Lectures Flashcards

Question

Explain Marx's view of power

Answer 1

•Marx also exemplifies the power view •Marx was interested in the causes and forms of power and realized it took different forms –Resources (economic resources allow power and these resources can also create power, if people want the resources , they will do whatever you want for them) –Coercion ( money resources needed for coercion, example the army) –Control of Ideas: false consciousness (when people are unaware or incorrect about the nature of their interests, the workers are not interested in the revolution because they perhaps had this false consciousness, capitalism socializes people and workers think that capitalism its the best system - need for intellectual elites to break down the false consciousness •Marxist theory suggests economic resources make possible both coercion and control of ideas So when you have the modes of production, you have all that power •Critical Sociology: Marx wanted to use knowledge to change capitalist society –The ultimate critical sociologist

Answer 2

•Marx was among the first to look at states (political organization that government controlled) •Marx was interested in the state as an organization of power that was used by capitalists to dominate society -States are organizations of power - so he was looking at the state as very influenced by the economy (looking at the way the economy shaped the state) -State is an area of debate amongst Marx- to what extend the state is determined by the economy •Uncertain whether Marx thought state was instrumental or relatively autonomous –Instrumental: simply the instrument of the capitalists (the elite is pulling the strings of the state, extremely materialistic view) –Relatively Autonomous: Able to act contrary to capitalists at time but must support capitalists in the long-run ( in the short-run, the capitalist don’t control the state like a puppet, without resources the state is powerless but if the elite needs to follow the interests in order for the state to work)

Answer 3

Marx was trying to promote a revolution so he paid a lot of attention to revolutions •Marx believed revolutions would inevitably overthrow capitalism and created a theory of their determinants •What causes revolution ? What do revolution involve ? Material hardship (Motive for workers to revolutionize) : –Immiserization of workers –Centralization of capital (eventually less and less people owning resources) –Falling profits (capitalist is based of competition which will lead profits to decline, less money to go around to buy off the proletariat) –Economic crises People were poor, angry and frighten and needed to do something about it •Class consciousness (Not revolting because of individual interest) -Workers joining together to overthrow –Urbanization, communication, political organization –We’ll see some of this later when we look at it

Answer 4

* German, 1860-1924 * Degree in law but extensively studied economics, history, classics, and more * One of the world’s greatest geniuses * Periods of severe mental illness * Along with Marx, the most influential of the founding political sociologists

Answer 5

•Values and Research –Marx—Critical sociologist, a revolutionary –Weber—Objective and value-free sociology (empirical goal, not influenced by values because it would bias the research), more conservative politically •Empirical Work –Marx wrote mainly about theory –Weber wrote mainly empirical analyses (middle range theory, not trying to explain everything) •Theory –Marx—Grandiose theory, explains everything –Weber—Mid-level theory, thought big theory inaccurate •Epistemology –Marx Positivist –Weber Interpretivist (cant come up with social laws because of the complicated nature of things, all we can do is analyze)

Answer 6

•In my view, the most influential political sociologist •Interrelational View: Looked at how politics influenced other social structures and vice versa –Thinks all social structures influence one another, against Marxist materialism - the economy doesn’t explain everything •Power View: Even more than Marx, investigated forms and bases of power –Weberian work focuses on power •Concepts: Developed important concepts that remain central to the sub-discipline (within his concepts, you can see his theory) •Difficult to present Weber in 50 minutes because it’s so varied, lacks a core theory

Answer 7

-one of the first to think about what power is - he looked at social power •Defined as the ability, within a social relationship, of realizing one’s will even against resistance •Saw power as having several sources –Economic, military/muscular, control of organizations, contacts, etc. –Work suggests main bases were economy, politics, and culture

Answer 8

•Weber was interested in how rulers wield power •He recognized that rulers rarely have to use overt power—or even threaten to use it—to get people to follow their orders. Rarely have to actively use threat. Why do people follow them then? •Found that people followed orders when they believed rulers have a legitimate right to rule (they had the right to assert the rules over the population- its the population’s duty to abide) –Legitimate authority •Authority is therefore a hidden and very useful type of power- invisible source of power

Answer 9

•3 types of authority •Charismatic Authority: Charisma, unique powers of individual are the basis for their domination of others (unique attributes and characteristics (knowledge, great experience..) allowing access to power), people follow them without questioning them •Traditional Authority: tradition is used to justify the rule of some over others •Legal-Rational Authority: rules justify domination - rules in place explain who can rule, how they can rule and if the ruler is following these guidelines, their authority is legitimate –Weber saw this as the most rational form of authority, emerged in Europe with the rise of bureaucracy and rational law

Answer 10

•These types of authority are ideal types, which are a basic element of Weberian sociology - So these types were analytical tools to explain patterns of relation within society •Ideal types: abstract typologies that are not meant to conform to reality and that are used to compare units to highlight reasons for similarities and differences •Analyze the extent to which real cases conform to one or more ideal types •Thought you could learn a lot by using ideal-typical comparisons - no place in the world matches completely to any of these ideal types- they are therefore for for comparative purpose

Answer 11

•Bureaucracy is another famous ideal type of Weber •Organization in which rules are the basis of individual action, rules are rationally organized to unify actions •Organizational technology able to harness the effort of thousands of people - allowing groups to accomplish things no one could achieve on their own •Components: –Meritocracy (organized rationally, the people in positions have the characters, knowledge and skills best suited to fulfill the duties) –Hierarchical chain of command (strong chain important for supervising and communicating) –Positions with formal duties (positions are created and people are brought in to fulfill those positions not the opposite) –salary-based compensation –record keeping (need to know what has been done and what is going on) •Bureaucracy involves coordinating people and getting them to pursue organizational interests instead of personal interests –All the components of bureaucracy help with these tasks by promoting coordination and control •Although an ideal, Weber believed organizations in Western Europe were getting increasingly close, moving towards to the ideal during his lifetime •Viewed it as a major reason for the rise of powerful states, capitalist development, and colonial expansion -bureaucratization explained a lot of phenomenons Weber was witnessing, it is the bureaucratization that made possible the observed social change •Part of process of rationalization

