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Human Physiology for Exercise Science > Lecture Two > Flashcards

Lecture Two Flashcards

1
Q

What are Accessory Organs?

A

Glands that secrete fluid into the digestive system.

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2
Q

What is the Components of the Digestive System in order?

A
  • Oral cavity (mouth) Accessory organs= tonsils and salivary glands.
  • Pharynx (throat).
  • Oesophagus.
  • Stomach.
  • Small intestines= Duodenum, Jejunum, Ileum. Accessory organs= liver gallbladder and pancreas.
  • Large intestines- cecum, colon, rectum and anal canal.
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3
Q

What are the Functions of the Digestive System?

A
  1. Ingestion
  2. Mastication
  3. Propulsion
  4. Mixing
  5. Secretion
  6. Digestion
  7. Absorption
  8. Elimination
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4
Q

What is Mastication?

A

Food is mechanically broken down to increase the total surface area to allow digestive enzymes to easily break down food.

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5
Q

What is Propulsion, Swallowing, Peristalsis and Mass Movements?

A

Propulsion-The movement of food through the digestive tract.
Swallowing-Moves the bolus (mass of liquid and soft food) from the oral cavity to the oesophagus.
Peristalsis-Wave of smooth muscle relaxation & contractions which expands the tract in front of the bolus.
-Process by which food moves through the gut.
Mass movements-Contractions that move material
-Large intestines

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6
Q

What is Mixing?

A

-Segmental contractions.
oSegments fluctuate between relaxation and contractions.
oPurpose is to mix the food with digestive secretions which assist with breaking in down into smaller pieces.
oSmall intestines.

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7
Q

What is Secretion?

A

-Purpose to digest, buffer, lubricate and liquefy

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8
Q

What is Digestion?

A
  • Mechanical- Mastication and mixing

- Chemical- Digestive enzymes

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9
Q

What is Absorption?

A

-Molecules moving out of the digestive tract into the circulatory or lymphatic system.

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10
Q

What is Elimination?

A

-Waste products are eliminated from the body via defecation.
-Occurs in the large intestine, material is altered from a liquefied substance to semi-solid (faeces) substance by absorbing water and salts.
→Ultimate aim= the breakdown of large food molecules to smaller ones that can be absorbed into the circulatory system.

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11
Q

What are the types of Secretion?

A

oMucus- Entire digestive tract.
-Protects the epithelial cells from digestive enzymes, stomach acids and abrasion.
-Lubricates the lining of the tract and the food.
oWater
-Liquefies the food- easier to digest/absorb.
oEnzymes
-Secreted from pancreas, small intestines, stomach and oral cavity.

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12
Q

What is Chemical Digestion?

A

-Food we ingest needs to be broken down to smaller molecules.
-This occurs via chemical reactions.
oThese can occur naturally but are quite slow.
oRequires an enzyme.
oDefinition: a substance that increase the speed of a reaction without being changed or used up in the process.
-An enzyme is a type of catalyst.
→Protein.

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13
Q

What are the types of Enzymes?

A
  1. Amylase
    - Breaks down carbohydrates.
  2. Lipase
    - Breaks down lipids.
  3. Protease
    - Breaks down proteins.
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14
Q

What affects Enzyme Function?

A
  1. Temperature

2. PH

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15
Q

What are the layers of the Digestive Tract?

A
  1. Mucosa
    - Mechanoreceptors
    - Chemoreceptors
  2. Submucosa
    - Nerves, lymphatic and blood vessels and small glands.
  3. Muscularis
    - Smooth muscle
  4. Serosa
    - Smooth layer that covers the digestive tract organs.
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16
Q

What are the Regulations of the Digestive Tract?

A

Nervous Regulation
-Enteric Nervous System (ENS)
oA division of the autonomic nervous system.
oLocated within the walls of the digestive tract.
oCan work independently of the autonomic nervous system.
Autonomic Nervous System
-Parasympathetic Nervous System
oRest and digest
oIncreases motility, salivary and gastric acid secretions.
-Sympathetic Nervous System
oFight or flight
oDecreases motility.
Chemical Regulation
-Endocrine secretions (hormones): gastrin, secretin and cholecystokinin.

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17
Q

What is the Oral Cavity?

A

-Mechanical & chemical digestion.
-Normal adult teeth number=32.
-Assists with the process of mastication (mechanical).
oIncisors & canines
-Tear & cut food.
oPremolars & molars
-Grind & crush food.

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18
Q

What is Saliva?

A
  • 3 large salivary glands.
  • 1-1.5L/day
  • Watery/mucous secretion.
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19
Q

What are the Functions of Saliva?

