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0
Q

Plasma membrane

A

Outer surface of every cell, more or less same structure in every cell

Phospholipid bilayer with proteins and other molecules imbedded

Oily fluid in which proteins and lipids are in constant motion

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1
Q

Immunization

A

Series of shots

MMR- immunization shot against meals, mumps, rubella

Small quantity of pathogens to build immune response, memory cells to speed up recovery next time

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2
Q

B lymphocytes

A

Transform into plasma cells and release antibodies into the circulation, which are proteins that tag the pathogens to signal the immune cells to destroy it

Form memory cells- every pathogen has specific surface receptors (signature), they can remember for next time how to fight the infection

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3
Q

Parts of the respiratory system

A

Nasal/oral cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, primary/secondary/tertiary bronchus, bronchioles (if you don’t need a lot of oxygen bronchioles are slightly constricted), alveoli (site of exchange)

All made of cartilage up to the trachea

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4
Q

trophoblast

A
  •   In mammals, the first extraembryonic membrane to form is the trophoblast.
  •   When the blastocyst hatches from the zona pellucida, the trophoblast cells attach to the uterine wall, This is the beginning of implantation.
  •   The trophoblast becomes part of the uterine wall, and sends out villi to increase surface area and contact with maternal blood.
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5
Q

Capillaries

A

Smallest diameter blood vessels

Made of endothelial layer only (tunica intima)

Have slits- Slits facilitate movement and exhange of materials between cells

They are the site of exchange with cells

Lowest velocity, delivering nutrients at slow speed

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6
Q

placenta

A

organ of exchange of nutrients and waste products between the embryo’s and the mother’s blood

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7
Q

Antenna systems

A

Pigments arranged in these

Also called light harvesting complexes

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8
Q

Glycoproteins

A

Carbohydrate and protein

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9
Q

Control of breathing

A

Voluntary until it becomes physiologically dangerous, your brain will force you to breathe.

•  Inspiration is initiated by stimulating the respiratory muscles
–  Diaphragm and external intercostals

•  The stimulation is initiated in the medullary centers and the pons

Medulla oblongata sends signal to spinal cord, phrenic nerve sends action potential to diaphragm. 100% controlled by brain unless you voluntarily change it, stimulation always occurring. Neurons called central patter generator, send action potentials then they stop, perfectly synced on/off mechanism

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10
Q

Glyoxisomes

A

Structurally similar organelles found in plants that convert lipids to carbs (fats to sugars)

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11
Q

Chemoreceptors

A

Homeostatic mechanism: Chemoreceptors constantly measuring level of oxygen and co2, send signal through sensory nerve fibers

Need increased inspiration during exercise, or if holding breath (decrease oxygen availability and increase co2 availability)

•  Peripheral
–  Carotid bodies
–  Aortic bodies

•  Central- within nervous system, medulla oblongata

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12
Q

How do gases cross the lung/bloodmedia?

A

Process of diffusion.

Alveoli made of single layered cells, blood capillaries only have tunica intima and some connective tissue, so very thin, and easy process of diffusion

Both the capillaries and the alveoli are lined with simple squamous epithelium

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13
Q

Action spectrum

A

Plot of biological activity as a function of exposure to varied wavelengths of light

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14
Q

Barriers to infection

A

Physical barriers

Chemical barriers

Reflexes

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15
Q

Brocca’s aphasia

A

Can understand but cannot speak

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16
Q

Light reactions

A

Convert light energy to chemical energy as ATP and NADH

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17
Q

Physical barriers

A

Skin- brick layers of cells, most pathogens can’t get through it, also produces a hard and fibrous protein called keratin. The closest layer to the surface has the highest amount of keratin- the outermost layer of skin is dead, it produced too much keratin to function

Fibrous layer of the eyes

Mucous membrane of the respiratory, digestive, urinary, and reproductive systems, and ear- thick membrane that prevents pathogens from getting into the circulation

Cilia

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18
Q

Inspiration

A

Diaphragm- Lungs physically sit on diaphragm, main muscle for respiration, pushes down during inspiration

External intercostal muscles- contact and push down

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19
Q

Neutrophils

A

Most abundant phagocytic cells

Release:
Cytokines- alarming chemicals to alarm other immune cells
Vasodilators- increases size of blood cells, Make blood vessel bigger so immune cells can travel
Chemotaxins- chemo attractants, attract other immune cells, travel in blood vessels and squeeze out of them, can get anywhere in the body

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20
Q

Right and left ventricle

A

pumping chambers, physically contracting to make the blood exit (simultaneously in both circuits)

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21
Q

Thermoreceptors

A

Skin/organs, measure temperature

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22
Q

Photophosphorylation

A

Light driven production of ATP

H+ transported via electron carriers across the thylakoid membrane from the stroma into the lumen, creating an electrochemical gradient

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23
Q

Light

A

A form of electromagnetic radiation

Propagated as waves, energy of light is inversely proportional to wavelength (must be appropriate wavelength to be absorbed by receptive molecules