Answer 12

•While marvelling at bureaucracy (important, many benefits), Weber also dreaded it (also negative effects) •Dehumanization: makes us simply follow rules, don’t think for ourselves, are controlled by the bureaucratic machine (taking away all agency, all ability to think for ourselves) •Iron Cage: bureaucracies control everything, we’re unable to act freely, always constrained by bureaucratic red tape –Movies: Gilliam’s Brazil, Kubrik’s Dr. Strangelove, Kurasawa’s Ikiru

Answer 13

•Differs from Marx in two main ways •(1) Basis of Strat: Marx focused exclusively on class, but Weber considered three things –Class: Strat based on possessing resources (allowing people with more resources to be on top) –Party: Strat based on power (some people are more organized politically than others) –Status: Strat based on culture/ideas (norms that define who should be on top and bottom) •(2) Class: Marx based class on position within production system, Weber focused on position within market (buyer vs. seller, lender vs. borrower) –Weber suggests greater divisions and competition among economic elite (unity of the class is much less than Marx suggested, based upon your position within the market, there are competing interests within classes)

Answer 14

-First Face of Power •Coincides with pluralist view of power –Individuals and groups use available resources and skills to pursue their interests against opposition •Power is therefore based on the resources that they are able to mobilize –Examples: money, political connections, intelligence, physical strength, will, etc. -very simple, most evident The Second Face of Power •Institutional rules that affect whose interests are pursued –Recognizes that institutions are powerful and biased •Who is able to participate in decision-making •Who sets the agenda -individuals who are able to put their interests on the agenda and able to exclude others from putting their interest on the agenda are powerful (which explain who gets their interests pursued) •Differs from the 1st face of power in that rules are basis of power instead of resources -people usually this face of power (even the ones who are advantaged) –Conflict isn’t necessarily in the open, hidden –Allows people with power to maintain it The Third Face of Power •Most controversial of the three •Power exerted by controlling the beliefs and perspectives of individuals (Mind control- somebody is able to exert control onto what one thinks) –Very hidden, not necessarily controlled by anyone •Occurs when there is a mismatch between objective interests (need for food) and subjective interests (what you think you need- sometime what people think they need is not good for them) –False Consciousness: subjective interests oppose objective interests (people thinking that capitalism is good for them) –Lack of Consciousness: don’t recognize interests (lack of racial consciousness) •Examples of false consciousness and lack of consciousness?

Answer 15

•A central focus of political sociology •Power is difficult to define, but we all have a clear idea of what it is •Talcott Parsons: capability to do something •With this definition, power commonly isn’t very meaningful –I have the power to jump up and down right now •Max Weber: capability to do something despite resistance from others –Refers to this as social power, which is relational –Dominant view in political sociology

Answer 16

* 1st: Sees economic resources as the principal source of power * 2nd: Control of economic resources makes possible control of institutions * 3rd: Control of institutions makes possible the control of ideas

Answer 17

•Gianfranco Poggi: Expands on Weber’s writings to come up with a Weberian theory of the social bases of power –Influential sociologist at the University of Trento in Italy, formerly of the U of Edinburgh –Social theorist best know for his work on the state •Describes how Weber’s categories of stratification are also different bases of power

Answer 18

•An influential political sociologist who has written the most influential modern work on power –Power: A Radical View (1974) •Was writing at a time when the pluralist view of power was dominant –Pluralism: Suggests power is evenly distributed among many groups and that democracy must respond to diverse interest groups (all groups are able to participate) •Ideal/optimistic view of democracy •Sees resources as the unique basis of power •He critiques this and describes three types of power

Answer 19

•Poggi notes that power enforces stratification, quoting Weber: –“Classes, status groups and parties are phenomena of the distribution of power within a collectivity.” –Societies don’t become stratified naturally; the powerful enforce stratified social systems (they are therefore sources of power themselves) •Poggi suggests that each type of stratification is based on a different type of power –Economic power, political power, cultural power power is the probability within a social relation of realizing one's own even against resistance regardless go the basis on which this probability rests.

Answer 20

Class/Wealth •Class: Power and stratification is based on the material resources one controls –Money, land, food, etc. –Exchange resources to get what you want from others –Basis of power if material wealth •Marx: Describes how this can affect all three faces of power Status/Custom •Ideological/normative power: Culture or ideology defines what is most important/proper –Age, piety, athleticism, wealth, facial tattoos, conspicuous consumption, etc. •The people who conform most to cultural norms/ideologies get respect and privileges –A source of power •Different from resources, promotes more 2nd and 3rd faces of power -Culture benefitting individuals at the expense of others - defining what is proper and improper (those who can be deemed as proper, will have power) Party/Command •Rulership is the basis of this type of power •Involves the threat or execution of severe punishments in order to get what you want (able to implement some sanction in some way) –The state uses rulership to get people to pay taxes –Parents use rulership to get their kids to “behave” •Coercion is clear element of the first face of power but can be used to establish the 2nd and 3rd faces as well Lukes= types of power Poggi/Weber = sources/basis of power

Answer 21

•Like the types of legitimate authority, Weber suggests that places vary according to which source of power is dominant –Economic has become increasingly important –Culture more important in theocracies –Coercion vital in places experiencing war •Exploring/analyzing variation in this helps us better understand patterns of social relations

Answer 22

•Weber noted that all three bases of stratification commonly complement one another –Wealth allows people to influence culture and thereby gain status-based power –Wealth is an important basis of rulership •Poggi notes that people with different bases of power fight about which one ‘trumps’ the others –Capitalists emphasize wealth, cultural elites emphasize status, rulers emphasize command and coercion

Answer 23

* French, 1858-1917 * Founder of sociology as an academic discipline (and anthropology) * Differed from both Marx and Weber by focusing on consensus, not conflict

Answer 24

•Durkheim believed society is more than simply the aggregation of its components –Societies are real entities, organisms •Although inherently different from individual organisms –Society is something in and of itself, it runs through all of us, we’re its actors -its something that we need to understand, we all come together, we are all part of this •Like Gaia Theory, the Borg •Societal Determinism: Society precedes individual, shapes us in ways that allow the perpetuation of society -we are shaped by society and then shape society •Purpose of sociology is to analyze society, looking at social facts

