Liberalism Flashcards
(161 cards)
1
Q
Describe the liberal view of human nature.
A
Liberalism holds an optimistic view of human nature, believing that humans are good and rational, capable of progress and greater happiness. It emphasizes egotistical individualism, where individuals seek self-realization, self-determination, and self-fulfillment, and it is associated with classical liberals.
2
Q
How should power be limited according to the social contract theory?
A
Power should be limited by the preconditions of government, which are the terms on which the governed initially gave consent as part of the original social contract.
3
Q
What role do procedures and methods of government play in the social contract?
A
Procedures and methods of government should be rationally agreed upon when the social contract is being reached.
4
Q
What is Wollstonecraft’s view on society and women’s individualism?
A
Wollstonecraft argues that existing society infantilizes women and stifles female individualism, criticizing it for failing to recognize the rights of women.
5
Q
What does Wollstonecraft advocate for in terms of education for women?
A
Wollstonecraft argues that women should be given equal access to education to develop their powers of reason and achieve formal equality, benefiting society from the talents of women.
6
Q
How does Wollstonecraft view the relationship between women’s liberation and the economy?
A
Wollstonecraft believes that a free-market economy would be energized by the enterprise of liberated women.
7
Q
What historical context influenced Wollstonecraft’s writings?
A
Wollstonecraft wrote at a time when women lacked basic political rights, such as the right to vote, regardless of their wealth or class, shortly after the French Revolution.
8
Q
What is the significance of Thomas Hill Green’s ‘Lectures on the Principles of Political Obligation’ (1895)?
A
It changed the approach of liberalism towards the state, emphasizing positive freedom.
9
Q
How does Green define freedom?
A
Freedom is the individual’s ability to rise above narrow concerns of self-interest to contribute to the common good of society by making the very best of their own unique talents.
10
Q
What is required for achieving positive freedom according to Green?
A
Positive freedom can only be achieved by removing hereditary privilege and tackling poverty within a capitalist society.
11
Q
What was the main focus of Rawls’ ‘A Theory of Justice’ (1971)?
A
Rawls tried to resolve the problem of balancing freedom and equality.
12
Q
What is the foundational equality concept reaffirmed by Rawls?
A
Rawls reaffirmed the liberal idea of foundational equality, arguing that everyone should have equal rights and basic liberties.
13
Q
What is the equal opportunity principle according to Rawls?
A
The equal opportunity principle states that inequalities should only exist if attached to offices/positions open to all under conditions of fair equality of opportunity; it would support positive discrimination.
14
Q
How does Rawls view human nature?
A
Rawls believes that mankind is selfish yet empathetic, valuing both individual liberty and the plight of others, with a capacity for toleration and mutual respect, alongside a desire to improve the living standards of the poorest and reduce wealth inequality.
15
Q
What is Friedan’s view on the economy in relation to female emancipation?
A
Friedan believes that free-market capitalism could be an ally of female emancipation if allied to legislation precluding sexual discrimination.
16
Q
Explain the concept of egotistical individualism in liberalism.
A
Egotistical individualism in liberalism refers to the belief that individuals have natural rights, such as life and liberty, and are driven by a desire for self-realization, self-determination, and self-fulfillment.
17
Q
How does liberalism view the rationality of human behavior?
A
Liberalism acknowledges that while human behavior may be egotistical, it is also rational. Critics argue that this rationality can lead to conflict, but liberals believe that humans possess enough self-respect to avoid disrespecting others.
18
Q
Define progressive human nature according to liberalism.
A
Progressive human nature in liberalism suggests that human nature is not fixed but develops over time through greater knowledge, improved understanding, and better education, linking to the doctrine of utility where humans seek to maximize pleasure and avoid pain.
19
Q
What is the liberal stance on the concept of Original Sin?
A
Liberalism rejects the idea of Original Sin, which posits that humanity is inherently flawed. Instead, it believes that human nature is not inherently bad and has the capacity to effect progress and increase happiness.
20
Q
Describe the liberal view of society.
