Lecture Exam 1: Flashcards
1
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Anatomy
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focus on the form and structur
2
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physiology
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focuses on the mechanisms and functions of these structures.
3
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Gross/Macroscopic Anatomy
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structures can be seen with the unaided eye
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Microscopic Anatomy
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structures seen with the use of a microscope
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Regional Anatomy
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deals with structures in a define region
6
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Dissection
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the action of dissecting a body or plant to study its internal parts.
7
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Comparative Anatomy
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The studies of differences and similarities between different things. How is comparative anatomy evidence for evolution
8
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Histology
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study of tissues (
9
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Cystology
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study of cells
10
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Cellular Physiology
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study of cell function
11
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Systemic Physiology
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study of organ systems—how different organs of a system work together—how different organ systems work together
12
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Pathophysiology
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study of the effects of disease on organ or systems function
13
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Pathological Anatomy
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the study of structural changes in the body caused by disease. It is actually the way a part of the body changes when affected by a disease
14
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Organization of Life smallest to largest:
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atoms - Molecules -Macromolecules-Organelles-Cells-Tissues-Organs-Organ Systems- Organism
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Atoms
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smallest units of matter
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Molecules
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two or more atoms joined together
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Macromolecules
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large molecules (proteins-fats-DNA)
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Cells
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the basic structural and functional units of an organism (epithelial cell-muscle cell)
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Tissue
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group of cells that work together to perform a specific (stratified squamous-areolar)
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Organ
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structures that are composed of two or more different types of tissue (stomach-liver)
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Organ System
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—related organs that have a common function (cardiovascular system-nervous system)
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Cardiovascular System (circulatory system—blood-heart-blood vessels)
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Circulates oxygen and carbon dioxide, nutrients (glucose and amino acids), wastes (urea and uric acid), hormones and other material throughout body
23
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Respiratory System (lungs and trachea)
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Gas exchange—oxygen into the body carbon dioxide out of the body—also involved in sound production and pH balance
24
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digestive System
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(stomach and small intestine)
o Ingestion-digestion-absorption-excretion
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What do Carbohydrates convert into
monosaccharides
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What do fats convert into
fatty acids and monoglycerides
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What do proteins convert into
amino acids
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Urinary System
(kidneys—urinary bladder)
o Excretes wastes and excess material (urea—uric acid—creatinine
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immune System/Lymphatic
o Protect against foreign substances (WBCs—antibodies)
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Integumentary System
(skin—hair—nails)
o Physical—Chemical—Biological barrier which helps keeps substances out of or in the body—also involved with temperature regulation
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Skeletal and Muscular Systems (skeletomuscular system)
o Work together to move the body—muscles move bones around joints
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Reproductive System
o Creates life
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Nervous and Endocrine Systems
o Control systems of the body; nervous system uses electrical impulses and the endocrine system uses hormones (neuroendocrine)
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Equilibrium
balance
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Dynamic Equilibrium
—conditions fluctuate around a set point
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Set Point
average value
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Receptor
monitors change (baroreceptors—chemoreceptors)
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o Afferent pathway (input)
carries signal to control center (nerve—vagus—femoral)
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o Control Center
integrates the information (CNS—brain and spinal cord)
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o Efferent pathway (output)
carries signal to effector (nerve—vagus—femoral)
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o Effector
carries out the response (organ—heart—biceps brachii
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Negative Feedback System (Loop)
- reverse a change
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Positive Feedback System (Loop)
- strengthen or reinforce a change (amplification)
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Homeostatic Control Mechanism Example
(positive feedback loop—labor)
o Receptor—stretch receptors in the uterus—cervix—vaginal canal are stimulated
o Afferent Pathway—nerve signals to the brain from stretch receptors in the uterus—cervix—vaginal canal
o Control Center—brain—hypothalamus
o Afferent Pathway—release of oxytocin which travels to the effector—uterus
o Effector—uterus—contraction of the uterus
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Metabolism
sum of all the chemical processes that occurred in the body
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o Anabolism
building up of complex chemical substances
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o Catabolism
breaking down of complex chemical substances
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Responsiveness
ability to detect and respond to change
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Differentiation—
unspecialized to specialized (hemocytoblasts becomes different blood cells—simple squamous versus stratified squamous
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What can Homeostatissis be impacted by
air, food, water, behavior and genetics
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Disorder
abnormality of structure or function
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o Disease
—more specific term for an illness associated with certain signs and symptoms
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Symptoms
subjective changes (nausea—anxiety)
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§ Signs
—objective changes (swelling—fever)
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o Epidemiology
—when, why, where and how diseases occur and are transmitted
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o Pharmacology
—study of the effects and uses of drugs in the treatment o disease
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o Diagnosis
—distinguishing one disorder or disease from another
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Physical examination
Ø Inspection—palpation—auscultation—percussion
Ø Vital signs—temperature—pulse—respiration rate—blood pressure
Ø Lab tests—urinalysis—blood
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...
