Lecture 8

Question 1

Non-associative learning

Answer 1

Behaviour toward a stimulus changes without any apparent associated stimulus or event.

• Habituation and sensitisation are non-associative.

Question 2

Associative learning

Answer 2

Behaviour is shaped by the learned relationship between (unrelated) stimuli/events/entitites.

Question 3

Acquisition

Answer 3

The phase during classical conditioning where the US is paired with the CS.

Question 4

Extinction (classical conditioning)

Answer 4

the CS is presented without the US. The CR will weaken after a while.

Question 5

Spontaneous recovery

Answer 5

In a situation where extinction should take place, sometimes spontaneous recovery occurs: the CS will again lead to the CR.

Question 6

Pavlov’s opinion on spontaneous recovery

Answer 6

The CS-US relationship remains intact while a second inhibitory connection is formed when the CS is no longer presented with the US.

Question 7

Recent works opinion on spontaneous recovery

Answer 7

There are indeed opposing excitatory and inhibitory processes. Therefore, the CS has essentially become ambiguous.

Question 8

Generalisation (classical conditioning)

Answer 8

The CR evoked by the CS generalises to stimuli that are similar to the CS.

Question 9

Discrimination training (classical conditioning)

Answer 9

Two quite similar stimuli are presented, but only one is followed by an US. The participant can learn to discriminate between two similar stimuli, which allows one to asses perceptual abilities that are difficult to test verbally.

Question 10

Second order conditioning

Answer 10

After conditioning, when a CS produces a reliable CR, a new neutral stimulus can be coupled with the original CR - which is now the new US - to produce the CR.

Question 11

Biological preparedness

Answer 11

A natural tendency to learn certain kinds of associations over others.

Question 12

Rescorla-Wagner model

Answer 12

The (salient) CS has to be a good predictor of the US for the two to become associated.

Question 13

Operant conditioning

Answer 13

Voluntary behaviour is rewarded or punished - the consequences of an organisms behaviour determine whether it will be repeated in the future.

Question 14

Law of effect

Answer 14

A response that leads to a ‘satisfactory state of affairs’ is more likely to be repeated.

Question 15

Examples of primary reinforcers

Answer 15

• Natural stimulus.
• Directly tied to biological needs.
• Does not need to be learned.
  E.g., providing a meal, building a house, taking away pain, relieving stress.

Question 16

Examples of secondary reinforcers

Answer 16

• Neutral stimulus
• Only tied to biological needs through association.
• Needs to be learned.
  E.g., providing money, providing saving stamps, taking your barking dog inside the house.

Question 17

Overjustification effect

Answer 17

An expected external incentive (money, praise) decreases intrinsic motivation to perform a task.

Question 18

Motivational crowding out

Answer 18

The effect of offering a reward for certain behaviour that was previously unrewarded shifts motivation towards reward.

Question 19

For punishment to be most effective

Answer 19

It should:
- Be relatively intense
- Follow the behaviour closely in time.
- Not be associated with positive reinforcement.

Question 20

Examples of primary punishers

Answer 20

• Physical torture
• Inducing stress
• Removing food

Question 21

Examples of secondary punishers

Answer 21

• Giving a poor exam grade
• Scratch someone’s car
• Take away computer privileges
• Withholding pocket money

Question 22

Ratio schedules

Answer 22

• Fixed ratio: reinforcement after n responses. Leads to a high number of responses with post reinforcement pause.
• Variable ration: reinforcement after n response on average. Leads to a high number of responses with no pauses.

Question 23

Interval schedules

Answer 23

• Fixed interval: reinforcement after n minutes. Leads to increased response rate when time of reinforcement approaches.
• Variable interval: reinforcement after n minutes on average.

Question 24

Intermittent reinforcement

Answer 24

Produces behaviour that is more resistant against extinction.

Question 25

Superstitious behaviour

Answer 25

Reinforcer is attributed to non-causal accidental behaviour.
E.g., a rat immersed in an interval reinforcement procedure faced the corner before food was delivered and now repeats that behaviour.

Question 26

Brain areas effected during classical conditioning

Answer 26

• Nucleus accumbens (medial forebrain bundle)
• Hypothalamus

Dopamine related brain structures that are active in behaviours that produce pleasure.

Question 27

Latent learning

Answer 27

Something is learned but not manifested as a behaviour change until some time in the future.

Question 28

Observational learning

Answer 28

Learning takes place by watching the actions of others.

Question 29

Role of cognition in operant conditioning

Answer 29

• Watson: believed the mind should be ignored completely.
• Skinner: acknoweldged the importance of mental states but believed that the focus should be on observable behaviour.
• Tolman: strong supported a cognitive approach to operant conditioning and argued that animals must learn to navigate in space and find necessities.