A
Liberalism views society as having natural laws and rights that precede the state, emphasizing that the main purpose of society is to facilitate individualism and freedom, allowing individuals to maximize self-reliance and self-fulfillment.
21
Q
Explain the significance of property in liberal thought.
A
In liberalism, property is considered important as it is seen as a tangible expression of an individual within society, reflecting their unique personality and talents.
22
Q
How does John Stuart Mill contribute to the liberal view of society?
A
John Stuart Mill argues that the main purpose of society is to facilitate individualism, where freedom means being free from dependency on others and living in a way that maximizes self-reliance and self-fulfillment.
23
Q
What is the liberal perspective on societies that deny individualism?
A
Liberalism posits that any society that seeks to deny individualism is dysfunctional, as the default setting of any society should focus on individual freedom.
24
Q
Describe the rejection of anarchism in the context of state existence.
A
Anarchism is rejected on the grounds that self-realization, self-determination, and self-fulfillment are best served by the existence of a state, which provides safeguards to protect individualism.
25
Explain the conditions under which a state must operate according to early liberal thinkers.
A state must meet certain conditions to ensure that individuals are not left worse off than they were in a state of nature.
26
Define the concept of a contractual state as proposed by Locke.
A contractual state is one where the government derives its legitimacy from the consent of the governed, meaning that citizens must agree to the authority of the state.
27
How do early liberals view traditional states and their legitimacy?
Early liberals, like Locke, reject traditional states based on divine right, monarchical absolutism, and hereditary power, arguing that such states are illegitimate and likely to disrespect natural rights.
28
What is the significance of the American Declaration of Independence in relation to state legitimacy?
The American Declaration of Independence asserts that citizens have the right to declare a state illegitimate if it becomes tyrannical, emphasizing the liberal principle that government must serve the people.
29
Explain the promotion of natural rights in liberalism.
Liberalism aims to improve upon the rights individuals enjoyed in a state of nature, as highlighted in documents like the US Constitution, which states that all men are created equal and endowed with unalienable rights.
30
Describe the concept of equal opportunities and unequal outcomes in liberal thought.
Liberalism advocates for individuals to be treated equally and have access to equal opportunities for self-fulfillment, while acknowledging that inequality of outcome is an inevitable and desirable consequence of individual diversity.
31
How do T.H. Green and John Rawls view the role of the state in relation to individual liberty?
T.H. Green and John Rawls argue that the state must evolve to counter new threats to individual liberty, ensuring that individuals can achieve their potential.
32
What role does education play in promoting tolerance according to classical and modern liberals?
Classical liberal John Stuart Mill emphasizes the importance of education in fostering tolerance, while modern liberal T.H. Green argues that only the state can ensure the universal education necessary for this goal.
33
Explain the views of Betty Friedan on the state's role in promoting tolerance.
Betty Friedan believes that the state's role should extend to illegalizing racial and sexual discrimination, promoting a more tolerant society through bureaucratic agencies with educational functions eg UK’s Equality and Human Right Commission.
34
Describe the conditions and procedures that are enshrined in a constitution.
They are constructed after rational discussion among architects, such as those at the Philadelphia Convention in 1787, and should include formalized equality, granting the same legal and political rights to all individuals.
35
Explain the concept of a fragmented state as proposed by Locke.
Locke's concept of a fragmented state is a reaction to pre-Enlightenment states where power was concentrated in a monarchy. He believed that power is more likely to be used wisely if it is shared evenly among the populace.
36
How does Locke's view on the fragmented state reflect on human nature regarding governance?
Locke's optimistic view of human nature suggests that it is reasonable to empower as many people as possible in governance.
37
Define a representative state according to Locke's beliefs.
A representative state is one where the power derived from the citizens, and the state should be representative of the citizens it serves, allowing for rational discussion and accountability.
38
What sparked the revolt of American colonists in the 1770s?
The revolt was sparked by a lack of representativeness in governance, leading to demands for a government that reflects the interests of its citizens.