Answer 25

-social characteristics and not individual characteristics "ways of acting, thinking, and feeling, external to the individual and endowed with a power of coercion, by reason of which they control him"

Answer 26

•Structural-Functionalism: Analyzed societies as a whole, looked at the functions social relations fulfill in order for the society to survive - How do society survive ?what are the functions of institutions in order for societies to survive ? •Consensus: focuses on the ‘glue’ that holds societies together, not conflict that tears them apart -Interested in the factors that allow people to interact peacefully and cooperate to make society survive- social solidarity •Durkheim used several concepts to look at consensus •Social Density: physical pattern of who is in the presence of whom, for how, long, and with how much space between them (the network of people interact with mapped) -Need for high social density for societies to survive •Moral Density: Shared norms, values, outlooks, identity –Affected by social density –Collective Conscious -Moral density leading us to think/act as a collective, creating a larger than individual consciousness –Rituals: heighten shared awareness of social unity (where people gather together and focus attention on unified community symbol) -Every life is also full of small scale/micro rituals that hold society together

Answer 27

•Durkheim has been accused of worshiping society *example worshiping totem (symbolizing them), rituals as venerating the collective -for Durkheim, this worshiping is good. However, recent sociologist have been focusing on the darker side of this collective consciousness as it could create “otherness”, “nationalism”, manipulation –More important than the individual –Integration is always beneficial because it promotes peace and mutual understanding •More recently, sociologists and anthropologists have noted that a collective conscious and attempts to create consensus can have a darker side •What might be a negative side of it?

Answer 28

•Lynching was a ritual that helped create common awareness of unity among the white population From a Durkheim perspective they were a ritual creating more unity ? •Unity through exclusion and destruction (of individual of where seen as other or threat) –Unified whites by physically and ritually excluding blacks –Spectacle lynching symbolized the destruction of a communal enemy by the community •Strengthened collective conscious by destroying the ‘other”- which represented a sense of “threat”

Answer 29

•Durkheim has been a more minor figure in political sociology than either Marx or Weber –Durkheim doesn’t look at power/conflict, and this is a central element of the sub-discipline •Still, he looks at how social relations affect politics, and his focus on consensus has influenced two particular areas of political sociology –Identity politics –Civil society Durkheim and Identity Politics -His work on consciousness influenced Political Sociology •Durkheim theorized that the human mind has two levels, switching regularly from one to the other –Individual Level: Focused on you as individual, considers your particular needs and interests –Collective Level: Focused on your “community,” considers the needs and interests of the community -Durkheim implied that human brain was wired that way -How do we go from one to the other ? Rituals and symbols •Rituals and symbols play important roles switching you from your default level (individual) to the collective level •Considerable research in psychology and neuroscience supports this theory of the mind •This offers enormous insight into the issue of identity politics Community and Politics •Politics is about collective decision-making and the implementation of policy for the collective –Who is part of the collective? Who is not? •Nation-State: Emerged as dominant political model over the past few centuries and defines who is part of the “nation,” who the state is supposed to serve •Durkheim offers considerable insight into why politics always involves delineating the collective •Symbols and Rituals: He also offers great insight into why states constantly exploit each other –Shows why states sometimes exclude and remove “others” -Shows how nation are build while ignoring the conflict part but it remains important theory to understand states

Answer 30

•Durkheimian theory informs discussions of civil society –Focuses on consensus instead of conflict –Considers how interactions contribute to norms of civility, looking out for the well-being of the group –Views as vital for democracy ( looking at out at how civil society influences democracy) -people coming together is important for the survival of society and allows to create collective consciousness •Although Durkheim has influenced the study of civil society, most analyses of civil society draw their pedigree to an earlier French intellectual: Alexis de Tocqueville

Answer 31

* Early political sociologist * Not given as much attention in Sociology, more in poli-sci * Born into aristocracy but after French Revolution * Most influential works on causes of revolution (which he was quite skeptical about) and how civil society promotes democracy Tocquevillian Theory •Tocqueville is most famous for his work on democracy in the United States •He visited the United States in the 1830s when it was the only formal democracy in the world (although women and racial minorities couldn’t vote) –Wanted to know how the US became democratic •Answer: Vibrant associational life, suggests civil society is vital for democracy •Reason: Dem. requires a counterweight to the state –Keeps elected official from becoming despotic -For Tocqueville, the state is something to be feared- democracy is risk but the active organization provide a counter weight to the state in ways that the state as to pay attention to them. Europe would not work because of a lack of density of civil associations •Different from Durkheim: Looks at conflict and power -civil society as a basis of power that keeps politicians accountable. Durkheim thought they brought norms and collectivity but for Tocqueville it was a source of power.

Answer 32

Power and Michel Foucault •French Sociologist, 1926-1984 •Extremely influential Postmodern theorist •His work focuses on the rise of more hidden forms of “modern” power •Focuses largely on science and disciplines as constantly exerting power- increasingly influential while people don’t realize

Answer 33

•Foucault: Power “can be identified better by what it does than what it is” -More interested in the effect of power, the patterns shaped by power, looking at theses power and explaining them –Power forces us to act in certain ways –Like Weber, Foucault focuses on the “powers” that promote patterns of social relations •Sees power everywhere –We usually don’t even realize it, but we’re being forced to act in certain ways •Power isn’t necessarily controlled by anyone –Has a life of its own, although people started it -Power becomes institutionalized, it becomes social •Analyzes the lineages of power (how they became invisibles forms of power)

Answer 34

•Throughout history, Foucault saw power as overt and coercive –People knew when power was exerted over them •Believes this changed with modernity –Science and bureaucracy became hidden bases of enormous power (with both of these exerted hidden power on individuals which was not recognized) –Scientific understandings and bureaucracies forced people to conform to what science says is proper •Asylums for people who think and act differently * •Police can do about anything because of the bureaucratic/legal rules that support them •His work on the “disciplines” is central to this Not specifically to the benefit to anyone but often happens to favourite some people

Answer 35

•Definition: Social institutions that endow individuals with capacities and inclinations –Example: Education, hospitals, prisons, professional assoc. •Important source of merit & legitimacy in modernity •Effect: Controls individuals (conformity that patterns social relation) –Gives skills/outlooks necessary to participate in society –Causes individuals to act and perceive the world in certain disciplined ways (because of legitimacy) –People follow the directives of professional disciplinarians •We are constantly disciplined through the disciplines in modern society

Answer 36

•Numerous disciplinary institutions remove our agency, force us to be disciplined without overt coercion -prisoners behave when they think that they are watched - society, according to Foucault, works like that –No conspiracy theory; no one controls all.

