Stress hormones released by the adrenal cortex
64
Glucocorticoids
Family of biochemical agents including cortisol and cortisone
65
Cortisol
Stress hormone that helps prepare for fight or flight
66
Mineralocorticoids
Hormones that maintain plasma volume and electrolyte balance
67
Cerebration
Neurological excitability associated with anxiety and insomnia
68
Panic attacks
- Described as "the stress response on steroids"
- Response of the sympathetic nervous system
- Physical symptoms include hyperventilation, racing heart, sweating, chest pain, choking feeling, nausea, chills, dizziness, and muscle tremors
- Psychological symptoms include feelings of impending death or "nervous breakdown"
- Triggered by decoded sensory stimuli creating intense fear about a future event
- May be due to hypersensitivity in the amygdala and/or hypothalamus
69
What is adrenal fatigue and failure?
- Result of prolonged stress causing adrenal glands to work overtime
- Symptoms include fatigue, dizziness, low blood sugar, poor libido, and depression
- Associated with autoimmune diseases like chronic fatigue syndrome and lupus
- Addison's disease refers to complete adrenal failure
70
What is the relationship between multitasking and stress?
- Multitasking may condition the brain to an overexcited state
- Makes it difficult to focus even when desired
- Brodmann's area 10 in the prefrontal cortex is responsible for alternating attention between tasks
- Research shows multitasking decreases efficiency and increases errors
- Constant stimulation from electronic devices can "rewire the brain for perpetual stress"
71
What is the relationship between insomnia and brain physiology?
- Active mind releases epinephrine and norepinephrine, compromising ability to fall asleep
- Melatonin and serotonin levels affected by daily habits (nutrition, caffeine, sunlight, cell phone use)
- Melatonin increases as daylight decreases, promoting sleep
- Serotonin partially affected by light; decreases associated with depression
- Artificial evening light and cell phone use can decrease melatonin levels