39
Explain Friedan's perspective on the role of legislatures in a representative state.
Friedan rejected a paternalistic state, arguing that legislatures must respect and articulate the interests of citizens.
40
Describe the characteristics of a meritocratic state.
A meritocratic state should be governed by individuals who have earned their authority rather than inherited it, as exemplified by the French Revolution's overthrow of nobility in the 1790s.
41
Discuss the principles of a democratic state as understood by classical liberals.
Classical liberals like Locke and Mill believed in the inherent equality of individuals and that government should involve the consent of the governed, though they had reservations about universal adult suffrage.
42
What concerns did Locke have regarding voting rights?
Locke disapproved of granting voting rights to those without property, fearing it would threaten the natural rights of property owners.
43
How did Mill view the implications of voting rights for the uneducated?
Mill was concerned that granting votes to the uneducated could lead to a lack of tolerance towards minority viewpoints, erosion of individuality, and a society that stifles brilliance.
44
What is the modern liberal perspective on democracy as articulated by Friedan and Rawls?
Modern liberals stress the importance of representative democracy to prevent the tyranny of the majority.
45
Explain the concept of judicial supremacy in governance.
Judicial supremacy involves dispersed power that includes supreme courts and unelected judges, who may veto policies of elected governments if they conflict with the state's Bill of Rights.
46
What are natural rights and their significance in governance?
Natural rights are considered sacrosanct and cannot be threatened; they are fundamental to the protection of individual freedoms and liberties, so there is judicial supremacy to protect individuals against overbearing governance.
47
Discuss the concerns regarding parliamentary sovereignty.
There is a wariness that parliamentary sovereignty could lead to the legitimization of illiberal ideas, such as the persecution of minority groups and the establishment of an elective dictatorship.
48
What is the liberal view on private property?
Liberals defend private property as a natural right that predates the existence of any state, with Locke arguing it is essential for individualism and Mill supporting its facilitation of personal freedom.
49
Describe the role of individualism in liberal thought.
Individualism is defended by liberals on the grounds that individual wealth and economic success will eventually trickle down to benefit society, and is consistent with Mill's view that unequal outcomes can be justified in a meritocratic society.
50
Explain Adam Smith's contribution to liberal economic thought.
Adam Smith extolled free trade and free markets, linking liberalism to private enterprise and ownership of the economy, and believed that removing obstacles to free trade would enrich individuals and nations.
51
How does John Locke's view of the state of nature inform his political philosophy?
Locke believed that in the state of nature, humans are free, equal, and independent, bound by the law of nature, and that rational individuals would enter a social contract to form a state to resolve clashes of interests and protect their natural rights.
52
Define the concept of the social contract as proposed by John Locke.
The social contract is an agreement among individuals to form a state to resolve conflicts and protect their natural rights, created by the consent of the people, which can be withdrawn if the government fails to uphold its responsibilities.
53
Explain the significance of constitutionalism in Locke's political theory.
Constitutionalism is significant in Locke's theory as it establishes a clear separation of powers to prevent the abuse of power and ensures that the state represents the will of property-owning individuals.
54
Discuss the implications of Rawls' view on inequality in liberalism.
Rawls argued that liberals should only defend economic inequality if it is accompanied by equality of opportunity, emphasizing the need for fairness in the distribution of resources.
55
How did 19th and 20th-century thinkers differ in their views on capitalism?
19th-century thinkers like Mill advocated for laissez-faire capitalism, while mid to late 20th-century thinkers like Rawls supported Keynesian approaches, reflecting a shift in the understanding of economic systems.
56
What is the relationship between human nature and liberalism according to John Locke?
Locke viewed human beings as rational and guided by self-interest, yet mindful of others' concerns, asserting that they are naturally free, equal, and independent, not naturally subject to any authority.
57
Describe the liberal perspective on the defense of capitalism.
Liberals defend capitalism by linking it to individual freedom and economic success, arguing that free markets lead to prosperity for both individuals and nations.