Light also behaves as particles called photons, plants absorb these

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24
Nucleoplasm
Surrounds the chromatin
25
Functions of the Respiratory System
*   Provides oxygen *   Eliminates carbon dioxide *   Regulates pH level- More co2 you get rid of the more hydrogen ions you get rid of *   Speech production *   Defense against foreign bodies- non specific immunity
26
Dunedin
Microtubules cross linked by the spokes of this motor protein Changes shape when energy is released from ATP, move vesicles toward minus end
27
Carbs can be modified by the addition of functional groups
``` Sugar phosphate (can make fructose biphosphate, intermediate compound in biochemical pathways) Amino sugars (glucosamine, major component of cartilage) Chitin ( insect and crustacean skeletons) ```
28
Limit of resolution for light microscopy
.61 x .4u / 1.4 = .17u
29
Oogenesis steps
Female germ cell (2n) Mitosis Oogonium (2n) Mitosis Primary oocyte (2n) First meiotic division Secondary oocyte (n) and first polar body Second meiotic division, independent assortment of chromosomes Ootid (n) and second polar body Ovum (egg) (n), polar bodies degrade
30
Pacemaker activities
Sinoatrial node has ability to generate its own action potentials, which spread to atrioventricular node, then uncle of his, the bundle branches, then to purkinje fibers, spread from one pacemaker area to another, causes cardiac tissues to contract. Pacemaker cells (1% of heart), make sure electrical signals are occurring and trigger release of calcium needed to contract muscles Heart contracts in waves as the electrical activity spreads. Atrium contract first and ventricles second, gives ventricles time to relax in the slight delay
31
Peripheral membrane proteins
Lack exposed hydrophobic groups, do not penetrate bilayer (stay inside)
32
Virus
Cause major problems by taking over/infecting cells
33
Phosphodiester linkages
Bonds sugar and phosphate to form backbone of DNA and RNA Like carbon 3 and carbon 5 Two strands of DNA run in opposite directions
34
Velocity of the action potential
Myelin speeds up the spreading of the action potential Also insulates
35
Pulmonary circulation
Short distance circuit Delivers deoxygenated (blood never has absolutely no oxygen) blood from the heart to the lungs
36
Mitochondria
Converts potential energy of fuel molecules into form that cell can use (ATP) Outer lipid bilayer and highly folded inner membrane
37
Nonspecific immunity
Prevention Attack- if it gets in the circulatory system
38
Different contributions to the zygote:
*   Sperm: DNA and a centriole, in somespecies. | *   Egg: DNA, organelles, nutrients, transcription factors, mRNAs.
39
Barriers to infection
Physical barriers Chemical barriers Reflexes
40
Steroids
Multiple rings share carbons
41
Chorionic villus sampling
tissue isremoved from the chorion after the eighth week
42
Receptor mediated endocytosis
Deeds on receptor proteins (integral membrane proteins) to bind to specific substances Sites called coated pits, coated with other proteins such as clathrin
43
Twinning
*   If blastomeres separate into two groups, each can produce an embryo. *   Monozygotic twins come from the same zygote and are identical. *   Nonidentical twins are from two eggs fertilized by two sperm.
44
Parietal lobe
Feeling sensation Somatosensory cortex- conscious awareness of general somatic senses, precisely locate the stimulus received (spatial discrimination) Wernicke's area- overlaps in temporal lobe, speech comprehension Sensory homunculus
45
Lymphoid tissues
Adenoids, tonsils, thymus, lymph noes, spleen, bone marrow, lymphatic vessels Immune cells originate here, majorly from bone marrow immune cells are scattered all over, but they are clustered in certain areas in case of infection
46
Functions of the extracellular matrix
Holds cells together in tissues Contributes to physical properties of tissue Helps filter material passing between tissues Helps orient cell movement Role in chemical signaling
47
Blastomere
*   Blastomeres become determined, or committed toa specific fate, at different times in different animals. *   Roundworm and clam blastomeres are already determined at the 8-cell stage. *   If one cell is removed, a portion of the embryo fails to develop normally. This is called mosaic development. *   Humans have regulative development. If some cells are lost during cleavage, other cells can compensate. For genetic testing in humans, one cell can be removed from a blastula following in vitro fertilization. If there are no mutations in the gene of interest, that blastula can be implanted
48
Sharp object penetrating skin
Easiest way to get infected by a pathogen Some cells are already in the vicinity, they destroy and then call for back up
49
Parts of the respiratory system
Nasal/oral cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, primary/secondary/tertiary bronchus, bronchioles (if you don't need a lot of oxygen bronchioles are slightly constricted), alveoli (site of exchange) All made of cartilage up to the trachea
50
Neurohypophysis
Posterior pituitary gland, Made of neurons, can also be called neural hypophysis Cell bodies of neurons house in hypothalamus and only part of the axon and axon terminals are located in the posterior pituitary, hormones made of peptides synthesized in hypothalamus, are made in cells and stored in axon terminals •  Paraventricular nucleus and the supraoptic nucleus of the hypothalamussynthesize hormones that are stored in the terminals for later release –  Oxytocin –  Vasopressin (antidiuretic to prevent water loss and a vasoconstrictor)
51
Cell membranes and the extracellular matrix
Cell membranes adhere to the extracellular matrix Tans,embrace protein integrity binds to the matrix outside epithelial cells and to actin filaments inside the cells, noncovalent and reversible binding
52
Secondary lysosome
Phagosomes fuse with primary lysosomes to form secondary lysosomes Enzymes hydrolyze the food molecules
53
Phospholipids
Fatty acids bound to glycerol a phosphate group replaces one fatty acid Phosphate group is hydrophilic "head" "tails" are hydrophobic fatty acid chains (ampipathic)
54
Ion channels
Specific channel proteins with hydrophilic pores
55
Electrocardiogram
Recording the electrical activities of the heart 3 sets of electrodes on two wrists, one on ankle, surface electrodes on skin pick up electrical activities from the heart, electrical activity comes from action potentials Extracellular recording- recording sum of action potential and a high response is expected, but you get one kilovolt because of how far your surface skin is from your heart
56
The second law in relation to complex organisms
Metabolic process that take place in living tissues produce more disorr than order Construction of 1kg of our body mass requires catabolism of 10kg of biological material To maintain order, life needs constant input of energy
57
Steroids
Multiple rings share carbons
58
Immunization
Series of shots MMR- immunization shot against meals, mumps, rubella Small quantity of pathogens to build immune response, memory cells to speed up recovery next time
59
The three fundamental steps of sexual reproduction are:
–  Gametogenesis (producing sperm and eggs, requires meiosis) –  Mating (getting sperm and egg together) –  Fertilization (fusion of sperm and egg) *   Gametogenesis and fertilization are fairly similar in different groups of animals. *   Mating behaviors, however, show incredible diversity.
60
Different amino acids
5 charged hydrophilic side chains 5 polar uncharged side chains 7 non polar hydrophobic side chains Cysteine- has terminal sulfhydryl that allows for disulfide bonding Glycine- H as R group Proline- modified amino group, forms a ring with R group
61
Ions
Electrically charged particles, when atoms lose or gain electrons
62
DNA and evolution
DNA carries hereditary information between generations Determining sequence of bases helps reveal evolutionary relationships Closest living relatives of humans are chimps and bonobo
63
Phagocytic cell migration
* The cytokines released by macrophages signal the endothelial cells to express selectin * Margination occurs- dock and fuse with membrane, carbohydrate ligands on macrophages bind to selectin in blood vessel, move in blood vessel by rolling * Phagocytic cells produce integrin on their membrane * Stronger attachment occurs- immune cells are allowed to slow down and exit * Phagocytic cells begin to move from the blood to the infected area in a process known as diapedisis * Once in the interstitial fluid, phagocytic cells are attracted to the site of injury by chemotaxins- tell phagocytic cells exactly where to go
64
Rough ER
Has ribosomes attached
65
Physical barriers
Skin- brick layers of cells, most pathogens can't get through it, also produces a hard and fibrous protein called keratin. The closest layer to the surface has the highest amount of keratin- the outermost layer of skin is dead, it produced too much keratin to function Fibrous layer of the eyes Mucous membrane of the respiratory, digestive, urinary, and reproductive systems, and ear- thick membrane that prevents pathogens from getting into the circulation Cilia
66
Alveolar type II cells
Secrete surfactant which keeps the alveoli from collapsing
67
Electron microscope
Use electromagnets to focus an electron beam, wavelength is much shorter than light so much higher resolution .5 nm
68
Somites
separate, segmented blocks of cells on either side of the neural tube. Muscle, cartilage, bone, and lower layer of the skin form from somites. Neural crest cells are guided by somites to develop into peripheral nerves and other structures
69
Chemical barriers
Sebum- oily acidic substance released from sebaceous glands Lacrimal glands- tears protect sclera and cornea, dripping through nasal cavity, washing of the eye Lysozymes- degrading/digestive enzymes secreted from the mucous membranes Defensins- peptides secreted from the mucous membranes Ear wax- things get stuck Sweat- cools body and at same time destroys microorganisms on skin, B.O. Is the degradation of bacteria on skin Macrophages- immune cells Stomach acid- HCl, damaging Saliva
70
AP Step 4
Sodium ions flowing in further depolarize the membrane, VGPG are still closed Explosive depolarization; potential reaches 0mV
71
Bone marrow
Produces mulitpotent hematopoietic cell, which in return can be a myeloid or a lymphoid progenitor cel Stem cells- have not differentiated yet, blood stem cells can become blood cells
72
Two systems of electron transport
Non cyclic electron transport- produces NADPH and ATP Cyclic electron transport- produces ATP only * when you need more sugar you need more ATP than NADH, so cyclic transport is needed
73
Neutrophils
Most abundant phagocytic cells Release: Cytokines- alarming chemicals to alarm other immune cells Vasodilators- increases size of blood cells, Make blood vessel bigger so immune cells can travel Chemotaxins- chemo attractants, attract other immune cells, travel in blood vessels and squeeze out of them, can get anywhere in the body
74
Cytotoxic T Cell
Release perform and granzymes Induce apoptosis (Fas) Attack cancer cells which stop mitosis regulation and keep dividing- they bond to these and release perforins that poke h ones in the membrane, eater can go in, releases granzymes in the hole or proteins that activate apoptosis
75
The liver
•  Hepatocytes of the liver release bile salts that functions in fat emulsification, hydrophobic lipids aggregate together, lipase cannot do its function without bile to emulsify the fat –  The break down of large fat droplets into smaller ones •  Bile salts are stored in the gall bladder
76
How does the endocrine system work in general?
Hormones not released over a short distance like neurotransmitters in nervous system- instead circulate throughout the body, gland releases hormones in the circulation, every cell will be exposed to it because it is traveling in the blood Only certain cells respond to the hormones because they are very specific, only very few have universal effects on every cell, when hormone finds a matching receptor protein it becomes functional and can do the function- cell with this receptor called a target cell
77
Digestion: Polymers Vs Monomers
Body only cares about three major molecules, you are consuming them in the polymer, want to break down into individual units that we can absorb *   Proteins are broken down to amino acids *   Carbohydrates are broken down to glucose, fructose, galactose *   Lipids are broken down to fatty acids
78
Mechanoreceptors and sound
Sound converted to electrical activity, then temporal lobe interprets Sound is vibration of air molecules Waves of vibration can have high amplitude(loudness) or high frequency(pitch)
79
Limit of resolution for light microscopy
.61 x .4u / 1.4 = .17u
80
Nonspecific Immune response/inflammation
• Occurs through cut or injury to the skin • Sequence of events ensue to protect the body against infection – Phagocytosis and recruitment – Vasodilation and increase in permeability – Phagocytic cells migration – Tissue repair
81
Lungs and the mechanisms of the chest
Easy, effortless to breath because of the mechanics of the lungs- always slightly inflated to make inspiration easier Lungs attached to chest wall and inner layer of your rib cage by very thin set of membranes called a pleural sac Ribs protect your lungs and work in synchrony with them, chest expands and increase in volume along with your lungs
82
Gestation
pregnancy in humans is about 266 days and is divided into trimesters
83
Nonspecific Immune response/inflammation
• Occurs through cut or injury to the skin • Sequence of events ensue to protect the body against infection – Phagocytosis and recruitment – Vasodilation and increase in permeability – Phagocytic cells migration – Tissue repair
84
Chromatin
Diffuse or long thin fibers in which DNA is bound to proteins Prior to cell division these condense and form chromosomes
85
Gestation
pregnancy in humans is about 266 days and is divided into trimesters
86
Microtubules
Hollow cylinders made from tubulin protein subunits Provid rigid intracellular skeleton for some cells, function as tracks for motor proteins Form and disassemble as the needs of the cell change Form cilia and flagella
87
Nucleic acids
Polymers specialized for the storage, transmission, and use of genetic information DNA: deoxyribonucleic acid (can convey info) RNA: ribonucleic acid
88
Membranes with carbohydrates
Have carbohydrates on outer surface that serve as recognition sites for other cells and molecules
89
Different contributions to the zygote:
*   Sperm: DNA and a centriole, in somespecies. | *   Egg: DNA, organelles, nutrients, transcription factors, mRNAs.
90
How does myelin speed up the action potential
Voltage gated channels found in nodes of ranvier Saltatory conductance Membrane is thick where there is myelin, so no permeability, and VGC can only work at nodes
91
Spermatogenesis
Male germ cell (2n) Mitosis Spermatogonium (2n) Mitosis (first DNA synthesis-Chromosomes don't separate, cross over- DNA from two pairs get scrambled) Primary spermatocyte (2n) first meiotic division (no DNA synthesis) Secondary spermatocytes (1n) Secondary meiotic division, independent assortment of chromosomes Spermatids (1n) Differentiation and maturation Sperm cells (1n)
92
Inferior vena cava
Brings deoxygenated blood from all structures below diaphragm
93
Rubisco
Enzyme that catalyzes fixation of CO2 Ribosome bisphosphate carboxylase/ Most abundant protein in the world, 50% of the protein in a leaf
94
AP Step 3
Sodium ions flow through the VGSC causing membrane to become depolarized and the action potential begins
95
Somites
separate, segmented blocks of cells on either side of the neural tube. Muscle, cartilage, bone, and lower layer of the skin form from somites. Neural crest cells are guided by somites to develop into peripheral nerves and other structures
96
Effectors
Respond to restore the deviation from the setvalues of the internal environment Following the commands of the control center to make a change and restore the environment
97
Where are these microorganisms?
They like moisture, food particles, want to get in blood vessels (from there they can travel all over the body)
98
The female reproductive cycle actually consists of two linked cycles:
an ovarian cycle that produces eggs and hormones and a uterine cycle that prepares the endometrium for the arrival of a blastocyst
99
Light reactions
Convert light energy to chemical energy as ATP and NADH
100
Inner cell mass
•  The inner cell mass of the blastocyst splits into an epiblast and hypoblast with a fluid-filled cavity in between (just like the reptilian and avian gastrula). *   The embryo forms from the epiblast. *   The epiblast also splits off a layer of cells that form the amnion. The amnion grows around the developing embryo. *   The hypoblast cells extend to form the chorion. Thechorion and other tissues produce the placenta. *   The epiblast produces the amnion. Allantoic tissues form the umbilical cord.
101
Complement system
Pore formation: First complement protein (inactive), cascade of protein activation in bacterial cell Swelling: fluid rushes into cells Lysis
102
Chlorophylls a and b
Ring structure with magnesium atom in center Hydrocarbon tail which anchors them to integral proteins in the thylakoids membrane Absorb in red and blue region
103
Chemical barriers
Sebum- oily acidic substance released from sebaceous glands Lacrimal glands- tears protect sclera and cornea, dripping through nasal cavity, washing of the eye Lysozymes- degrading/digestive enzymes secreted from the mucous membranes Defensins- peptides secreted from the mucous membranes Ear wax- things get stuck Sweat- cools body and at same time destroys microorganisms on skin, B.O. Is the degradation of bacteria on skin Macrophages- immune cells Stomach acid- HCl, damaging Saliva
104
Function of Cortisol
*   Increases the fuel availability to the brain *   Gluconeogenesis- Synthesis of glucose, started to make glucose from amino acids which is bad because you're breaking down your proteins which you need for muscles, enzymes, micro tubules, etc. but cortisol breaks it down to make glucose with causes negative effect *   Lypolytic hormone- Breaks down fats to make sure fatty acids are available for the brain. Can end up localizing fat *   Anti-inflammatory effects- Someone's immune system, histamine is released as an alert for immune system but that starts to decrease with cortisol (immunosuppressive) *   Affects memory function- Permanent brain damage, kills neurons permanently * proteolytic hormone- promotes protein breakdown, prevents growth, birth of premature babies
105
Virus
Cause major problems by taking over/infecting cells
106
Sensory cells
Sense/receive info Transduce physical or chemical stimuli into action potentials Receptor cells Modified neurons Generate electrical activity but do not look like neurons
107
When a photon meets a molecule it can be-
Scattered- photon bounces off the molecule Transmitted- photon passed through the molecule Absorbed- molecule squires the energy of the photon. Goes from ground state to excited state, and disappears and energy is absorbed
108
Texture of phospholipid bilayer
Flexible, the interior is fluid and allows lateral movement of molecules Fluidity depends on temperature and composition Region with cholesterol is stiffened
109
Neuromuscular junction
Synapse between muscle and a neuron Acetylcholine is the neurotransmitter
110
Tunica interna
Made of simple squamous epithelium (endothelium) Provide smooth surface for blood to pass through
111
Primary lysosomes
Originate from Golgi apparatus Contain digestive enzymes- macromolecules are hydrolyzed into monomers
112
Control center
Evaluates the information from receptors Set point (tells what a particular value should be) Set point is a constant level, the control center compares information from receptor to this, control center initiates the changes and makes a decision
113
Bacteria
Unicellular prokaryotes
114
Smooth ER
Ribosome free region
115
Light microscopes
Glass lenses focus visible light, max resolution of .2 um
116
Pressure change
Breathing associated with skeletal muscles that are constantly contracting and relaxing, gases are quantified by pressur Atmospheric pressure (Patm)- pressure on the outside in the environment Alveolar pressure (Palv)-pressure inside your lungs Intrapleural pressure (Pip)- pressure in pleural sac, fills up with fluid that exerts pressure Alveolar and interpleural pressure are constantly fluctuating because they depend on your state
117
Motility
Digestive organs lined with smooth muscles that are involuntary and constantly contract, ensure motility (gravity has nothing to do with it) and also ensure mixing of the food •  Propulsive –  Movement of food at an appropriate speed •  Mixing of food –  To promote digestion and mixing with enzymes –  To facilitate absorption
118
Phagocytosis
Attatchment (opsonization)- Physically bind to pathogen Internalization, turns into phagosome Degradation- Fuses with lysosome and becomes phagolysosome, and after the digestive enzymes can be reused Exocytosis- elimination of debris
119
Eukaryotes
Membrane enclosed nucleus as well as other membrane enclosed compartments Animals, plants, fungi, protists Contains organelles, membrane enclosed nucleus Protein scaffolding called cytoskeleton
120
Sperm anatomy
Acrosome- tip Nucleus Midpiece- contains mitochondria, Mitochondrial DNA from mother. When sperm goes into egg loses mitochondria Tail- flagellum made of microtubules
121
Light
A form of electromagnetic radiation Propagated as waves, energy of light is inversely proportional to wavelength (must be appropriate wavelength to be absorbed by receptive molecules Light also behaves as particles called photons, plants absorb these
122
Boyle's law