Answer 37

•One thing that makes the disciplines so powerful is that they are backed by “knowledge” •Foucault paid much attention to the system of knowledge production and power –Saw science as ultimate basis of power within a number of modern institutions •“To formulate knowledge is always an act of power rooted in struggle, and power relations are always created and suspended in webs of knowledge and rules for the production of truth” •Influence of Knowledge: –“Knowledge precedes and enables the formation of consciousness, action, and desire” -Power shapes what people think they need and want •Says “experts” are able to present knowledge in ways that benefit some, hurt others •We therefore need to be critical and assess the effects of “knowledge” on power and vice versa –Goal: demystify how knowledge production works so we can weaken it, free people from the scientific panopticon -not simply an objective needs, they are power relations involved in knowledge production. Need to consider it to free people from. •Foucault says we need to ask: Whose interests do “true statements” serve? How are they embedded within and creating power relations?

Answer 38

•Foucault was a radical leftist, but the far right seems at times to support his agenda more –In Europe and North America, right-leaning parties question scientific knowledge much more –Right commonly describes science as biased and suggests that there are “alternative truths” •Foucault probably rolling over in his grave –Causes some to question what Foucault is saying and consider what would happen if we disempowered experts and science –Foucault: Would likely say we shouldn’t reject science and experts •We should question the powers they serve

Answer 39

•Along with power, one of the most central concepts of political sociology •Democracy is a general type of regime -government, political organization (state), regime •Regime: the formal rules about who rules and how they rule (rules of the political game)

Answer 40

•Huber, Rueschemeyer, and Stephens suggest democracies share three main characteristics: •(1) regular free and fair elections on the basis of universal suffrage –Regular (once every 4 years for example to hold leader accountable, allow change..), free (no constraints on them preventing people to vote for their favourite candidate..) , fair (no bias), universal suffrage (not only a small segment able to vote, everybody should be able to vote) •(2) responsibility of the state apparatus to the elected representatives (elected officials need to be in power, example: not the military in power) •(3) guarantees of freedom of expression and association •Why are such freedoms important? If people are forbidden candidates and public to express their views, gather together and debate .. the election wont represent the democratic will of the population *difficult to pin point when a state becomes “democratic enough”*

Answer 41

•Hunter-Foragers: Evidence that highly democratic, in that all can participate in decision making -Democracy is not “new” -More autocratic form of government emerges once population grows •Based on H, R, & S’s definition, first formal democracy occurred in Athens in 507 BC –Although only a tiny fraction of the population could vote (slaves, women, non-citizens, and non-landowners could not vote) •England arguably the earliest modern democracy –Bill of Rights in 1689 (although many restrictions)- beginning to promote an institutional parliament democracy (shift of power from monarchy to parliament) –Influenced American colonies •Democracy began to spread in the mid-19th century and grew rapidly after WW1 (explosion of democracy in the 20th century) -75 countries in the world today that have a complete democracy (Canada, Northern Europe)

Answer 42

•Canada is considered by almost everyone as democratic –(1) Regular and free elections –(2) State supports elected officials –(3) Freedom of expression and association •Question: When did Canada become democratic? History of Suffrage in Canada •1900 – Property qualifications began to be removed (poor are now able to vote) •1918 - Women gain full voting rights in federal elections •1919 - Women gain the right to run for federal office •1948 - Racial exclusions are removed from election laws •1955 - Religious exclusions are removed from election laws •1960 - Right to vote is extended unconditionally to First Nations people •1970 - Voting age lowered from 21 to 18 •1988 - Supreme Court of Canada rules mentally ill patients have the right to vote •2002 - Prisoners given the right to vote *Canada has an history of exclusion- its though to say when it became fully democratic

Answer 43

•Despite all of these advances, Robert Dahl suggests that Canada remains far from a real democracy •He claims elections, rule by elected, and rights don’t make a democracy- they are simply characteristics that help to promote -According to Dahl, “democracy” is all about people being able to influence political decisions equally, it is an ideal very difficult to obtain •According to Dahl, democracy requires no less than political equality –People need same ability to influence collective decision-making –Suggests five requirements for real political equality

Answer 44

•(1) Effective Participation: everyone has equal opportunities for making their views known –People aren’t prevented from speaking their mind –Everyone has the same capacity to get their voices heard *in Canada; some people are able to get their views a lot better (radio, celebrity..) •(2) Voting Equality: Everyone must be able to vote, and all votes must be equal *its easier for some people to vote and not all votes are worth the same (rural area worth 15% more than urban area) •(3) Inclusion of all Adults: All adults must have the right to participate in politics –Raises questions: What age does adulthood start? Why exclude non-adults? Exclude murderers? •(4) Control of the Agenda: Everyone must be able to affect the political agenda –Related to Lukes’ second face of power *In Canada; a “lobbier” would have more power to affect the agenda •(5) Enlightened Understanding: Everyone must have equal opportunities to learn about the relevant policy options and their likely consequences –Requires that everyone has a high level of education, especially in the social sciences

Answer 45

•Dahl’s definition is ideal—there is no real democracy in the world according to this definition –Countries in the world approach democracy to different extents •Claims countries should strive to come closer to the ideal (we need to recognize that we are not perfectly the ideal but that we need to improve)