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Element
—stable substances that can’t be broken down into anything simpler
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body elements
Carbon (C)
o Hydrogen (H)
o Nitrogen (N)
o Oxygen (O)
o Phosphorus (P)
o Calcium (Ca)
o Potassium (K)
o Sodium (Na)
o Chlorine (Cl)
o Magnesium (Mg)
o Iron (Fe)
o Sulfur (S
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Ions
polar (charged)their protons and electrons are not equal, they have either lost or gained electrons
o Cation—has a positive charge, it has lost electrons
o Anion—has a negative charge, it has gained electrons
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Compound
contains atoms of two or more different elements (H2O)
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o Molecule
two or more atoms share electrons, they can be the same kind of atoms or different (O2) or (H2O)
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Ionic Bonds
(electrical attraction between opposite charges)
o Na+ Cl-→ NaCl (ionic bonds found in teeth and bones)
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Covalent Bonds
two or more atoms share electrons, most common chemical bond in the body (single-double-triple)
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o Nonpolar
§ Equal sharing of electrons→ H2 O2 N2 CH4
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o Polar
§ Unequal sharing of electrons→ H2O→ hydrogen bonds
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Water
o Human body is 60% water, unique structure and attraction between water molecules due to the polar covalent bonds and hydrogen bonds
§ Cohesion—tendency of like particles to stick together
§ Surface Tension—the difficulty of stretching or breaking the surface of a liquid (surface tension is an important factor in respiration)
§ Adhesion—tendency of one substance to cling to another substance
§ Resists Temperature Changes→ absorb heat/retain heat (coolant)
§ Universal Solvent (dissociates ionic bonds)
§ Solid form is less dense then liquid form
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Metabolism
sum of all chemical reactions that occur in the body
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Energy
capacity to do work
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o Potential energy
→ stored energy—molecules store energy in their chemical bonds (water behind a dam→ plasma membrane)
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o Kinetic Energy
molecules move or vibrate randomly (water moving through the dam→ solutes moving through the plasma membrane)
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o Law of conservation of energy
→ energy is neither created or destroyed it is converted from one form to another
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Factors that will influence chemical reactions
o Temperature→ increases movement and speed of matter→ ↑ reactions
o Concentration→ increased number of particles→ ↑ reactions
o Size→ increased number of collisions and reactions
o Catalysts (enzymes—proteins) lowers activation energy—hold reactants in a favorable position
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Types of Reactions (exergonic-endergonic)
o Anabolic (synthesis reactions—dehydration synthesis)
§ A + B→ AB (glucose + glucose→ maltose)
o Catabolic (decomposition reactions—hydrolysis)
§ AB→ A + B (maltose→ glucose + glucose)
o Exchange (synthesis and decomposition)
§ AB + CD→ AD + CB (HCl + NaHCO3→ NaCl + H2CO3)
o Reversible
§ AC ↔ A + C (H2O + CO2 ↔ H2CO2 ↔ HCO3- + H+)
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Acid-Base Balance
o Acid—release hydrogen ions H+
o Base—release hydroxide ions OH-
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Buffer—resists large changes in pH
§ HCl + NaHCO3 → NaCl + H2CO3
§ NaOH + H2CO3 → NaHCO3 + H2O
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Neutral
equal hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions H+ = OH
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Organic Compounds (hydrocarbons) and body makeup
o Proteins (12-18%)numerous functions
o Lipids (18-25%) lipids have the most C-H bonds-they contain a lot of energy—saturated fats have the most C-H bonds
o Carbohydrates (2%) our bodies don’t store much carbohydrates
§ these macromolecules contain carbon and hydrogen, they are held together by covalent bonds which store a lot of energy
o Nucleic Acids (2%)
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Inorganic
o Water (60%)
o Minerals (electrolytes-ions) (5%)
§ Na+, K+, Ca+2, PO43-
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Carbohydrates
Monosaccharides
o 5 carbon (structural-nucleic acids)
§ Ribose (RNA)
§ Deoxyribose (DNA)
o 6 carbon (energy-chemical isomers→ same formula different arrangement)
§ Glucose
§ Galactose
§ Fructose
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Dehydration Synthesis Reactions
→ pulls water out—Anabolic (enzymes)
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Hydrolysis Reactions
→ adds water—Catabolic (enzymes and water)
85
Disaccharides
o Maltose (grain sugar) glucose + glucose
§ Maltase→ brush border enzyme BBE
o Sucrose (table sugar)
§ Sucrase→ brush border enzyme BBE
o Lactose (milk sugar)
§ Lactase→ brush border enzyme BBE
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Polysaccharides
many sugars→ complex carbohydrates)
o Starch (amylose-found in plants→ bread-pasta-rice)
§ Starch is the storage form of carbohydrates in plants
o Cellulose (insoluble fiber-roughage-found in plants)
§ Can’t digest
o Glycogen (storage form of carbohydrates in humans)
§ Liver and Skeletal Muscle
87
Lipids Classes
o Fatty acids
o Triglycerides—
o Phospholipids
o Steroids
o Eicosanoids
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Fatty acids
—long chains of carbon and hydrogen—used to synthesize triglycerides, phospholipids and ATP
89
Triglycerides
—3 fatty acids and a glycerol—protection, insulation and energy storage (diglycerides and monoglycerides)