58
Explain the concept of 'trickle-down' economics in liberal thought.
Trickle-down economics is the idea that individual wealth and economic success will eventually benefit society as a whole, a concept often endorsed by liberals to justify economic inequality.
59
Describe the role of the state according to Locke.
The state must be representative and based on the consent of the governed, limited to prevent the emergence of a tyrannical government that could infringe upon natural rights. It can be constrained by constitutionalism and fragmented government.
60
Explain the relationship between society and the state according to Locke..
Society predates the state and is characterized by natural laws and rights, such as life, liberty, and possessions. It is suggested that no one should harm another's natural rights, and there should be some religious toleration since religion is considered a private matter.
61
How should the economy be structured according to Locke?
State policy should respect the natural right to private property and effectively arbitrate between individuals competing for trade and resources.
62
What historical context influenced the publication of 'Two Treatises of Government' (1690)'?
The publication occurred during a time when most of Europe was ruled by absolute monarchies that rejected the idea of a contract between the ruler and the ruled, shortly after the Glorious Revolution, which embodied some of Locke's key principles.
63
Define the significance of the Glorious Revolution in relation to Locke's ideas.
The Glorious Revolution represented a pivotal moment that embodied Locke's belief in the necessity of removing regimes that threatened natural rights.
64
What was Locke's stance on religious toleration as expressed in 'A Letter Concerning Toleration'?
Locke advocated for religious toleration but excluded Roman Catholics, associating Catholicism with royal absolutism, particularly in France.
65
Summarize the main argument of Mary Wollstonecraft in 'A Vindication on the Rights of Woman' (1792).
Wollstonecraft argued for gender equality, emphasizing the need for formal equality for women, including rights to property, education, and voting, to ensure freedom and individualism.
66
How did Wollstonecraft view human nature in relation to women?
She held an optimistic view of human nature, believing that humanity is rational, but argued that existing societal structures promoted the idea that women were not rational due to a lack of formal equality.
67
What rights did Wollstonecraft advocate for women to promote their freedom?
She advocated for the right to property, education, divorce, and protection against domestic violence, arguing that these rights would allow women to avoid marrying out of financial necessity.
68
Explain Wollstonecraft's perspective on formal equality for women.
Wollstonecraft believed that formal equality for women would enhance the resources of intellect, wisdom, and morality, thereby enabling social and economic progress.
69
What was Wollstonecraft's view on the divine right of kings?
She opposed the customs and traditions that supported the divine right of kings, arguing that such laws were irrational, oppressive, and ignorant.
70
Describe Wollstonecraft's vision for government.
She argued for republicanism, formal equality for all, and constitutional protection of individual rights.
71
How did Wollstonecraft compare women to enslaved people?
She compared women to enslaved individuals, and rejected the societal view that women should be defined by their looks.
72
What does Wollstonecraft suggest about the rationalism of human nature?
She suggests that rationalism defines both genders, indicating that while men and women may be intellectually different, liberal views about human nature and potential should be applied to women as well.
73
What change did Wollstonecraft propose for the monarchical state?
She proposed that the monarchical state should be replaced by a republic that enshrines equality between men and women, and individual rights.
74
Describe John Stuart Mill's contribution to liberalism.
John Stuart Mill served as a bridge between classical and modern liberalism, particularly through his work 'On Liberty' published in 1859.
75
Explain the concept of negative freedom as developed by John Stuart Mill.
Negative freedom refers to the absence of restraint, allowing individuals to pursue their own view of the good life.
76
How does Mill justify laws in relation to individual freedom?
Laws are justified only in preventing harm to the freedom of others, not in regulating actions to protect an individual's own good.
77
Define the role of liberty according to John Stuart Mill.
Liberty is more than a natural right; it is essential for the ongoing development and learning of the individual, focusing on potential rather than current state.
78
What is the significance of individuality in Mill's philosophy?
Individuality and liberty is seen as a driver of progress, enabling diversity that fosters reasoned debate and societal advancement.