Pressure and volume are inversely proportiona Gases in a container, when volume decreased, pressure increases due to collision of gas molecules and now these gas molecules are confined to a smaller place, so more bombardment Lungs are always changing in volume so the pressure changes as well with inspiration and expiration
123
Neural mechanism
Neurons stimulate glands to release hormones Tiny gland that sits on top of kidneys called adrenal gland- Inner layer called adrenal medulla, releases hormone called epinephrine, which helps you deal with stress, part of sympathetic nervous system, increases heart rate etc
124
Functions of the Respiratory System
*   Provides oxygen *   Eliminates carbon dioxide *   Regulates pH level- More co2 you get rid of the more hydrogen ions you get rid of *   Speech production *   Defense against foreign bodies- non specific immunity
125
Kinesin
Motor protein, moves toward plus end
126
Gas transport through membranes
Oxygen has to cross alveoli and membrane of the capillaries to get into the plasma, and then another membrane to get inside the red blood cells Loading phase- hemoglobin picks up oxygen Unloading phase- release oxygen into your tissues to use, takes into mitochondria to produce ATP
127
Plasma
•  Contain proteins that exert osmoticpressure •  Many types: –  Albumins: transport proteins –  Globulins: immune function –  Fibrinogen: clotting function •  Minerals and electrolytes
128
Calvin cycle stimulated by light
Protons pumped form stroma into thylakoids, increasing the pH which favors the activation of rubisco Electron flow from photosystem one reduces disulfide bonds to activate calvin cycle enzymes
129
Glucose
Monosaccharide All cells use it as an energy source Exists most often in a ring as alpha or beta glucose depending on position of the aldehyde group (can also be found in a chain)
130
Arrangement of microtubules in flagella and cilia
9+2 array- 9 pairs and 2 individual microtubules in center At the base of flagella and cilia is the nasal body, the 9 rings extend there
131
Calvin cycle stimulated by light
Protons pumped form stroma into thylakoids, increasing the pH which favors the activation of rubisco Electron flow from photosystem one reduces disulfide bonds to activate calvin cycle enzymes
132
Primary structure of a protein
The sequence of amino acids Determines secondary and tertiary structure, how the protein is folded
133
Proteins
Polymers of amino acids, each has different AA composition and order Folding is crucial to the function of a protein, influenced by the AA sequence
134
Carrier proteins
Membrane proteins that bind some substances and speed their diffusion through the bilayer Polar molecules such a glucose- glucose binds to protein which causes it to change shape and release glucose on the other side, but as transporters become saturated, the rate of diffusion into the cells slows down
135
Lungs and the mechanisms of the chest
Easy, effortless to breath because of the mechanics of the lungs- always slightly inflated to make inspiration easier Lungs attached to chest wall and inner layer of your rib cage by very thin set of membranes called a pleural sac Ribs protect your lungs and work in synchrony with them, chest expands and increase in volume along with your lungs
136
Stomach lumen
Inner layer of stomach, in contact with food Rugae- Folds that increase surface areas to increase the rate of diffusion Mucosa is outer layer that contains gastric pits, submucosa layer underneath
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Best fit
Conformational state that provides the best fit binds to substrate
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placenta
organ of exchange of nutrients and waste products between the embryo’s and the mother’s blood
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Phagocytosis
Food molecules enter the cell through a formed phagosome
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Steps of fertilization
–  The sperm and egg recognize each other. –  The sperm is activated so that it can gain access to the plasma membrane of the egg. –  The plasma membranes of the sperm and egg fuse. –  The egg blocks entry of additional sperm. –  The egg is stimulated to start development. –  The egg and sperm nuclei fuse
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Absorption spectrum
Plot of wavelengths absorbed by a pigment
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Cleavage
a rapid series of celldivision, but no cell growth In mammals cleavage is rotational: First cell division is parallel to the animal–vegetal axis; yields two blastomeres. In second division two blastomeres divide at right angles to each other;one is parallel to the axis and the other is perpendicular to it. This pattern of division is unique to mammals with placentas.
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Branching of the airways
Conducting zone: trachea, primary bronchi, secondary bronchi, tertiary bronchi, bronchioles Respiratory zone: respiratory bronchioles, alveoli (each alveolus is covered with many capillaries to facilitate the exchange of materials)
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Energy transfer and electron transport
Light energy absorbed by antenna chlorophylls, and passed on to reaction center Molecule goes to excited state Energized electron from chlorophyll molecules passed to electron acceptor to reduce it
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Lymphoid progenitor cells
Form into B lymphocytes, T lymphocytes
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Fertilization
Fertilization is the union of haploid sperm and haploid egg to produce a single diploid cell, the zygote
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Amino Acids Absorption
*   Absorbed by secondary active transportsimilar to carbohydrates absorption *   Taken to the blood via carrier proteins
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Branching of the airways
Conducting zone: trachea, primary bronchi, secondary bronchi, tertiary bronchi, bronchioles Respiratory zone: respiratory bronchioles, alveoli (each alveolus is covered with many capillaries to facilitate the exchange of materials)
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Inspiration
Diaphragm- Lungs physically sit on diaphragm, main muscle for respiration, pushes down during inspiration External intercostal muscles- contact and push down
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Cyclic electron transport
Electron from excited P700 chlorophyll molecule n photosystem one cycles back to the same chlorophyll molecule Involves a series of exergonic redox reactions, the released energy creates a proton gradient that is used to synthesize ATP
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Mechanisms of Valve Action
Shaped to prevent the back flow of blood
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Different contributions to the zygote:
*   Sperm: DNA and a centriole, in somespecies. | *   Egg: DNA, organelles, nutrients, transcription factors, mRNAs.
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G3P
Gylceraldehyde 3 phosphate 5/6 recycled into RuBP 1/6 converted to starch and sucrose to make glucose and fructose
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Chlorophylls a and b