90
Phospholipids
—major component of plasma membranes
91
Steroids
—hormones synthesized from cholesterol
92
Eicosanoids
—derived from arachidonic acid—subclasses include prostaglandins and leukotrienes
93
Characteristics/Functions of lipids
o Insoluble in water (hydrophobic)
o Secondary Source of Energy
o Structure (plasma membrane)
o Protection
o Insulation
o Communication (steroid hormones)
94
Saturated Fatty acids
§ More carbon-hydrogen bonds→ more calories and energy
§ Solid at room temperature
§ Saturated fat and cholesterol are associated with Atherosclerosis
§ Found in animal products (butter-red meat)
95
Unsaturated Fatty acids
§ Less carbon-hydrogen bonds→ less calories and energy
§ Liquid at room temperature (oils)
§ Found in plants (olive oil-canola oil-corn oil)
§ Essential fatty acids
§ Monounsaturated—contains a double covalent bond
§ Polyunsaturated—contains more than one double covalent bond
96
Triglycerides(Diglycerides-Monoglycerides)
o Adipocytes
o Glycerol
o Fatty Acids
§ Saturated
§ Unsaturated→ monounsaturated—polyunsaturated
97
Phospholipids
o Component of plasma membranes—surround a cell
o Form micelles—used in fat digestion and absorption
o Amphipathic (hydrophobic-hydrophilic)
98
Cholesterol
o Found in certain foods (animal products)
o Can be synthesized by the liver using saturated fatty acids
o Cholesterol and saturated fats are associated with Atherosclerosis
o Cholesterol is needed to synthesize certain hormones (Aldosterone-Cortisol-Testosterone-Estrogen-Progesterone)
o Component of plasma membranes
99
Eicosanoids
o Prostaglandins
-Prostaglandins: generate inflammatory response (released by mast cell etc.), they reduce the firing threshold in pain sensory neurons (increase pain), and increase redness and swelling in tissues
100
Proteins
Essential amino acids
Non-Essential amino acids
Amino Acid Structure
o Amino group
o Acid group
o R-group
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Peptide bonds
Peptide→ Dipeptide→ Tripeptide→ Oligopeptide→ Polypeptide → Protein (globular)
o Denature
§ Increased temperature
§ Changes in pH
102
Enzymes
§ Specificity (sucrase→ sucrose—maltase→ maltose)
§ Cofactors and Coenzymes (vitamins and minerals)
§ Enzymes inhibitors
103
Communication
(hormones and neurotransmitters)
§ Insulin—Growth hormone
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Protection
antibodies-immunoglobulin’s-gamma globulins)
105
Movement & Membrane Transport
§ Muscle contraction
§ Gates-channels-pumps on the plasma membrane→ movement of material into and out of the cell
o Recognition & Identification
§ Glycocalyx (ID tag)
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Nucleotides
o Nitrogenous Base
o Sugar
o Phosphate Group
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Nitrogenous Bases
o Pyrimidines
§ Cytosine
§ Thymine
§ Uracil
o Purines
§ Adenine
§ Guanine
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Sugars
Ribose (RNA)
o Deoxyribose (DNA)
- Chromatin-Chromosome-Chromatids
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ATP (adenosine triphosphate)
o Phosphorylation
o ADP + P + Energy → ATP
o ATP → ADP + P + Release of energy
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Vitamins
o Fat-Soluble (excess can build up in adipose tissue→ many are coenzymes and antioxidants)
§ Vitamin A (retinol) → normal vision (to see in dim light)→ night blindness
§ Vitamin D (calciferol) → calcium absorption → rickets (soft bones-bowed legs-scoliosis)
§ Vitamin E (tocopherol) → RBC production-anti-oxidant → anemia
§ Vitamin K (phylloquinone) → blood clotting → clotting issues
o Water-Soluble (excess is usually excreted in the urine)
§ Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) → collagen synthesis-anti-oxidant → scurvy
Ø fibroblasts make collagen fibers→ strength to tissues
§ Vitamin B3 (Niacin) → NAD in cellular respiration
Ø Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide
§ Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin) → FAD in cellular respiration
Ø Flavin adenine dinucleotide
§ Vitamin B5 (Pantothenic Acid) → CoA in cellular respiration
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Macro Minerals
§ Calcium (Ca+2) → structure of bone & teeth-muscle contraction-nerve signaling-blood clotting-coenzyme
§ Phosphorus (PO4-3) → structure of bone, teeth, nucleotides and cell membranes
§ Potassium (K+) → resting membrane potential and action potentials
§ Sodium (Na+) → resting membrane potential and action potentials
§ Chloride (Cl-) → chloride shift-formation of HCl-CO2 transport
112
Micro Minerals
§ Iodine (I_) → formation of thyroid hormone (tetraiodothyronine and triiodothyronine)
§ Iron (Fe+2) → hemoglobin-coenzyme
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Cell Theory
o A cell is the basic structural functional unit of living organisms
o All living things are composed of cells
o All cells arise from other cells
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Main Cell Parts
o Plasma Membrane (selectively permeable/semipermeable—bilayer of phospholipids and proteins)
§ ICF—intracellular fluid
§ ECF—extracellular fluid (tissue fluid—interstitial fluid—intercellular fluid)
o Cytoplasm—everything between the plasma membrane and nucleus
§ Cytosol—watery gelatinous type substance
§ Organelles—similar to the organs of the body, they carry specific functions within the cell
§ Cytoskeleton
§ Inclusions
o Nucleus—contains the genetic material of the cell (DNA)
115
Plasma Membrane
(fluid mosaic model)
· Lipids
o Phospholipids
§ Amphipathic—hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions
o Cholesterol—can help stiffen the membrane or make it fluid
o Glycolipids—face the ECF→ glycocalyx ID tag
116
Integral Protein
are embedded within the lipid bilayer
117
Transmembrane proteins
—are integral proteins that span the entire lipid bilayer (ion channels—transporter pumps/carriers)
118
Peripheral Proteins
more loosely attached to the inner or outer surface of the plasma membrane
119
Channels