Answer 46

•People rarely question the benefits of democracy –Just accept it and assume it’s good •Dahl thinks it is very important and merits big efforts to democratize –Documents many important benefits derived from democracy –Some more controversial than others -Dahl has very high view of democracy

Answer 47

* (1) Avoiding Tyranny (rules from democracy help to prevent) * (2) Protecting essential rights * (3) General Freedom * (4) Self-determination (being able to influence the rules you think are best) * (5) Moral autonomy (need to act based upon your own morals but the general freedoms free you from constraints and lead you to act according to your own morals) * (6) Human development (health care, education ..) * (7) Protecting personal interests (through these rights and the rules of the game people are able to look out for themselves better) * (8) Political equality * (9) Peace * (10) Prosperity

Answer 48

•Dahl says democracy is all about political equality •Impossibility because some people have more political power than others •Structured Inequalities: General and persistent inequities –Several in politics—underrepresented, interests disregarded, deemed second-class citizen •Class: the working class was originally excluded from democratic regimes, commonly underrepresented •Race and Ethnicity: Some communities do not have the same rights, severly underrepresented •Sexual Orientation: LGBTs commonly face political exclusion and discrimination •Gender: arguably the most important in terms of #’s

Answer 49

-Politics is largely a gendered affair, dominated by men •Presently, main gendered inequality in politics concerns representation (previously suffrage) -You would expect to see more female in politics because the population is female •Canada: Agnes Macphail: 1st female federal MP (1921-1940) •Today, 26 percent of federal MPs are female (a record) •Only one former female Prime Minister (Kim Campbell) •Wasn’t elected as Prime Minister (Brian Mulruney stepped down and appointed her) •Globally, 17.5 % of female representatives are women •Any guesses which country has the greatest female representation?

Answer 50

•Paxton, Kunovich, and Hughes: Consider why women are underrepresented in democracies -Rwanda has more female representative but thats about it •Present three general theories that try to explain it •Supply-Side: Suggests women are less willing to run for election •Too many family obligations •Aversion to aggressive work that takes them away from their families •Socialized to pursue other “female” occupations •Spouses, family, and friends discourage -these supply side factors limit female candidates

Answer 51

•Suggest a low demand for female politicians is what explains their under-representation –Popular biases against females, viewed as poor leaders –Old Boys Network: Part of candidate selection process –Evidence: Female candidates are less likely to win -So a bias amongst the public but also within the networks •Find that certain things overcome these norms –Communism: Autocratic leaders select more female politicians –Proportional Representation: More likely to elect women than majority systems –Left-Leaning Parties and Female Leaders: More likely to run female candidates –Quotas: Create artificial demand for females

Answer 52

•Many researchers find regional and religious links to female underrepresentation –Affect both supply and demand •Region: Certain regions have more female representatives, others less. Some regions are more acceptant than others. •Religion: Catholic, Orthodox, and Muslim regions have fewer female representatives •Norms: Places with peoples who accept patriarchal values have lower female participation -cultural base that can inform the presence of female

Answer 53

•Political inequality is an example of patriarchy •Definition: Social relations in which men hold power and women are largely excluded from it -Upheld by patriarchal norms •Patriarchy affects all social institutions, not just politics –Family, religion, economy, education, etc. *99% of important CEO are men in Canada, so evidence is there that patriarchy is present and wide spread •Disagreement about whether patriarchy is universal –Some believe it has always been the norm, although variation in the extent of patriarchalism –Others believe there was much greater variation before and that patriarchy only became the norm more recently –Some combine these two views •Both views coincide with biological & sociological views

Answer 54

•Claims that patriarchy is in our genes •Size: Men are generally larger and stronger than women –Historically, power was based on coercion, gives men advantage •Evolutionary Psychology: suggests that men are naturally more aggressive and confrontational –More testosterone –Makes them more likely to participate in contentious politics, act coercively, get their way

Answer 55

•Many disagree with genetic argument, claiming that there are and have been societies with considerable female empowerment –Biology can’t explain variation in female empowerment •Physical strength has no longer main basis of power (power no more coercive) •Men aren’t necessarily more aggressive by nature, but there is a double standard: aggressive women are perceived much more negatively than aggressive men

Answer 56

-Social relations end up shaping power, these relations vary from places to places •Political sociologists generally suggest that patriarchy is a social construct –Social structures empower men more than women –Don’t really consider the extent to which biological differences account for power differentials •Lukes’ three faces of power, Poggi, and Foucault all suggest ways females are disempowered •Strength: Helps to explain variation in patriarchy over time and place

Answer 57

•Biggest Problem: Has more difficulty explaining why patriarchy is normal, if not universal •Two sociological approaches to this problem: •(1) Combine sociological and biological arguments –Suggests that patriarchy is the norm but that there is great variation in its extent due to social relations (seen as bias that has been manipulated) •(2) Deny the universality of patriarchy, note that it only recently became the norm –Generally look for factors that “spread” patriarchy

Answer 58

-Biological differences engender patriarchy only when certain social factors are present •Proliferation: Three major arguments, two combine with biological differences –Intensive Agriculture: Some claim use of plow made men economically dominant •Greater physical strength made them main producers –War argument: Once warfare becomes common, men gain power because of strength and female pregnancy and breastfeeding –Colonialism argument: Colonialism spread Patriarchy •Suggests colonial powers imposed patriarchal norms and institutions

Answer 59

•Stevenson: First Nations woman and scholar considers colonialism and patriarchy in Canada •Pre-colonialism: Indigenous women had considerable economic autonomy and power based on their economy autonomy, they controlled the production of various crops , they were therefore more influential in decision making (relations not necessarily equitable but more equitable than today) •Colonialism: Disempowered indigenous women in a variety of ways –Ended polygamy and strengthened marriage, which removed the economic autonomy. Women tied to marriage much more tightly, removing their liberties –Indian Act: Gave greater legal rights to men –Ended matrilineal and institutions empowering women •Sees missionaries as having played important role *by creating/justifying oppression -Colonialism and the implemented institutions that allowed patriarchy- which could explain how patriarchy was spread around the world