79
Explain Mill's view on eccentricity.
Mill viewed eccentricity positively, considering it an extension of individuality that contributes to societal progress.
80
Describe the importance of education in Mill's philosophy.
Education is crucial for distinguishing between lower and higher pleasures of the mind, and the state should facilitate the improvement of minds.
81
What is the harm principle in Mill's political philosophy?
The harm principle states that the government should only intervene to protect the liberties and freedoms of individuals when necessary.
82
How does Mill view representative democracy?
Mill is skeptical that representative democracy could lead to tyranny of the majority, especially without a well-educated electorate.
83
What does Mill propose for a well-functioning democracy?
He advocates for an educated electorate that chooses well-educated representatives to create broad consensus rather than strictly following the will of the majority.
84
Discuss Mill's perspective on human nature.
Mill believes human nature is rational but not fixed; it is constantly progressing to higher levels of understanding and capability.
85
What caution does Mill advise regarding the state and democracy?
The state should proceed cautiously with representative democracy, being mindful of minority rights and only intervening to protect individual freedoms. The state should tolerate all ideas and actions unless they violate the harm principle.
86
Define the ideal society according to Mill.
The best society is one where individuality coexists with tolerance and self-betterment, promoting individualism as humans are inherently freedom-seeking. He believed that competition between ideas will sharpen and refine good ideas.
87
Explain Mill's view on the economy.
Mill advocates for laissez-faire capitalism as vital to progress, emphasizing individual enterprise and initiative.
88
What historical context influenced Mill's writings?
Mill wrote during a time when Britain was beginning its journey towards a democratic state, particularly with the passage of the Second Reform Act in 1867.
89
Describe the role of the state in addressing poverty and inequality according to Green.
The state should take a positive role by freeing the poor from ignorance, disease, poor quality housing, and exploitation, actively eliminating obstacles to individual liberty.
90
Explain how human nature influences the need for state intervention according to Green.
Humans are guided mainly by reason, but their reasoning is affected by social and economic circumstances, necessitating state intervention to tackle inequality and allow individuals to flourish.
91
Define the concept of 'justice as fairness' proposed by John Rawls.
Justice as fairness is the principle that everyone in society would agree on if they assessed society from a position of ignorance, balancing freedom and equality.
92
How did industrialization alter society's view of freedom according to Green?
Industrialization fundamentally altered society, requiring a reappraisal of freedom in the context of new social and economic realities.
93
Discuss the impact of the free-market economy on individualism and equality of opportunity according to Green.
While a free-market economy is conducive to individualism, it can threaten equality of opportunity, leading to disparities in wealth and access.
94
What was John Rawls' thought experiment involving the 'veil of ignorance'?
Rawls proposed that individuals should imagine which society they would want to live in without knowing their position in that society, leading to a preference for a more equal society. He argued that avoiding poverty is a more powerful motivation than the desire for wealth.
95
Explain the significance of the difference principle in Rawls' theory.
The difference principle states that inequalities of wealth are legitimate as they incentivize people to work harder but only so long as they raise income and wealth of the least well-off, balancing the need for motivation with the goal of social equality.
96
How did the Industrial Revolution affect perceptions of poverty in Britain?
The Industrial Revolution caused profound social and economic changes, revealing the failures of largely unregulated capitalism and the small state in addressing poverty.
97
What are the essential services the state should provide to enable individual potential?
The state should provide education, public housing, and public healthcare to remove poverty and enable individuals to achieve their full potential.
98
Discuss the relationship between individual growth and societal conditions.
Individuals can only grow and flourish in a society where everyone has the opportunity to grow and flourish, highlighting the social dimension of human nature.
99
Describe the role of the state in promoting social justice and equality of opportunity according to Rawls.
The state should enable less fortunate individuals to advance through public spending and public services, ensuring social justice and equality of opportunity for all.
100
Explain the preferred societal outcome regarding inequality according to Rawls.
The preferred society allows for unequal outcomes, provided that the conditions of the poorest individuals improve.