A
  1. Keeps the oral cavity moist.
    - Assists with the normal speech.
  2. Suspension of food in a solution which aids taste.
  3. Begins digestion.
    - Salivary Amylase-Starch splitting enzyme which breaks down 3-5% of carbohydrates.
    - Lingual Lipase-Digests small amount of lipids.
  4. Protective Functions
    - Washes oral cavity.
    - Contains bicarbonate ions= Neutralize acids from oral bacteria.
    - Contains the enzyme lysozyme= Antibacterial properties which assists with preventing infection from bacteria.
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20
Q

What is the Parasympathetic Stimulation in Saliva?

A

-In response to taste, tactile stimuli & food odour.

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21
Q

What are the parts of the Pharynx?

A
  • Nasopharynx
  • Oropharynx
  • Laryngopharynx
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22
Q

What is associated with Digestion in the Pharynx?

A
  • Only the oropharynx & laryngopharynx are associated with digestion.
  • Uvula prevents food material entering the nasopharynx.
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23
Q

What is the Epiglottis?

A

Covers the larynx to prevent food entering the respiratory passages. Connects pharynx to the stomach.

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24
Q

Where does the Oesophagus run?

A
  • From pharynx to stomach.
  • Posterior to the trachea.
  • Travels through the opening (hiatus) of the diaphragm.
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25
Q

How is food controlled into & out the Oesophagus?

A
  • Food into & out of the oesophagus is controlled by the upper & lower (cardiac) oesophagus sphincters.
  • Upper is skeletal muscle & lower is smooth muscle.
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26
Q

What are the phases of swallowing?

A
  1. Voluntary
  2. Pharyngeal
  3. Oesophageal
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27
Q

Describe the phases of swallowing.

A
  1. Voluntary Phase
    - The bolus is moved by the tongue against the hard palate & towards the oropharynx.
  2. Pharyngeal Phase
    - The soft palate elevates to close off the nasopharynx.
    - The pharynx elevates, receives the bolus & moves it towards the oesophagus.
    - The epiglottis closes over the larynx/trachea.
    - Upper oesophageal sphincter relaxes.
  3. Oesophageal Phase
    - Peristaltic waves move food towards the stomach.
    - Gravity is enough for liquid.
    - Lower oesophageal sphincter relaxes.
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28
Q

What is the Pyloric Sphincter?

A

Regulates the release of food from the stomach into the small intestines.

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29
Q

In stomach histology, describe the submucosa & mucosa.

A

Submucosa & mucosa are folded, which assists with increasing its surface area & expands when the stomach receives food.

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30
Q

What does the most inner layer of the stomach form?

A

The most inner layer forms gastric pits which are openings of the gastric glands.

31
Q

What are the stomach secretions?

A
  1. Mucous
  2. Hydrochloric Acid
  3. Enzymes
  4. Hormones
32
Q

Describe the stomach secretions.

A

1.Mucous
-Protects the stomach lining from digestive enzymes & acids.
2.Hydrochloric Acid
-Produces low pH in the stomach (1-3).
-Primary role is to kill bacteria.
-Inactivates salivary amylase.
-Assists with the functioning & activation of pepsin.
3.Enzymes
-Gastric Lipase= Breaks down fats/lipids.
-Pepsinogen= Converted to pepsin once in the stomach & comes into contact with hydrochloric acid & previously formed pepsin.
-Pepsin
oBreaks down protein
4.Hormones
-Gastrin= Increases gastric secretions.

33
Q

What are the regulation of the stomach secretions phases?

A

1.Cephalic
2Gastric.
3.Intestinal

34
Q

Describe the Cephalic Phase in regulation of stomach secretions (stimuli & parasympathetic action).

A 
=“get started” phase
-Stimuli=
o	Smell & taste of food.
o	Chewing & swallowing.
o	Pleasant thoughts about 
        food. 
-Parasympathetic action potentials cause:
o	Secretion of stomach mucosa.
o	Increases chief & parietal 
        cell secretions.
o	Stimulates secretions of 
        gastrin.
35
Q

Describe the Gastric Phase in regulation of stomach secretions (stimuli).

A

= “go for it” phase
-Stimuli=
o Enlargement of the stomach as food enters.
-Activation of mechanoreceptors (stretch receptors).
oPresence of protein.
oLeads to an increase in secretions in a similar fashion to the cephalic phase.
oDistension also causes a local increase in secretions.

36
Q

Describe the Intestinal Phase in regulation of stomach secretions (Enterogastric reflex).