Answer 60

- An enormous literature in political sociology explore the determinant and deterrents of democracy - They consider a few potential determinants - Globalization (spreading the norm of democracy) - Civil society ( society that helps to constraint the state and listen to the population ) - Education - British Colonialism (Spreading certain norms and values) - Missionaries (promoted education and civil society and led to higher levels of democratization)

Answer 61

- Although political sociologist consider all types of determinant, most focus on power, find that democracy requires equality - generally consider factors promoting more equitable power relation - Last 2 readings suggest that patriarchy is a particular power configuration that onset democracy by limiting the influence of women - Our next 2 reading take this power perspective but focus on other sources of power - organization and capitalist development

Answer 62

- Considerable work has been done on how bureaucratic organizations affect democracy - Pluralism : Needed for organization interests (for democracy to work, all the interests need to organize themselves to be influence int he political realm, need for bureaucracy) - Elite Theory: Basis of elite power and domination (bureaucracy is the base of concentration of power which hurts democratization) - Foucault : a powerful discipline that disempowers people, removes their power and limits their participation (removes power from the people, refrains them to participate)

Answer 63

- Positive Effect of Bureaucracy - Great social leveler: based on merit, not birth, opposed to tradition/aristocratic power - Organizing Democracy: Organizations needed to make mass democracies function properly Organization of election needs bureaucracy because it is so complex (locations to vote, disseminating ballots, supervising elections, electoral list, protection ballots, counting the votes.. ) - Negative Effect of Bureaucracy - Based on radical opposing principles - Bureaucracy based on hierarchy and authority (superiors tell you what to do and it is legit) - Democracy based on equality - Dehumanize people, limit participation - Iron cage: people just follow rules, lack self motivation and moral autonomy (which is necessary for democracy) - Allows organization elites to control politics

Answer 64

- Focused his work on the impact of bureaucratic organization on democracy - Iron law of Oligarchy - FGerman, 1876-1936 - Student of Weber - Founding figure of the Elite Theory - Discriminatied again in Germany because a socialist - Eventually became dishearten and went to work for Mussolini

Answer 65

- Michels came up with the ILO through his participation in the German Social democatic Party - Most democratic party in Germany at the time - Michels a very active and idealistic member - Michels experiences made him very disillusioned - Members were not able to infuse party platform - Believed the party leaders were selling out the establishment - If they themselves are not democratic ? How can they promote democracy ? He blamed the bureaucracy

Answer 66

Elite Theory: Theory of the state suggesting that a small elite controls the reigns of power –Marx: Saw these elites as capitalists –Elite theory pays considerable attention to how economic elites are able to influence the state •Michels: One of the most influential elite theorists but didn’t focus on influence of capitalist elites (focused on organizations) –Saw organization as the means of immense power, concentrates power in the hands of a few –Iron Law of Oligarchy

Answer 67

•I mentioned previously that there aren’t social laws –Some say ILO is as close to a social law as is possible •Political Parties: A Sociological Study of the Oligarchical Tendencies of Modern Democracy (1911) •Michels: “It is organization which gives birth to the dominion of the elected over the electors, of the mandataries over the mandators, of the delegates over the delegators. Who says ogranization says oligarchy.” •Because of this, Michels concluded that it is the leader of the organization that is most important •Saw Mussolini as an effective, charismatic leader

Answer 68

* Described 6 mechanisms that promote ILO * 1. Bureaucracy provides rules and regulations that enforce hierarchy (Weber) - based on the rules where people on the bottom don’t question the top * 2. Bureaucratic elites control the formal means of communication within the organization (they are able to portray their views and block opposition views, they are able to tell the members what is important- which is anti-democratic) * 3. Knowledge of rules (organization based on the rule of rules and not everybody knows these rules, if you are the only one to know them you can enforce them in your advantage, keeping the opposition from being a threat) * 4. Leadership skills of elites (some leaders become leaders because they have skills and being a leader helps you to gather these skills) * 5. High status of organizational leaders (leaders want to maintain their positions, having high status within the party. And they use the first 4 points to do so) * 6. Lack of time and interest of non-elites

Answer 69

•Michels was one of the first people to use a power elite theoretical perspective to consider how bureaucratic organizations concentrate power and affect democracy –Potentially the most influential •His main rival in terms of influence was C. Wright Mill, who we will read for Friday –A lot of similarities, but Wright Mill is more optimist

Answer 70

C. Wright Mills •American, 1916-1962 •Arguably US’s most influential sociologist •Influenced by both Weber and Marx

Answer 71

•Wright Mills was an activist sociologist who wanted to use knowledge to make the world a better place. Come up with understanding to change the world and make it a better place. –Marx: Influenced by Marx in this way, and in that he focused on inequality and elite domination –Weber: Influenced by Weber in that he focused greatly on politics and power and didn’t accept materialism -Mills is very interested in the political process •His work sought to highlight social problems in the hopes of correcting them –Individual Problem: A problem caused by individual characteristics/choices/actions –Social Problem: A problem that individuals suffer but that is promoted by the social environment Social Problem: Example •Individual Problem: One individual within a community is unemployed –Lost job because they didn’t follow boss’s orders, not looking for a job •Social Problem: Half of the community is unemployed –No jobs available, people are trying really hard to get jobs but can’t find any •Mix: When there is high unemployment, people with individual problems have a very hard time getting a job

Answer 72

The Problem with Social Problems •Wright Mills believed that there were more and more social problems –Modernity was creating institutions that affected our lives more and more •Individualism: Despite this, individualism grows with modernity (individual living their life in their interest, based on their actions and choices) –Creates false impression that we control our lives •Combination: Wright Mills thought social problems and individualism combined to promote considerable angst –Viewed sociology as the cure to this angst –Wrote The Sociological Imagination for this

Answer 73

The Sociological Imagination (1959) •One of the most influential sociological books ever •Definition: The ability to connect seemingly impersonal and remote historical forces to the incidents of an individual’s life –Against all-powerful individualism, notes how the social world shapes you –Sociological imagination allows us to see how social problems affect us, not simply our faults –Useful tool : allows us to better understand ourselves and others -Looking at the effects of the environment and how it shapes individuals Components of the Sociological Imagination •The sociological imagination considers the interplay between 3 things •(1) History: how a society came to be, how it is changing, and how history is being made (considering its effects) •(2) Social Structure: how the various institutional orders in a society operate, which ones are dominant, how are they held together •(3) Biography: particular individual characteristics