101
Define the relationship between free-market capitalism and state intervention according to Rawls.
Free-market capitalism should be tempered by the state's obligation to advance the poorest citizens.
102
How did the context of Cold War America influence views on the American Dream for Rawls?
During Cold War America, the American Dream was out of reach for many, leading Rawls, like Green, to advocate for a capitalist society that enabled the poorest to have true equality of opportunity through a more active state.
103
What is the central theme of Betty Friedan's 'The Feminine Mystique'?
The central theme is that the idea of women finding satisfaction solely in roles as wives and mothers leaves them feeling miserable and empty.
104
Discuss the impact of traditional roles on women's development according to Friedan.
Friedan argues that women who are primarily mothers or wives have limited time for careers, which restricts their development and potential.
105
What principle did second-wave feminists emphasize regarding women's choices?
The key principle was that women should have the ability to maximize their choices, similar to men, allowing them to pursue careers and personal fulfillment.
106
How does Friedan suggest women can achieve personal fulfillment?
Friedan suggests that women can achieve personal fulfillment through good education and productive work outside the home, supported by formal equality and practical help from the state, but also required shifts in attitude.
107
What changes does Friedan advocate for in 'The Second Stage'?
Friedan advocates for changes in values, social institutions, and leadership styles to allow all individuals to achieve personal fulfillment.
108
What organization did Betty Friedan help to found, and what was its inspiration?
Betty Friedan was a founder of the National Organization for Women (NOW) in 1966, which modeled itself on the black civil rights movement and the NAACP.
109
How should the state address gender inequality according to Friedan?
The state should not only grant formal equality but also actively intervene to tackle gender inequality and ensure equality of opportunity.
110
What specific support does Friedan advocate for single, divorced, or widowed mothers?
Friedan supports granting state benefits to single, divorced, or widowed mothers to help address gender inequality.
111
What are Friedan's views on women's access to reproductive rights?
Friedan was a strong supporter of women's access to birth control and abortion rights.
112
How does Friedan view human nature in relation to gender inequality?
Friedan believes that human nature has evolved in a way that discourages self-advancement among women, contributing to gender inequality and hindering women's happiness.
113
What legislative actions does Friedan believe the state should take regarding discrimination against women?
Friedan believes the state should legislate to prevent continued discrimination against women.
114
Describe the societal attitudes towards women that Friedan identifies.
Friedan identifies that society remains chauvinistic towards women, with women sometimes complicit in their own repression.
115
What proactive measures does Friedan suggest for the state and society regarding women's rights?
Friedan suggests that both the state and society should be more proactive in ensuring equality and addressing gender inequality.
116
Describe the central beliefs of classical liberalism as revived by neo-liberals.
Neo-liberals like Hayek and think-tanks such as the Adam Smith Institute have updated the central beliefs of liberalism since the mid-20th century.
117
Explain the revolutionary implications of government by consent in classical liberal thought.
The concept of government by consent suggests that the state should not dominate the people, rejecting the divine right of kings and monarchical absolutism, which necessitated revolutions like the Glorious Revolution and the American revolt.
118
How did Locke's philosophy influence the Glorious Revolution and the American Revolution?
Locke's philosophy was associated with the Glorious Revolution of 1688, which established constitutional government in England, and inspired the American revolt against British rule in 1775.
119
Define negative liberty according to Mill's view.
Negative liberty reflects Mill's belief that freedom means individuals should be left alone to determine their own destiny, and any interference is an infringement on their natural right to freedom unless it harms others.
120
What is the stance of classical liberalism on government intervention in the economy?
Classical liberalism, particularly through Smith's ideas, advocates for laissez-faire capitalism, suggesting that state intervention should be minimal to allow market forces to flourish naturally.
121
Explain the ambivalence of liberal thinkers towards democracy.
Liberal thinkers like Locke and the US Founding Fathers believed the right to vote should be limited to property owners, while Mill and Bentham thought democracy could enhance human capacities, advocating for universal education before universal suffrage.