allow water an hydrophilic solutes to move through the membrane
120
Gates
channels that open and close under certain conditions
v Leaky channels
v Ligand-gated channels
v Voltage-gated channels
v Mechanically gated channels
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Transporters/Carriers (ATP/No-ATP)
§ Bind glucose, electrolytes, and other solutes and transfer them to the other side of the membrane (SGLT)
§ Pumps—require ATP (Na+/K+ pump)
122
Receptor
bind chemical signals
§ Neurotransmitters→ acetylcholine (ACh) and norepinephrine (NE)
§ Hormones→ insulin and thyroid stimulating hormone
§ Drugs/Medications—mimic or block
§ Surface receptors or Intracellular receptors
§ Up-regulation or Down-regulation
123
Enzymes
located in the plasma membrane
§ Carry out final stages of digestion in small intestine (BBE)
§ Help produce secondary messengers (c-AMP)
§ Break down hormones another signaling molecules (acetylcholinesterase--AChE)
124
Cell Identity Markers
glycocalyx cell identity markers/ID tag (ABO blood groups)→ so our immune system can recognize self from non-self
125
Cell Adhesion Molecules/Linkers
attach to other cells and the cells own cytoskeleton
126
Cytoplasm
—everything between the plasma membrane and the nucleus
o Organelles—similar to the organs of the body, they carry out specific functions
o Cytosol—watery gelatinous type substance
§ Numerous enzymes, ions, stored triglycerides and glycogen
o Cytoskeleton— similar to the skeleton of the body—mechanical support and structure, intracellular transport of materials, suspension of organelles, contraction and movement of certain cells
§ Microfilaments—muscle contraction (actin), amoeboid-like movement of cells, structural support for microvilli
§ Intermediate filaments—keratin of skin and hair cells, myosin for muscle contraction
§ Microtubules—spindle fibers during cell division, movement of biomolecules within the cytosol, structural support for cilia and flagella
127
Nucleus
contains the genetic material of the cell
o Nucleoplasm—similar to cytoplasm
o Nuclear membrane/Envelope—separates the nucleus from the cytoplasm
o Nuclear pores—allows for movement between cytoplasm and nucleus
o Nucleolus—synthesis of rRNA
o Chromosomes
§ Chromatid
§ Chromatin
128
Endoplasmic Reticulum
network of flattened sacs and tubules
o Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum—flattened sacs with ribosomes
§ Protein synthesis
Ø Secreted from the cell (casein)
Ø Inserted into the plasma membrane (aquaporin’s)
Ø Used somewhere else within the cell (lysozymes)
o Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum—series of tubules without ribosomes
§ Synthesize triglycerides and steroids (testosterone)
§ Store calcium ions (skeletal muscle)
§ Liver cells—contain enzymes to detoxify toxic substances and release glucose into the blood stream
129
Golgi apparatus
series of flattened membranous sacs
o Packages proteins for transport
o Modifies proteins—glycoproteins and lipoproteins
130
Mitochondria
bound by two membranes
o Inner membrane houses the electron transport chain—divides cell into tow compartments Intramembranous space and the Mitochondrial matrix
o Powerhouse of the cell (ATP production)
o Cellular Respiration C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6O2 → 6O2 + 6CO2 + ATP + Heat
131
Lysosomes
contains digestive enzymes
o Autophagy—organelles are broken down and reused
o Autolysis—destruction of the entire cell
o Phagosomes
132
Peroxisomes
a small organelle present in the cytoplasm of many cells, which contains the reducing enzyme catalase and usually some oxidases.
133
Nonmembranous
o Centrosome
§ Centrioles—mitotic spindle that pulls chromosomes apart during cell division
o Microvilli—increases surface area
§ Small intestine—simple columnar
o Cilia—movement of material
§ Trachea—pseudostratified ciliated columnar with goblet cells—mucus
§ Fallopian tubes—simple columnar with cilia—eggs
o Flagellum movement of the cell—sperm
134
Interphase
spends most of its time
o G1 phase—first growth cycle—metabolically active duplicates organelles
o S phase—DNA replication—semi-conservative replication
o G2 phase—second growth cycle—cell continues to grow
135
Mitosis phases
Prophase—chromatin condenses into chromatids
o Metaphase—chromatids line-up along the mid-line
o Anaphase—chromatids are split apart
o Telophase-cytokinesis
§ Nuclear envelope reforms - chromatids uncoil
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DNA
A-T
o C-G
137
RNA
o A-U
o C-G
138
Protein synthesis
o Transcription—copying a specific region of DNA
o DNA template (base triplet)→ mRNA complementary base sequence
o mRNA instructions for synthesis of the protein (codon)
o Translation—synthesis of the protein
§ mRNA—instructions for the protein (condon)
§ rRNA—site where protein is formed (ER)
§ tRNA—retrieves amino acids to form the protein (anti-condon)
Proteins→ Amino Acids→ (Deamination)→ Keto Acids (energy)→ Ammonia→ Urea (excreted in urine)
139
Nucleic synthesis
Nucleic Acids→ Nucleotides→ Uric Acid (excreted in urine)
140
Gradients & Flow
(matter and energy tend to flow down gradients)
· Down the gradient
· Up the gradient
· Physiological gradient
o Pressure gradient
o Concentration gradients
o Electrical gradients
o Thermal gradient
141
Membrane Transport Processes
Passive Transport—moves with the electrochemical gradient and does not require energy—Simple Diffusion (oxygen moving into a cell), Facilitated Diffusion (fructose transported from the lumen of small intestine into an absorptive cell)
· Active Transport—moves against the electrochemical gradient and requires energy (Na+/K+ pump)
· Driving Forces
o Chemical Driving Forces—when substances are in different concentrations on either side of the membrane, a concentration gradient exists ∆C
o Electrical Driving Forces—are due to the membrane potential, differences in electrical potential or voltage across the membrane (membrane potential is about negative 70 millivolts or Vm = -70 mV)—What is Resting Membrane Potential RMP?