Ring structure with magnesium atom in center Hydrocarbon tail which anchors them to integral proteins in the thylakoids membrane Absorb in red and blue region
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SS
Somatostatin Inhibits release of GH
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Cell theory
Cells are the fundamental units of life All organisms are composed of cells All cells come from preexisting cells
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Antenna systems
Pigments arranged in these Also called light harvesting complexes
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How Are Gases Transported?
•  Once in the blood, oxygen is transported in two ways –  1.5% is dissolved in the plasma and cytosol of erythrocytes –  98.5 % Bound to hemoglobin
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When a pigment molecule absorbs a photon (excited state) the energy can be-
Released as heat and/or light Transferred to another molecule Used for a chemical reaction
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Rubisco
Enzyme that catalyzes fixation of CO2 Ribosome bisphosphate carboxylase/ Most abundant protein in the world, 50% of the protein in a leaf
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Photosystem 2
Light energy oxidizes water to oxygen, H+, and electrons Reaction center has chlorophyll a molecules: P680 absorbs at 680 nm (more energetic than P700) Excited first
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Muscles of Expiration
•  Passive expiration –  Elastic recoil of the lungs •  Active expiration –  Contraction of internal intercostals –  Contraction of abdominal muscles (causesdiaphragm to be pushed up)
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seminiferous tubules
*   Spermatogenesis takes place in the seminiferous tubules of the testis. *   Each tubule is lined with a stratified epithelium, within which spermatogoniareside and mature into sperm cells Production of sperm is temperature dependent- if cold scrotum will cuddle against body Stem cells can divide and divide and divide make sperm
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Photo system 1
Light energy reduces NADP+ to NADPH Reaction center has chlorophyll a molecules: P700 absorbs in the 700nm range
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Calvin cycle stimulated by light
Protons pumped form stroma into thylakoids, increasing the pH which favors the activation of rubisco Electron flow from photosystem one reduces disulfide bonds to activate calvin cycle enzymes
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Ribosomes
Sites of protein synthesis found free in cytoplasm, in mitochondria, bound to the endoplasmic reticulum, and in chloroplasts Consist of ribosomal RNA and more than 50 other proteins
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Muscles of Expiration
•  Passive expiration –  Elastic recoil of the lungs •  Active expiration –  Contraction of internal intercostals –  Contraction of abdominal muscles (causesdiaphragm to be pushed up)
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How does the endocrine system work in general?
Hormones not released over a short distance like neurotransmitters in nervous system- instead circulate throughout the body, gland releases hormones in the circulation, every cell will be exposed to it because it is traveling in the blood Only certain cells respond to the hormones because they are very specific, only very few have universal effects on every cell, when hormone finds a matching receptor protein it becomes functional and can do the function- cell with this receptor called a target cell
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How does electronegativity determine the structure of water?
O is more electronegative than H, so the O has a more negative charge
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Virus
Cause major problems by taking over/infecting cells
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Radioisotopes after world war II
Became readily available to cell biologists to study cell metabolism Ex: tritium(3H) emits beta particle when one extra neutron changes into a proton Autoradiography- radioisotopes can trace the fate of molecules in cells
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Cerebellum
Another area of motor control Maintainance of balance Coordination and planning of skilled voluntary muscle activity Ipsilateral- controls right side of body
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Pigments
Molecules that absorb specific wavelengths in the visible range of the spectrum Photons can have a wide range of wavelengths and energy levels
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Control of breathing
Voluntary until it becomes physiologically dangerous, your brain will force you to breathe. •  Inspiration is initiated by stimulating the respiratory muscles –  Diaphragm and external intercostals •  The stimulation is initiated in the medullary centers and the pons Medulla oblongata sends signal to spinal cord, phrenic nerve sends action potential to diaphragm. 100% controlled by brain unless you voluntarily change it, stimulation always occurring. Neurons called central patter generator, send action potentials then they stop, perfectly synced on/off mechanism
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Muscle contraction
AP in axon terminals leads to NT release EPP leads to AP AP causes Ca2+ release Ca2+ binds to troponin Myosin binds to actin when there is Ca2+
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Alveolar type I cells
form the wall of the alveoli
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Components of the cytoskeleton
Microfilaments Intermediate filaments Microtubules
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Nonspecific Immune response/inflammation
• Occurs through cut or injury to the skin • Sequence of events ensue to protect the body against infection – Phagocytosis and recruitment – Vasodilation and increase in permeability – Phagocytic cells migration – Tissue repair
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Processes in Calvin Benson cycle
Fixation of CO2 by combination with RuBP (catalyzes by rubisco) Conversion of fixed CO2 into carbohydrate G3P (using ATP and NADPH) Regeneration of CO2 acceptor RuBP by ATP
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Gestation
pregnancy in humans is about 266 days and is divided into trimesters
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Z scheme
Model of noncyclic electron transport Extracts electrons from water and transfers them to NADPH, using energy from photosynthesis one and two and resulting in ATP synthesis Yields ATP, NADPH, and O2
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Path of sperm
*   To achieve fertilization, sperm swim up the vagina, assisted by contractions of the female reproductive tract. *   The sperm then pass through the cervix and most of the oviduct to the egg (secondary oocyte) in the upper oviduct. *   Egg and sperm nucleus (both haploid) fuse to produce the diploid zygote.
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Polypeptides
Another name for proteins (dipeptide, tripeptide, etc)
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Chlorophylls a and b