122
Describe the views of Mill regarding education and suffrage.
Mill believed that universal education should precede universal suffrage, as mass education would ensure liberal outcomes and informed voting.
123
How did the socioeconomic context influence the evolution of modern liberalism?
The socioeconomic context, particularly changes brought by the Industrial Revolution, necessitated changes in modern liberalism, leading to contradictions with natural rights.
124
Identify key figures associated with modern liberalism.
Key figures associated with modern liberalism include Green, Friedan, Rawls, Lloyd George, FDR, Keynes, and the authors of the Beveridge Report.
125
What is the significance of laissez-faire capitalism in liberal economic thought?
Laissez-faire capitalism is significant in liberal economic thought as it emphasizes the limitless capacity of capitalism to enrich individuals and society, advocating for the end of tariffs and economic protectionism.
126
Describe the concept of an enabling state according to Rawls.
An enabling state is one that helps individuals overcome socioeconomic threats to freedom, advocating for a larger government with more laws, state spending, and taxation, as exemplified by the UK's post-war welfare state.
127
Explain the neo-liberal perspective on state intervention.
Neo-liberals, like Hayek, view the expansion of the state as 'socialism in disguise' and argue against increased government intervention in the economy.
128
How does Rawls justify the need for an enlarged state?
Rawls argues that an enlarged state can create equality of opportunity necessary for individual freedom, and that people are rational enough to understand the need for taxation.
129
Define Keynesian capitalism and its implications for state intervention.
Keynesian capitalism advocates for greater state intervention in the market economy, suggesting that minimal intervention can lead to mass unemployment and threats to freedom, such as fascism or communism.
130
What is the relationship between state spending and taxation in Keynesian economics according to Rawls?
Rawls posits that the expansion of state spending in a Keynesian framework needs to be financed by taxation.
131
Discuss the limitations of Keynesianism as noted in the content.
It is considered naive to assume that Keynesianism would prevent a return to recession, as evidenced by the UK's economic challenges in the 1970s.
132
Explain the connection between the extension of the state and democracy.
The extension of the state is linked to the extension of democracy, as seen in the efforts to secure consent and promote universal adult suffrage.
133
What role did Lloyd George play in the enfranchisement of women in the UK?
Liberal Prime Minister Lloyd George oversaw the start of enfranchisement for women in 1918, marking a significant step in extending democracy.
134
Describe the changes made by liberal UK parties regarding voting and Parliament.
Liberal UK parties have reduced the voting age, democratized Parliament through elective House of Lords, and established elected devolved governments.
135
What is the stance of liberal democracy on direct democracy and referendums?
Liberal democracy shows little interest in direct democracy or referendums, favoring limited representative democracy, as seen in the backing of the UK Human Rights Act.
136
How does the Brexit referendum relate to Mill's concept of tyranny of the majority?
The Brexit referendum is cited as an example of Mill's tyranny of the majority, highlighting concerns about majority rule potentially undermining minority rights.
137
Define social liberalism and its focus on tolerance.
Social liberalism updates classical liberalism by emphasizing greater sexual and racial toleration, advocating for equality of opportunity regardless of essentialist factors.
138
What legislative actions are associated with social liberalism in the USA and UK?
Social liberalism is reflected in the USA’s Equal Employment Opportunity Commission and the UK’s Race Relations Acts of 1965, 1968, 1976, and the Marriage Act of 2013.
139
How does social liberalism align with the original aims of the liberal state?
Social liberalism is consistent with the original aim of the liberal state, which is the promotion of tolerance and equal opportunity.
140
What are the areas of agreement among liberals regarding human nature?
All liberals agree that individuals are rational, intelligent, eager to pursue their own happiness, and deserving of respect.
141
Discuss the importance of individualism in liberal thought.
Individualism is crucial in liberal thought, emphasizing the need to protect and promote individual rights and toleration of diverse values and beliefs.
142
Contrast the views of classical liberals like Locke on human nature.