o Electrochemical Driving Forces—is the combined force of the chemical and electrical driving force
· Simple Diffusion—it is a form of passive transport (oxygen, carbon dioxide, fatty acids, steroid hormones, and fat soluble vitamins)
o Passive movement of a substance down it’s concentration gradient, a result of its own random thermal motion
· Factors Affecting Diffusion Rates
o Steepness of Gradient
o Membrane Surface Area
o Membrane Permeability
§ Solubility (lipid or water)
§ Size and Shape of Molecules
§ Diffusion Distance
§ Temperature
· Facilitated Diffusion—form of passive transport—does not require energy (specificity and saturation Tm)
o Carrier-Mediated Facilitated Diffusion—transmembrane proteins that binds molecules on one side of the membrane and transports them to the other side—amino acids and monosaccharides (GLUT4 glucose transporter 4 carrier protein)
o Channel-Mediated Facilitated Diffusion—transmembrane proteins that transport molecules form one side of the membrane to the other (water and ion channels)
§ Leak channels—continuously open
§ Ligand-gated channels—responds to different ligands
§ Voltage-gated channels—responds to a change in voltage
142
Active Transport (Primary Active Transport)
o The use of ATP to move substances across the plasma membrane, against its electrochemical gradient—(Pumps)
o Na+/K+ ATPase pump, Ca2+ ATPase pump, H+/K+ ATPase pump
143
Secondary active transport
uses stored energy of the electrochemical gradient to move substances across the plasma membrane—one substance down their concentration gradient and one regardless of their concentration gradient
144
Transport proteins
o Antiport/Countertransport—two substances are moved in opposite directions
§ Na+/Ca2+ antiporter and Na+/H+ antiportes
o Symport/Cotransport—two substances are moved in the same direction
§ Sodium-linked glucose transporter—glucose into small intestine and kidneys
§ Sodium/amino acid symporter—amino acids into small intestine
145
Osmosis
Osmosis—the flow of water down its concentration gradient—it is always passive and unaffected by membrane potential
o Diffusion through the lipid bilayer or through aquaporins
146
Osmolarity
the total solute particle concentration of a solution (normal osmolarity of ICF and ECF is about 300 mOsm)
o Iso-osmotic—two solutions having the same osmolarity
o Hyperosmotic—a solution with a higher osmolarity
o Hypo-osmotic—a solution with a lower osmolarity
o Osmotic Pressure—as osmolarity increases osmotic pressure increases—water flows up an osmotic pressure gradient (∆π)
o Hydrostatic Pressure
147
Tonicity
solution’s ability to change the volume of cells by altering their water content
o Isotonic—equal concentrations of solutes that cannot cross the plasma membrane (isotonic saline—sodium chloride)
o Hypertonic—a greater concentration of solutes (impermeant) in the solution
§ Crenation
o Hypotonic—lower concentration of solutes (impermenant) in the solution (pure water)
§ Lysis (hemolysis)
148
Vesicular Transport
(move large particles, droplets of fluid or numerous particles through the membrane in vesicles)
Endocytosis—movement of material into a cell within a vesicle (endosomes)—active process that requires ATP
o Phagocytosis—engulfing particles→ phagosome→ phagolysosome (WBCs)
o Receptor mediated endocytosis—mediated endocytosis—highly selective—engulfs specific ligands (LDLs and transferrin)
o Pinocytosis/Bulk phase endocytosis—droplets of extracellular fluid with some solutes are take up (most cells of the body-absorptive cells of intestines and kidneys)
Exocytosis—release of material from a cell—active process requires ATP
o Adds components to the plasma membrane
o Secretion of specific substances (digestive enzymes-neurotransmitters-antibodies-mucus)
Transcytosis—movement across a cell (antibodies mother to fetus)
149
The 4 Primary Tissue Types
Epithelium
Connective
Nervous
Muscle
150
Epithelium
covers surfaces internal and external
151
Connective
connects, most abundant tissue of our bodies
152
Nervous
CNS and PNS→ communication
153
Muscle
Skeletal muscle—voluntary and striated
o Cardiac muscle—Involuntary and striated
o Smooth muscle—involuntary and non-striated
154
Connective Tissue
Most abundant and widely distributed tissue, it develops from mesoderm. The cells are spread out with lots of extracellular matrix in-between; most connective tissue is vascular.
155
Major functions of Connective Tissue
Binds together (connects)—dense regular—dense irregular—areolar
Protection—bone—adipose tissue—blood
Support—bone—dense regular
Insulation—adipose tissue
Energy storage—adipose tissue
Transport—blood
156
Cells of Connective Tissue
Fibroblasts—connective tissue proper and most other connective tissue, secrete fibers and matrix associated with that tissue
Macrophage—phagocytes→ engulfs foreign substances
Mast cells—secretes histamine → local inflammation
Plasma cell—secretes antibodies
Neutrophils—phagocyte
Adipocytes—stores triglycerides
Chondroblasts → Chondrocyte (cartilage cells)
Osteoblasts → Osteocytes (bone cells)
157
Ground Substance
o Component of connective tissue between the cells and fibers, it can be liquid, semisolid, gel-like or very hard (calcified). If the matrix is very hard the cells live in lacunae. The ground substance acts as a medium through which nutrients and other dissolved substances can diffuse and can offer some springiness.
o Polysaccharides—hyaluronic acid—chondroitin sulfate—keratan sulfate (glycoaminoglycans GAGs→ trap water making the ground substance more viscous)
o Proteins—Proteoglycans→ chondroitin sulfate and keratin sulfate associated with proteins
158
Fibers
collagen—white-strong-resists tension (bone-tendons-ligaments)
o elastic –yellow-elastin-elasticity (skin-blood vessels)
o reticular—fine collagen-reticular tissue (spleen-lymph nodes)
159
Loose Connective tissue
Areolar, Adipose, Reticular
160
Areolar
Ø Function—support for epithelial tissue, wraps and cushions organs “packing material”
Ø Location—lamina propria of mucus membranes, papillary region of dermis, in and or around most body structures
161
Adipose
Ø Function—energy source, insulation, support and protection
Ø Location—hypodermis, kidneys, heart and widespread throughout body
162
Reticular
Ø Function—forms stroma of lymphatic organs
Ø Location—lymph nodes, bone marrow and spleen
163
Dense Connnective Tissue
dense has fewer cells and more fibers than loose, the fibers are thicker and more densely packed together.