Answer 74

Example: Missing Aboriginal Women •Individual Problem: Sees missing women as defective in some way, made bad choices with dire consequences –Drug addict, prostitute •Sociological Imagination forces you to consider if this is a social problem •History: Disempowering of Aboriginal women (Stevenson), cultural genocide and marginalization •Social Structure: Poverty and discrimination, live in areas of with high crime •Biography: Poor, low self-esteem, drugs •History Social—> Structure —>Biography -Seeing this seemingly individual problem in the sociological imagination light, it appears as a social problem

Answer 75

Structure-Agency Debate •Mills thought both are important, neither is dominant –Structure—guides us, shapes our options –Agency—our actions make up society, shape history, our actions shape history *There are inequalities in agency •Sociological Imagination—Believes one’s agency depends on history, social structure, and biography –Murdered Aboriginal woman had very little agency to deal with social problems •Thought modernity gave great power to some but disempowered most, some more than others –These people with all the power make history and exert considerable control over the lives of others -With modernity, growing levels of agency Inequality –His empirical work focused on this inequality

Answer 76

•Concerned with the bases of power inequality in the United States in the 1950s –Believed had very negative effects on the extent of American democracy, disempowered the masses •Saw organizations as the key –Michels: Empowered a select few, which allowed them to dominate organizations and their members –Organizational Society: Societies are increasingly dominated by organizations •Organizational elites dominate society- who have a great amount of power

Answer 77

•Mills believed the most powerful organizations in the US in the 1950s exerted great control over individual lives •A few hundred power elites controlled these •Mills saw 3 main types of elites 1.‘Corporate Chieftains’ —CEOs of major corporations 2.‘Political Directorate’ —Officials who command the state hierarchies 3.Warlords’ —Military Generals •Each had enormous agency, able to make decisions affecting millions

Answer 78

•Suggests that the three components of the power elite are intertwined, not autonomous –Status Community—go to same schools, have same friendship networks, have same elite outlooks –Interdependence—all three segments of the elite are interdependent –Transferability—elites from one segment can become elites of another segment •Outcome: Cohesive elite community, able to look out for elite interests –Promotes a social and political oligarchy

Answer 79

•Mills gives a very bleak perspective on the possibility of democracy in the US in the 1950s –People thought they controlled government, but they really didn’t –Power elites run government for elite interests •Mills thought his argument was only relevant for the US in the 1950s •Do you think it still hold for the US? For Canada?

Answer 80

•As the elite power view notes, organizations are a source of enormous power, prevent political equality –Michels: Organizational structure concentrates power –Wright Mills: Major organizations dominate society - what does it mean to have a society dominated by organization •Many, however, think it is overly pessimistic, conspiracy theory •Our readings for Monday by Huber, Rueschemeyer, and Stephens accept the basic claims of Michels and Mills but think they exaggerate greatly –Not as worrisome as Wright Mills and Michels let o

Answer 81

Development and Democracy •Our article summarizes a 400-page book •Book provides case studies of over 30 countries to explore factors affecting democracy •Use minimalist definition of democracy focusing on elections, state responsibility to elected officials, and political rights and liberties •The book recognizes a contradiction between the quantitative and qualitative work on democracy in terms of the impact of capitalist development (which comes up into two different arguments)

Answer 82

Quantitative Literature on Democracy statistical relationship -GDP going up, Democracy going up -authors interested in capitalist development -Places with higher levels of capitalist development usually have a higher level of democracy -need to understand the mechanism Quantitative Continued: Seymour Martin Lipset and Barrington Moore •Lipset and Moore both claim that the relationship between capitalism and democracy is causal –Class-based argument: Propose that capitalism strengthens the middle class (as they are the ones who gain more power and benefit from capitalistic development) •Civil Society: Argument generally focuses on middle class and civil society –Middle class upholds liberal norms of freedom and equality –Middle class is civically active, pursues political inclusion •Moore: “No bourgeoisie, no democracy.”

Answer 83

Qualitative Literature on Democracy •Qualitative work provides detailed case studies of countries, analyzing factors that promote and impede democracy in particular cases •Findings of many studies oppose Lipset and Moore –Find that the bourgeoisie and the middle class are frequently against democracy •Look out for their own interests, opposed to the participation of lower classes •Hardly in favour of “civil” society- lack of “civic norms” –Conclude capitalism doesn’t promote democracy -Empowering the middle class endures/prevent democracy

Answer 84

•Accept aspects of both research traditions –Quantitative: Believe the relationship between capitalism and democracy is too strong to ignore (so capitalism must promote democracy in SOME way) –Qualitative: Believe that the qualitative research provides convincing evidence that the bourgeoisie and the middle class were not the driving force behind democracy •Research Question: What explains the relationship between capitalism and democracy? Robust middle class cant be the answer ?

Answer 85

Power Perspective •Like Dahl, H, R, & S believe that democracy requires a relatively equitable distribution of power –If not, those with power will dominate politics because all opposition is impotent –Don’t need perfect equality for democracy •Believe the major bases of power are (1) the state , (2) the international system (power relations influenced by international power relations), and (3) classes (capitalist development is shaping classes in a systemic way that influences power relations promote democratization) - capitalist development is shaping these bases in a systemic way which influences power relations promote democratization ? –Analyze how capitalism affected all three

Answer 86

State and International Actors •State: No systematic effect based on capitalism –When controlled by dominant classes, used as an instrument to limit democracy, promote elite interests –When not dominated by economic elite, able to support democracy -Nothing they found in analyzing the state about systemic change allowing democracy •International Actors: Can have positive or negative effects on democracy –Negative: Supporting dictators, strengthening elites –Positive: Protect human rights, weaken elites –Capitalism did not affect either systematically