A

= “slow down” phase
-Low pH chyme entering the duodenum stimulates chemoreceptors in the duodenum.
-Chyme containing lipids & fatty acids & digested protein products entering the duodenum.
o= inhibits gastric secretions.
oIncreases secretion of secretin & cholecystokinin.
-Enterogastric reflex
o= distension of duodenal wall, irritating substances, reduced pH.
o= reduced gastric secretions.

37
Q

What is the functions and the accessory organs of the small intestines?

A
  • Accessory organs = Liver, Pancreas and Gallbladder
  • Function = digestion and absorption
    oGreatest amount of absorption
38
Q

What are the parts of the small intestines?

A
  1. Duodenum
  2. Jejunum
  3. Ileocecal
39
Q

What is the function of the Duodenum?

A
  • Starts at the pyloric sphincter and ends at the jejunum.
  • Ducts from the Liver and Pancreas enter.
  • The surface area and thus absorption capability is greatly increased by the presence of circular folds, villi and microvilli.
40
Q

What is the function and structure of the Jejunum?

A
  • Similar in structure to the duodenum.
    o Becoming smaller.
    -Major site of absorption.
41
Q

What is the structure and what is the Ileocecal sphincter and valve?

A 
- Smaller in;
o	Diameter
o	Wall thickness
o	Number of folds and microvilli 
- Less absorption.
- Ileocecal sphincter and valve = one-way valve flow to the large intestine.
42
Q

What does the small intestine secrete and the functions of it?

A

-Mucus, electrolytes and water.
oLubricates and protects
the wall from acidic chyme.
oKeeps the chyme in liquid form to assist with continued digestion.

43
Q

What hormones does the small intestines secrete?

A

-Hormones
o Cholecystokinin and Secretin
-Decreases gastric secretions
-Stimulates liver and pancreas secretions
=Pancreas and liver secretions enter into the duodenum and assist with digestion.

44
Q

What enzymes do the small intestines secrete?

A

-Enzymes
oDisaccharidases & Peptidases
-Assist with the breakdown of food
-Segmental and peristaltic contractions move and mix chyme in the small intestine

45
Q

Describe the livers position & structure.

A
  • Largest gland in the body.
  • Second largest organ.
  • Situated in the upper right quadrant of the abdomen.
  • Has two lobes a right and left separated by a ligament.
  • The porta on the inferior surface is an opening (gate) which allows the following to enter and exit.
46
Q

What are the parts of the liver? What are the functions of the Hepatic portal vein and artery? What is the Hepatic ducts?

A

Hepatic portal vein – carrying nutrient rich blood to the liver from GI tract.
Hepatic artery – supplies oxygenated blood to the liver via systemic circulation.
Small hepatic nerve
Hepatic ducts – carries bile out of the liver.
-Divided into lobules.

47
Q

What does the portal triad consist of?

A 
The Portal Triad:
oHepatic portal vein
oHepatic artery
oHepatic duct
-Central veins of the lobule unite to = hepatic veins which empty into the inferior vena cava.
48
Q

Where is bile produced, how is it collected and where does it flow and exit?

A
  • Bile is produced by the liver.
  • From the hepatic cords’ bile is collected by the bile canaliculus.
  • Flow towards the hepatic triad & exists via the hepatic ducts.
49
Q

What are the functions of the liver?

A
  1. Bile production
  2. Storage
  3. Inter-convention of nutrients
  4. Detoxification
  5. Synthesis of molecules
50
Q

Where does bile enter, what is the function, what does it contain and whats the stimuli?

A

-Bile enters duodenum & neutralises & dilutes stomach acid as a low pH renders the effectiveness of pancreatic enzymes.
-Contains bile salts which emulsifies lipids.
oLipids are hydrophobic.
oTherefore, they clump together.
oBile helps break that clump apart.
oEnzymes can then breakdown lipids.
oBile contains no digestive enzymes.
-Stimuli- Parasympathetic stimulations, secretion, bile salts (positive feedback).
-Secretion continues until the duodenum empties.

51
Q

What does the liver store?

A
  • Sugar (as glycogen), lipids, vitamins.

- Storage fluctuates depending on the body’s needs.

52
Q

How does the liver get the correct nutrients if not available?

A

-The correct nutrients are not always present in the required amounts thus the liver can convert nutrients to others if need be.

53
Q

How does the liver deal with harmful toxins?

A

-By-products produced during metabolism & ingested toxins are further broken down thus altered to less harmful toxins in the liver.
oAlcohol- Liver is the primary organ which breaks down alcohol.

54
Q

What does the liver synthesis?

A

-Plasma proteins & clotting factors

55
Q

Where is the gall bladder situated in the body?

A

-On the inferior surface of the liver.

56
Q

What are the layers of the gall bladder?