Dense Regular— Dense Irregular—Elastic
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Dense Regular
—collagen fibers in parallel bundles, with fibroblasts in-between them
Ø Function—attachment and withstands stress
Ø Location—tendons, ligaments and aponeurosis
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Dense Irregular
—collagen fibers irregularly arranged with fibroblasts
Ø Function—binding and withstands stress in many directions
Ø Location—reticular layer of dermis, fasciae, periosteum and perichondrium
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Elastic
collagen fibers, elastic fibers and fibroblasts
Ø Function—elasticity
Ø Location—arteries, lung tissue and vocal cords
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Cartilage types
Hyaline, Elastic, Fibrocartilage
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Hyaline
—clear glassy appearance, fine collagen fibers, prominent chondrocytes
§ Function—ease of movement, holds airways open, precursor to bone
§ Location—ends of bones (joints), rib cage, larynx and trachea
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Elastic
—chondrocytes and conspicuous elastic fibers within the matix
§ Function—elasticity
§ Location—ear and epiglottis
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fibrocartilage
—bundles of collagen, rows of chondrocytes, no perichondrium
§ Function—resist compressive forces, absorb shock
§ Location—IVD, pubic symphysis, meniscus of knee
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Bone
Function—support, protection, movement and blood cell formation
o Location—skeletal system
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Blood
Function—transportation and protection
o Location—blood vessels
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embryonic Connective Tissue
Mesenchyme—gives rise to all other connective tissue
Mucous Connective Tissue (umbilical cord)
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Nervous Tissue
Neurons and neuroglia--communication
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Muscle Tissue
Skeletal –voluntary-striated
· Cardiac—Involuntary-striated
Smooth—Involuntary-non-striated
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Primary Germ Layers
Ectoderm—skin and nervous tissue
Mesoderm—bone, muscle and cartilage
Endoderm—respiratory, digestive, urinary and reproductive tracts
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Cell Junctions
Tight Junctions—seals off passageways (stomach, small intestine)
Gap Junctions—electrical junctions rapid movement of ions (cardiac muscle)
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Tissue Growth
Hyperplasia—tissue growth through cell multiplication—embryonic and childhood growth
Hypertrophy—enlargement of preexisting cells—skeletal muscle cells and adipocytes
Neoplasia—growth of a tumor (neoplasm)—abnormal nonfunctional tissue
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Tissue Development
Differentiation—the development of a more specialized form and function—mesenchyme to muscle
Metaplasia—a change from one type of mature tissue to another—simple cuboidal→ stratified squamous non-keratinized (female puberty)
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Stem Cells
potential to differentiate into one or more types of mature functional cells
o Developmental plasticity—the diversity of cell types they can give rise to
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Embryonic stem cell
compose the embryo
o Totipotent—ability to develop into any type of human cell or supporting structures—outer cell mass (placenta, amniotic sac)
o Pluripotent—develop into any cell type of the embryo—inner cell mass
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Adult stem cells
divide mitotically
o Multipotent—able to develop into two or more different cell lines—bone marrow cells→ RBCs and WBCs
o Unipotent—limited plasticity→ one mature cell type→ sperm, egg and keratinocytes
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Regeneration
replacement of cells which restores normal function—skin and liver cells
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Fibrosis
replacement with scar tissue which does not restore normal function—damaged muscles or severe cuts or burns to the skin
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Atrophy
shrinkage of tissue (senile atrophy or disuse atrophy)
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Necrosis
premature, pathological tissue death—trauma, toxins or infection
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Infarction
death of tissue when blood supply is cut off
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Gangrene
necrosis due to infarction and infection
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What is the difference between the Parenchyma and the Stroma of a tissue?
Parenchyma:
Essential, functional part of a tissue or organ
Composed of metabolically active cells
Performs specific functions such as photosynthesis or secretion
Loosely packed with thin cell walls
Dispersed throughout the tissue or organ
Stroma:
Supportive framework or connective tissue
Provides structural support to parenchymal cells
Maintains overall tissue or organ architecture
Consists of specialized cells and extracellular matrix
Surrounds and supports parenchymal cells
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For the following tissues be able to identify and know description, function and location.
· Areolar
· Adipose
Reticular
Dense Regular
Dense Irregular
Elastic Connective Tissue (won’t have to identify)
· Hyaline Cartilage
· Elastic Cartilage
Areolar Tissue:
Description: Areolar tissue is a loose connective tissue that consists of a gel-like matrix with collagen, elastic fibers, and various cells, such as fibroblasts.
Function: It provides support and cushioning to organs and tissues, allows for flexibility and movement, and plays a role in immune defense.
Location: Areolar tissue is found beneath the epithelial layers, surrounding organs, blood vessels, and nerves.
Adipose Tissue:
Description: Adipose tissue is a type of connective tissue composed of adipocytes (fat cells) embedded in a matrix of collagen fibers.
Function: It acts as an energy reserve, insulation, and cushioning for organs and tissues. Adipose tissue also produces hormones that regulate metabolism.
Location: Adipose tissue is found throughout the body, particularly in subcutaneous (under the skin) regions, around organs, and within bone marrow.
Reticular Tissue:
Description: Reticular tissue is a type of loose connective tissue that consists of a network of reticular fibers produced by reticular cells.
Function: It forms a supportive framework for soft organs like the liver, spleen, lymph nodes, and bone marrow. It also helps in filtering and supporting blood cells.
Location: Reticular tissue is primarily found in lymphoid organs, such as lymph nodes, spleen, and bone marrow.
Dense Regular Connective Tissue:
Description: Dense regular connective tissue is composed of densely packed collagen fibers that are arranged parallel to each other, with fibroblast cells scattered between the fibers.
Function: It provides great tensile strength and resistance to stretching, allowing it to withstand forces in one direction.
Location: Dense regular connective tissue forms tendons (which connect muscles to bones) and ligaments (which connect bones to bones) in the body.
Dense Irregular Connective Tissue:
Description: Dense irregular connective tissue consists of collagen fibers arranged in a random, dense pattern, with fibroblast cells dispersed between the fibers.