Ring structure with magnesium atom in center Hydrocarbon tail which anchors them to integral proteins in the thylakoids membrane Absorb in red and blue region
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Organization of the immune system
Nonspecific immune response- protects against foreign substances without having to recognize their identity Specific immune response- highly specific, usually a major problem that your body is really trying to fight
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Membrane potential
Extracellular fluid is outside and overall positive(Na+ and Cl-), and intracellular fluid is inside and overall negative(K+) with an impermeable membrane in between Separate charges are attracted to each other through the membrane and create a potential- huge driving force but permeability is not always available
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How do we study organelles?
First studied using light microscopy Cell fractionation separates organelles for study by chemical methods (spin tubes of cells with rotor)
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Compliance
Ability to change volume and pressure Balloon is like the lungs- highly compliant Paper bag- not compliant
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Right parietal lobe damage
Left body sensation Contralateral neglect syndrome- neglect the left side of the body
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Function of Cerebrospinal fluid
Bathes the brain, cools it Acts as shock absorber Transports nutrients, chemical messengers and waste products(dumps waste into blood)
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Nuclear lamina
Meshwork of proteins which maintains the shape of the nuclear envelope and the nucleus
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Electrical Activity of the Heart
*   The heart is a cardiac muscle tissue that is constantly contracting (heart beat) *   Q: how does the heart contract? *   A: specialized cells called pacemaker cells that generate their own electrical activities
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Monocytes/macrophages
Monocytes are inactive form, on patrol, macrophages are active, they attack Engulf and digest Activate T cells Once monocytes enter tissue they become macrophages
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Mode of travel of peptides and steroids
Peptides- travel easy in blood because water soluble Lipids- mostly water so need transport proteins to shield them from hydrophillicity of blood because not water soluble
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Virus
Cause major problems by taking over/infecting cells
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The immune system
Protects against infection and microbes Isolates and removes non microbial foreign substances
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Muscles of Expiration
•  Passive expiration –  Elastic recoil of the lungs •  Active expiration –  Contraction of internal intercostals –  Contraction of abdominal muscles (causesdiaphragm to be pushed up)
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Path of zygote
*   Still in the oviduct, the zygote divides to become a blastocyst and continues down the oviduct. *   In the uterus, the blastocyst attaches to the wall lining called the endometrium.
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What causes Ca release?
Action potentials at the axon terminal stimulate the release of acetylcholine (neurotransmitter) ACh minds to Ach receptors activating them, Na+ entry into the cell Na+ depolarizes the membrane End plate polarizations (depolarization of muscle fibers, similar to graded/receptor potential) causes action potential in muscle cell Action potential travels down sarcolemma and dips into T Tubules Action potential activates DHPR DHPR protrudes and touches ryanodine receptors, activating the, leading to Ca2+ release from SR into cytosol
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Fluorescence
When a pigment returns to ground state some of the energy may be given off as heat and some as fluorescence Fluorescence has longer wavelengths and less energy than the absorbed light energy No chemical work done If pigment can pass the energy to another molecule, there's no fluorescence, the energy can be passed to a reaction center where it is converted to chemical energy
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Lymphoid tissues
Adenoids, tonsils, thymus, lymph noes, spleen, bone marrow, lymphatic vessels Immune cells originate here, majorly from bone marrow immune cells are scattered all over, but they are clustered in certain areas in case of infection
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Correlation of Electrocardiogram graph and heart activities
Beginning of P wave- SA Node, AV Middle to end of P wave- AV Nodal delay Between P wave and QRS- Signals travel through bundle of his reaching the apex QRS complex- pukinje fibers Within ventricles, heart contracts from bottom to top, all the blood comes out, none remains below
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Hair cells hyperpolarized
Movement of stereo cilia away from kinocilium closes stretch activated channels No neurotransmitter release
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Anencephaly
failure of the neural tube to close at the anterior end and no forebrain develops
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Photosynthesis
"synthesis from light" Plants take in CO2, produce carbohydrates, and release O2 and water Light is required 6CO2 + 12H2O--> C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O
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Proteins digestion
Dietary proteins Salivary glands: pepsin breaks them down to small polypeptides Pancreas: pancreatic trypsinogen and chymotrypsinogen breaks them down into smaller polypeptides, pancreatic procarboxypeptidase breaks them down into very small peptides and amino acids Small intestine: aminopeptidases break them down into amino acids
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Photophosphorylation
Light driven production of ATP H+ transported via electron carriers across the thylakoid membrane from the stroma into the lumen, creating an electrochemical gradient
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Monocytes/macrophages
Monocytes are inactive form, on patrol, macrophages are active, they attack Engulf and digest Activate T cells Once monocytes enter tissue they become macrophages
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Pigments
Molecules that absorb specific wavelengths in the visible range of the spectrum Photons can have a wide range of wavelengths and energy levels
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Roles of the plasma membrane
Selectively permeable barrier Interface for cells where info is received from adjacent cells and extracellular signals Allows cells to maintain a constant internal environment Molecules responsible for binding to adjacent cells
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Glyoxisomes
Structurally similar organelles found in plants that convert lipids to carbs (fats to sugars)
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Light independent reactions