A
  • Inner mucosa folded into rugae which expand.
  • Muscularis layer of smooth muscle which contracts & assists which expelling bile.
  • Outer serousa.
57
Q

What does the gall bladder act as?

A

-Acts as a storage site for bile secreted form the liver.

oWater & electrolytes are absorbed= concentrated substance.

58
Q

What is the exocrine role of the pancreas?

A

Secretes substances that exit into a surface or through a duct.

59
Q

What is the flow of digestion from the liver?

A

-Hepatic ducts (left and right) exit → common hepatic duct → common bile duct (cystic duct + common hepatic duct) → hepatopancreatic ampulla (common bile duct + pancreatic duct meet) → contents is emptied into the duodenum (small intestine) through the major duodenal papilla
Pancreatic Secretions

60
Q

What are the components of pancreatic juice?

A
  • Aqueous
  • Enzyme
  • Pancreatic Amylase
  • Pancreatic Lipase
61
Q

What is the Aqueous component?

A
  • Most important part of the aqueous component is the bicarbonate ions.
  • Neutralizes stomach Chyme.
  • Stops pepsinogen working.
  • Creates a suitable environment for pancreatic juice to function.
62
Q

What is the Enzyme component?

A
  • Proteolytic Pancreatic Enzymes – digest proteins
  • Secreted in their inactive form to prevent digestion of the pancreas where they are produced.
  • Trypsin – activates the secretion of other proteolytic enzymes.
  • Chymotrypsin
  • Carboxypeptidase
63
Q

What is the Pancreatic Amylase component?

A

-Continues the work of salivary amylase - the breakdown of carbohydrates

64
Q

What is the Pancreatic Lipase component?

A

-Breaks down lipids

65
Q

What is the regulation of pancreatic secretions?

A
  • Chyme entering the duodenum causes release of:
  • Secretin which stimulates secretion of the aqueous component.
  • Cholecystokinin stimulates the enzyme component of pancreatic juice.
  • Parasympathetic stimulation causes the release of pancreatic juice particularly during the cephalic and gastric phases
66
Q

What is the stimulation and function of Gastrin?

A
  • Stimulated by distension of stomach and the bolus entering the stomach.
  • Increases gastric secretions.
67
Q

What is the stimulation and function of Secretin?

A
  • Stimulate by chyme entering the duodenum.
  • Decreases gastric secretions.
  • Stimulate pancreas to secrete pancreatic juice.
  • Stimulates bile secretion from liver.
68
Q

What is the stimulation and function of Cholecystokinin?

A
  • Stimulate by chyme entering the duodenum
  • Decreases gastric secretions.
  • Stimulate pancreas to secrete pancreatic juice.
  • Stimulates bile release from gallbladder.
69
Q

What is the flow though the large intestines?

A

-Cecum→ Colon→ Rectum→ Anus

70
Q

What is chyme converted into and what occurs when this happens?

A
  • Chyme is converted to faeces & stored until elimination.
  • Water & salt are absorbed
  • Mucous is secreted
  • Action of micro-organisms
  • 90% of the chyme that enters the large intestine is absorbed.
71
Q

What are the secretions and movement of the large intestines?

A
  • Major secretory substance = mucous.
  • Lubricates the wall and assists with the formation of faecal matter.
  • Stimulated by parasympathetic stimulation and tactile and irritation stimuli.
  • Faeces consists of water, undigested food, sloughed-off epithelial cells and microorganisms.
  • Peristaltic contractions move chyme up the ascending colon.
  • Mass movements move chyme along the transverse and descending colon.
72
Q

What are the movements of the large intestines stimulated by?

A
  • Local reflexes
  • Parasympathetic stimulation
  • Hormones – gastrin and cholecystokinin
  • Distension of the stomach
  • Chyme in the duodenum
  • Smell or thought of food
73
Q

What are the steps in the absorption of Glucose?

A

Monosaccharide (glucose) transport

  1. Glucose is absorbed by symport with Na+ into intestinal epithelial cells.
  2. Symport is driven by a sodium gradient established by a Na+–K+ pump.
  3. Glucose moves out of the intestinal epithelial cells by facilitated diffusion.
  4. Glucose enters the capillaries of the intestinal villi and is carried through the hepatic portal vein to the liver.
74
Q

How are amino acids transported?

A

Amino acid transport

  1. Acidic and most neutral amino acids are absorbed by symport into intestinal epithelial cells.
  2. Symport is driven by a sodium gradient established by a Na+–K+ pump.
  3. Amino acids move out of intestinal epithelial cells.
  4. Amino acids enter the capillaries of the intestinal villi and are carried through the hepatic portal vein to the liver.

Human Physiology for Exercise Science (14 decks)

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