Function: It provides strength, support, and durability to withstand tension and stress in multiple directions.
Location: Dense irregular connective tissue is found in the dermis of the skin, fibrous joint capsules, and the protective covering of organs.
Hyaline Cartilage:
Description: Hyaline cartilage is a smooth, bluish-white type of cartilage with a rubbery matrix containing collagen fibers and chondrocyte cells.
Function: It provides structural support, flexibility, and shock absorption to joints, as well as forming the embryonic skeleton.
Location: Hyaline cartilage is found in areas such as the nose, trachea, larynx, rib cage, and the articulating surfaces of bones in joints.
Elastic Cartilage:
Description: Elastic cartilage is similar to hyaline cartilage but with a higher concentration of elastic fibers in the matrix, giving it greater flexibility.
Function: It provides strength, support, and elasticity to maintain the shape of certain structures while allowing flexibility and movement.
Location: Elastic cartilage is found in the external ear (pinna), epiglottis, and parts of the larynx (e.g., the cuneiform cartilages).
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Integumentary System protection:
Barrier
§ Physical barrier—Epidermis and dermis
Ø Foreign substances—microbes and chemicals
Ø Waterproofing—keeps water out and keeps water in→ prevents dehydration
§ Chemical barrier
Ø Sebum—prevents drying out and has bactericidal chemical
Ø Acidic pH of sweat→ acid mantle
Ø UV rays—pigment melanin
§ Biological barrier
Ø Langerhan cells (dendritic cells)—APCs of epidermis
Ø Macrophages—APCs of dermis
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Body temperature regulation
o Sweat glands→ evaporation
o Blood vessel→ vasoconstriction or vasodilation
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Cutaneous sensation
o Exteroreceptors
§ Tactile receptors—touch, pressure, vibration, itch and tickling
§ Thermoreceptors—temperature
§ Nocieptors—pain
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Vitamin D synthesis
small amounts of UV light stimulate the production of vitamin D precursors
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Blood reservoir
blood can be diverted to and from blood vessels of the skin
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Excretion
o Evaporation of 300-400 mL of water a day plus sweat
o Small amounts of salts, carbon dioxide, urea and ammonia
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Absorption
o Lipid soluble material—vitamins ADEK, cortisone, small amounts of carbon dioxide and oxygen
o Toxic substances including; lead, mercury, arsenic and poison ivy and oak
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Skin Layers
Epidermis—stratified squamous keratinized
Dermis—dense irregular and areolar
Hypodermis—adipose tissue
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Keratinocytes
most numerous epidermal cell)
o Produce keratin and lamellar granules→ release water-repellent secretion (lipid-rich)
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Melanocytes
o Produce melanin→ protection from UV rays
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Langerhans cells
(epidermal dendritic cells→ APCs)
o Part of the immune response
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Merkel cells
(least numerous)
o Touch sensations→ contact a sensory neuron
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Layers of the Epidermis
Stratum Basale (stratum germinativum)—single row of cuboidal/columnar
o Stem cells—Keratinocytes—Melanocytes—Merkel cells
Stratum Spinosum—8-10 layers of keratinocytes
o Keratinocytes (coarser keratin bundles)-Projections of Melanocytes-Langerhans cells
Stratum Granulosum—3-5 layers of flattened keratinocytes→ dying
o Thick keratin and lamellar granules→ lipid-rich secretion in the ECF waterproofing
Stratum Lucidum (only in thick skin)—4-6 layers of flattened clear keratinocytes
Stratum Corneum—about 30 layers of thin plasma membrane enclosed keratin
o Pressure stimulates thickening of the epidermis (calluses and corns)
§ Skin color→ Darker skin/Lighter skin
v Production of more and darker melanin
v More melanin dispersed throughout epidermis layers
v Longer breakdown time of melanin
v More exposure to sunlight
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Where is thick skin? Where is thin skin? What is desquamation/exfoliation? What is dander and dandruff?
Thick skin is primarily found on the palms of the hands and the soles of the feet. It has a thicker epidermal layer compared to other parts of the body. Thin skin is found in most other areas of the body and has a thinner epidermal layer.
Desquamation or exfoliation refers to the natural process of shedding dead skin cells from the outermost layer of the skin (epidermis). This process helps to renew the skin and remove old or damaged cells, revealing fresh, healthier skin underneath.
Dander refers to tiny particles of dead skin that are shed by humans and animals. It is often associated with pets and can cause allergic reactions in some individuals.
Dandruff is a condition characterized by the excessive shedding of dead skin cells from the scalp. It leads to the appearance of white or yellowish flakes on the scalp and hair. Dandruff can be caused by various factors, including dry skin, seborrheic dermatitis, or an overgrowth of a fungus called Malassezia.
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Skin graft
transfer a patch of healthy skin to a damaged area
o If the stratum basale and stem cells are destroyed
o Autograft—skin taken from another area of the body
o Autologous skin transplantation—small amounts of skin are removed and grown
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Dandruff
excessive loss of top layer of skin cells
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Psoriasis
keratinocytes move through the layers to quickly—immature and abnormal keratin
o Flaky appearance at skin surface
o Treatments—medication and UV light to slow down growth rate
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Dermis Layers
Papillary Layer, Reticular Layer
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Papillary Layer
areolar connective tissue
o Thinner upper layer-thin elastic and collagen fibers
o Dermal papillae
§ Interdigiatate with epidermis → blister
§ Contain capillary loops and tactile receptors
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Reticular Layer
dense irregular connective tissue
o Collagen and Elastic fibers (tension lines, striae)
o Fibroblasts and Macrophages
o Blood Vessels- nutrient and waste exchange-temperature regulation (hematoma/bruise may break blood vessels) (ANS)
o Nerves and Receptors (Thermoreceptors-Mechanoreceptors-Noxiceptors) (ANS)
o Glands- sweat(merocrine & apocrine) and sebaceous/oil (holcrine) (ANS)
o Hair Follicles-arrector pili muscles (ANS)
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What are epidermal ridges? What is dematoglyphics?