Classical liberals, such as Locke, believe that people are innately blessed with qualities that allow them to develop best when free to pursue their own happiness.
143
Describe the view of modern liberals on rationalism and individualism.
Modern liberals build on Mill’s view that rationalism needs to be developed and that individualism reflects what humans can become, particularly through education.
144
Explain Green's perspective on human nature and freedom.
Green saw human nature as having a clear social dimension, arguing that freedom is achieved by working towards the common good, which provides a basis for the state to enable individuals to help themselves through equality of opportunity.
145
Define the approach of feminist and modern liberals towards gender equality.
Feminist and modern liberals apply the same levels of rationality to both men and women, with early liberals like Locke also concerned with gender equality.
146
How do classical and modern liberals differ in their views on society's structure?
Classical liberals stress that a natural society existed before the state, characterized by peace and individual autonomy, while modern liberals see industrial societies as restricting individual freedom, leading to support for social justice.
147
Explain the areas of agreement among liberals regarding society.
All liberals agree that there are prearranged rules in the state of nature, reflecting the belief in humankind as innately social, and that society should be arranged to allow individuals to flourish and achieve self-fulfillment.
148
What is the classical liberal view on the role of the state?
Classical liberals argue that the state should have a night-watchman role, justified by negative freedom, intervening only to prevent harm to others, allowing individuals to pursue their own version of the good life.
149
Describe the modern liberal perspective on the state's role in society.
Modern liberals advocate for an enabling state, where greater intervention is necessary to promote individual freedom and support social justice.
150
How do neo-liberals view the impact of the state on individualism?
Neo-liberals argue that an enabling state has unjustly reduced liberty and created a dependency culture, which limits individualism.
151
What do all liberals stress about individualism and freedom in society?
All liberals stress the importance of individualism and freedom, asserting that society should be structured to allow individuals to flourish and achieve their own self-fulfillment.
152
Explain the concept of constitutionalism in relation to the state.
The state should be limited by constitutionalism, which includes the fragmentation of power, formal equality for citizens, and adherence to the rule of law.
153
Describe the modern liberal perspective on democracy.
Modern liberals favor representative democracy with universal suffrage and strong constitutional limits, but they are concerned that democracy may lead to the tyranny of the majority. They view education as crucial for the wise use of the ballot.
154
Explain the economic beliefs of modern liberals regarding property.
Modern liberals emphasize the right to own property and advocate for an economy based on private property as the best route to creating wealth. They see property as essential to freedom and as a means of protecting individuals from the state.
155
How do classical liberals and neo-liberals view the role of the state in the economy?
Classical liberals and neo-liberals believe that the state's only role is to protect property and enforce contracts, arguing that markets should guide rational individuals. They support laissez-faire capitalism, advocating for free trade without taxes or regulations.
156
What is the modern liberal stance on state intervention in the economy?
Modern liberals argue that the state is justified in intervening in the economy through taxation and public spending to manage capitalism, ensuring full employment for all.
157
Define neo-liberalism in the context of modern liberalism.
Neo-liberalism is an update of classic liberalism that applies the ideas of thinkers like Smith and Jefferson to a modern, globalized society. It is critical of modern liberalism, accusing it of betraying the individual and aims to reduce the role of the state and public services.
158
Explain the criticism that Hayek had towards the Beveridge Report.
Hayek criticized the Beveridge Report and the extension of the state, arguing against the expansion of public services and advocating for a reduced role of the state in favor of negative liberty.
159
Do modern liberals support Keynesian capitalism?
Yes, modern liberals, like Rawls, have more sympathy for Keynesian capitalism compared to classical liberals and neo-liberals who support laissez-faire capitalism.
160
What is the relationship between full employment and personal liberty according to modern liberals?
Modern liberals argue that full employment provides the necessary wealth to reduce poverty, allowing everyone the freedom to choose their own version of the good life, while maintaining that the means of production should remain in the hands of private companies.
161
What is the principle regarding the exercise of power in governance?
Power should not be exercised in an arbitrary or unlimited way.