Answer 87

•H, R, & S claim that capitalist development readjusts the power of classes in ways promoting democracy •Landed Elites: Lose power, must give up their control of politics (historically opposed to democratization but what happens to them during capitalist development ? They lose their power) –Boon for democracy •Capitalists/Bourgeoisie: Gain considerable power, but pursue partial democratization –They want power but are fearful of allowing the workers to participate in politics -They promote democracy for themselves, they don’t want to to expand suffrage beyond themselves, they don’t want the lower classes involved in politics -so they were a mixed bag for democracy

Answer 88

The Importance of the Working Class •H, R, & S claim that the working class is key –Capitalism strengthens the working classes •Cohesion: under capitalism, live together in cities, work in close quarters with one another •Organizations: workers formed labour unions and labour-friendly parties to pursue their interests (Unions and parties help to empower the class , they were vital for democratization) •Similarities and Differences with Marx: –Both focus on class conflict and power –Marx thought both cohesion and org. vital to empowering workers –H, R, & S show that this promoted democracy, not revolution

Answer 89

Organization and Democracy •H, R, & S believe Michels and Wright Mills offer important insight but conclude that organizations actually make possible democracy -Organization = basis of power and authoritarian BUT they play an important role in promoting democracy by empowering the lower class •Labor unions and party organizations empower the working class, allow them to push for political incorporation •Yes, these organizations are oligarchic, but . . . –they still look out for the interests of members (unions still looking out for the interest of the workers- which will still promote democratization) –Choice between different unions and parties helps keep organizational elite responsive •Suggests that the Pluralist perspective is important * •Question: What would Michels and Wright Mills say? Who’s interest would be served ?

Answer 90

•Despite only becoming popular relatively recently, civil society is an old concept •Two different origins of civil society, both provide different perspective of what it is –Both linked to liberal philosophy •Liberalism: ideology emphasizing the importance of protecting individual rights and liberties (so they are able to be who they are and act how they want without worrying about others) –Historically, focused on politics, not economics •Two different perspectives influenced by two great thinkers –Locke and de Tocqueville

Answer 91

•John Lock: social contract, suggested that communities willingly came together to form government, vital to its functioning (governments are formed by populations coming together, society is vital for politics, suggests active participating of population) •Suggests that the government will have the same characteristics of the population ( as well as keep looking out for it) –Democracy will work when the population has certain norms that support it –Civil people make for civil government -The king is made up of small individuals

Answer 92

2nd View: Tocquevillian •Alexis de Tocqueville: believed communities were necessary to be counterweight to the state •Societies need to be self-organizing to withstand state power, tame the state and get it to serve their interest -Need for civil society in order to counter the power of the state, need for people to self organize and help to contain the state and get it to serve its interest -Actors controlling the state, preventing it from being too powerful

Answer 93

•Differences: –Locke says government is people, Tocqueville says people restrain government –Locke says it is cultural (civil society is based on the norms, values and understandings) , Tocqueville says structural (involves associations) –Locke focuses on civility, Tocqueville on power (need for civil to contain power) •Similarities: –both views generally believe associations and norms are strongly related •Norms of civility promote associationalism, and associationalism promotes civility –Both view civil society as beneficial

Answer 94

•James McGill Chair of Comparative Historical Sociology at McGill •Political sociologist and prolific scholar –20-some books –Specializes in social theory and social change –Writes on nationalism, states, development, and civil society •We read a chapter he wrote for a book entitled The Importance of Being Civil –Gives his own view of what civil society is

Answer 95

•Hall’s definition of civil society: “a form of societal self-organization that allows for cooperation with the state while permitting individuation” •Societal Self-Organization*: Active associations (civil society allows individuals to organize) •Individuation: refers to the protection of individual rights and freedoms (if not present, cant organize. Important to be allowed to be yourself, to express yourself freely) –Why there’s a link between civil society and fashion •Civility: Individuation requires civility –“recognition of difference and diversity” •Cooperation with the State: Civil society can’t be at war with the state, must work with it (so that it allows individuals to self-organize, need for a system of rules favourable towards democracy ) –Depends on certain type of state, state-society relations -Civil society allows democracy to work but at the same time, without democracy, there is no freedom within society for people to self organize. Dependent on politics not only influences it.

Answer 96

•Hall suggests civil society is rare and only develops in particular circumstances •Thinks the only place where it developed on its own was Western Europe –Three main reasons •(1) Religion: Religions can’t be too powerful or they organize society –Don’t allow for its self-organization –Limit individuation Religion enforces its doctrine and model, promoting conformity and eliminates the ability of indication and self- organization •(2) State: Civil society requires states, but the states cannot be too powerful (they want to keep the power for themselves, monopolize power ) –States needed to provide a rule of law, protect rights and liberties –States that are too powerful and authoritarian don’t allow for the self-organization of society -Under what kind of conditions would the state be able to allows self-organization ? •(3) Economy: Capitalism promoted civil society –Weakened traditional forms of control, privilege –Provided resources* –Helped limit power of state and religion (counterweight)

Answer 97

•A confluence of factors contribute to its rise •Religion: Christianity commonly opposed theocracy –Teachings of Jesus opposed to theocracy (which prevented it in some cases compared to other religions) –Reformation promoted religious diversity (helped to weakened the power of catabolism and the power of religion over peoples lives) –Protestantism emphasized individualism (access to god was individual, no pope.. etc) *protestantism areas saw themselves grow the first vibrant civil societies •State: Feudalism created openings for societal organization in cities (claiming lands outside state control, pockets in which actors not under the control of the elites or the state) , especially in Northern Europe (since the state usually wants to monopolize power, something has to happen for the state to let self-organization) –Rule by law strengthened in these areas (emerge of legal systems that protect the right and freedoms of individuals) –Promoted greater social autonomy *free cities saw themselves grow the first vibrant civil societies •Capitalism: Rose in Western Europe and strengthened non-state actors ( strengthened the urbanites and gave them power, allowing them to demand certain types of concessions) *Tilly argued that warfare AND capitalism allowed the formation of states -Concessions transformed the state in terms of rights and liberties and protection now exchanged instead of the Mafia state

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