Epidermal ridges are the raised patterns found on the surface of the skin, specifically on the palms of the hands, fingers, soles of the feet, and toes. These ridges create unique patterns that form fingerprints and footprints. They are formed by the arrangement of the dermal papillae (small projections of the dermis) that push up into the epidermis.
Dermatoglyphics refers to the study of the patterns and characteristics of epidermal ridges, particularly fingerprints and footprints. It involves analyzing the unique ridge patterns, loops, whorls, and other features to identify individuals or study genetic traits. Dermatoglyphics is often used in forensic science, biometric identification, and medical research related to genetic disorders and developmental abnormalities.
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stretch marks (striae)
internal scarring, collagen fibers are disrupted and blood vessels break→ appear reddish then silvery-white
o Weight-lifters—pregnancy—variations in weight
Lines of cleavage or Tension lines
Wrinkles
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Hypodermis
Subcutaneous layer→ adipose tissue
Blood vessels—nerves—tactile receptors
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Sweat Glands (Sudoriferous)
o Merocrine
§ Cool the body and excrete water-salt-urea
o Apocrine (scent glands)
§ Axillary-genital-perianal
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Sebaceous Glands/Oil (Holcrine secretion)
o Sebum-prevents dehydration-inhibits bacteria (not located on palms and soles)
o Blackheads (clogged oil glands)-Pimples (infected oil glands)
o Stimulated by estrogen and testosterone
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Ceruminous Glands
o Produce a waxy secretion which combines with oil gland secretions→ cerumen
o Prevents foreign bodies—insects--waterproofing
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Mammary Glands (Apocrine secretion)
o Colostrum—watery substance with decreased fats—laxative affect
o Milk—increased fats
o Areola glands → secrete oil to decrease friction from breast feeding
§ Prolactin—stimulates milk production
§ Oxytocin—stimulates milk ejection
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Hair function
o Protection
§ Head—injury and sun
§ Eye brows, eyelashes, nose hairs and ear hairs—foreign particles
o Heat loss—head from wind, very little adipose tissue under scalp
o Facial expression--eyebrows
o Maturity→ puberty hair growth axillary-pubic-facial
o Tactile sensation
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Hair Types
o Lanugo → fetal hair
o Downy → child hair
o Terminal (adult) → thicker darker hair
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Hair Structure
o Shaft—portion above skin
o Root—portion within the dermis
o Bulb—where hair originates, hair matrix
o Hair root plexus—tactile sensation
o Sebaceous glands—secrete sebum (oil)
o Apocrine glands
o Arrector pili (Piloerector muscle)—smooth muscle
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Nails Structure
dead keratinized epidermal cells
o Nail Plate
§ Free edge—extends beyond digit
§ Nail body (plate)—bulk of the nail
§ Nail root—buried in the skin
o Lunula—whitish area by root
o Eponychium (cuticle)
o Hyponcyhium—attaches nail to fingertip
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nail function
o Manipulation of small objects
o Scratch and groom parts of body
o Protect distal portion of finger
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Epidermal healing
wounds that only affect the epidermis
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Deep wound healing
wounds that penetrate into the dermis
o Inflammatory phase
o Migratory phase
o Proliferative phase
o Maturation phase
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Formation of scar (keloid)
denser collagen fibers-decreased elasticity-fewer blood vessels-absent hair and glands
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Melanin
ifferent forms of melanin (absorbs UV rays, helps prevent damage to DNA)
o Pale-yellow→ reddish-brown→ black
o Coloration→ amount of melanin produced (genetics and UV exposure)
o Melanin—synthesized from tyrosine by tryrosinase (in the melanosome)
o Freckles—accumulation of melanin (genetically predisposed)
o Moles (nevus)— birthmark or beauty mark→ raised area accumulation of melanin
o Albinism—genetic disorder-can’t make melanin→ lacking tryrosinase (lack melanin form skin, hair, eyes—burn easily and vision problems)
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Hemoglobin
gives skin a reddish color when it binds oxygen
o Erythema—reddish color increased blood flow
o Cyanosis—bluish coloration→ decreased oxygen levels-hypoxemia
o Pallor—lack of coloration→ decreased blood flow
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Jaundice
yellowing of skin & eyes-hyperbilirubinemia
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Hematoma
black and blue→ clotted blood
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Carotene
yellowish-orange pigment→ excess can be stored in stratum corneum and dermis
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Bedsores
decubitus ulcers→ lack of circulation
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Burns
First degree—sunburn-red-epidermis
o Second degree/partial thickness—blistering and edema-epidermis and partial dermis
o Third degree/full thickness—white and charred-epidermis and dermis-
§ Skin graft—watch for fluid loss and infections
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Skin Cancer
(most common type of cancer-UV rays)
o Carcinoma (epithelial tissue)-
Carcinoma is a type of cancer that originates from epithelial cells, which are the cells that line the surfaces and cavities of organs and tissues in the body.
o Melanoma (melanocytes) -
Melanoma is a type of cancer that develops from melanocytes, the pigment-producing cells in the skin, and it can also occur in other parts of the body where melanocytes are present.
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Fungal Infections
(anti-fungal)
o Athlete’s foot:
also known as tinea pedis, fungal infection of the feet, a form of ringworm. plantar (sole) surface of the foot and web spaces between the toes
o Jock itch:
is a fungal skin infection that causes an itchy rash in warm, moist areas of the body. The rash often affects the groin and inner thighs and may be shaped like a ring. The condition is also called tinea cruris.