"dark reactions" Use ATP and NADH from light reactions plus CO2 to produce carbohydrates (because coenzymes ATP and NADH are not stored, need light for light reaction first)
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Nonspecific Immune response/inflammation
• Occurs through cut or injury to the skin • Sequence of events ensue to protect the body against infection – Phagocytosis and recruitment – Vasodilation and increase in permeability – Phagocytic cells migration – Tissue repair
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Neurons
Functional units of the nervous system Able to communicate with each other and with other cells through the body through electrical and chemical signals
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clitoris
the anatomical analog of the male penis that is capable of erection and is highly sensitive to sexual stimulation Both the labia minora and clitoris become engorgedwith blood during sexual stimulation
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Nucleic acids
Polymers specialized for the storage, transmission, and use of genetic information DNA: deoxyribonucleic acid (can convey info) RNA: ribonucleic acid
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Inspiration
Diaphragm- Lungs physically sit on diaphragm, main muscle for respiration, pushes down during inspiration External intercostal muscles- contact and push down
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Bone marrow
Produces mulitpotent hematopoietic cell, which in return can be a myeloid or a lymphoid progenitor cel Stem cells- have not differentiated yet, blood stem cells can become blood cells
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Pacemaker activities
Sinoatrial node has ability to generate its own action potentials, which spread to atrioventricular node, then uncle of his, the bundle branches, then to purkinje fibers, spread from one pacemaker area to another, causes cardiac tissues to contract. Pacemaker cells (1% of heart), make sure electrical signals are occurring and trigger release of calcium needed to contract muscles Heart contracts in waves as the electrical activity spreads. Atrium contract first and ventricles second, gives ventricles time to relax in the slight delay
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System of respiration
Constant exchange of air: ventilation (tidal volume) Diffusion- oxygen from lungs to blood Circulation- bulk transport Diffusion of oxygen into cells Cellular respiration
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Acinar cells
•  Acinar cells release three classes of enzymes into the duodenal lumen –  Proteolytic enzymes: trypsinogen, chymotrypsinogen, and procarboxypeptidase (All enzymes that digest proteins are released in inactive form, so they can be activated when you need them and specifically digest dietary proteins instead of proteins found on the membranes of cells) –  Pancreatic amylase (digest polysaccharides into disaccharides), Completes digestion of carbohydrates –  Pancreatic lipase (digest triglycerides into glycerol and fatty acids), Needs bile from the liver to perform its function
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Pressure change
Breathing associated with skeletal muscles that are constantly contracting and relaxing, gases are quantified by pressur Atmospheric pressure (Patm)- pressure on the outside in the environment Alveolar pressure (Palv)-pressure inside your lungs Intrapleural pressure (Pip)- pressure in pleural sac, fills up with fluid that exerts pressure Alveolar and interpleural pressure are constantly fluctuating because they depend on your state
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Intermediate filaments
Fund in multicellular organisms, form rope like structures in cells Stabilize cell strucuture and resist tension Can maintain the positions of organelles Lamins provide structural support to the nuclear membrane
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Thickness of endometrium
About 5 days after ovulation it is at its maximal thickness and ready to accept Highly proliferated and vasularized
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Microbes
Harmful substances, living or dead
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Microfilaments
Made of protein actin, can be single filaments or networks Needed for cell contraction (as in muscle cells, associated with myosin for muscle contraction), also add structure to plasma membrane and shape to cells Involved in cytoplasmic streaming and formation of pseudopodia Polar, polymerizes to form long helical chains
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Boyle's law
Pressure and volume are inversely proportiona Gases in a container, when volume decreased, pressure increases due to collision of gas molecules and now these gas molecules are confined to a smaller place, so more bombardment Lungs are always changing in volume so the pressure changes as well with inspiration and expiration
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Hormonal secretion
Gland releases hormone by triggering mechanism to stimulate gland to release hormone- Different gland triggered in different ways
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Gap junctions in cardiac muscles
protein ensures exchange of material between cells, important in heart because they ensure synchrony in contraction by spreading electrical activities (ex all cells in atria contract at the same time, in ventricles those cells contract simultaneously to ensure efficiency)
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Membranes with carbohydrates
Have carbohydrates on outer surface that serve as recognition sites for other cells and molecules
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Quaternary structure
Interaction of subunits by hydrophobic interactions, van der waals forces, ionic bonds, and hydrogen bonds Each subunit has its own tertiary structure
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Most common phospholipids
Derived from glycerol except for sphingomylein
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Cell recognition and adhesion
Sponge cells- separation and come back together Glycoproteins are involved in cell recognition and binding Homotypic binding- same molecule sticks out from both cells and forms a bond Heterotypic binding- cells have different proteins
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Turgor pressure
Plant cells with rigid walls build up internal pressure that keeps more water from entering
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Ectoderm in heat
They have to move to a cooler area, behavioral mechanism As temperature increases their body temperature increases
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Nonspecific Immune response/inflammation
• Occurs through cut or injury to the skin • Sequence of events ensue to protect the body against infection – Phagocytosis and recruitment – Vasodilation and increase in permeability – Phagocytic cells migration – Tissue repair
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Extracellular matrix
Composed of fibrous proteins (like collagen) and glycoproteins Epithelial cells (lining human body cavities) have basement membrane of extracellular material called the basal lamina
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Bipolar neurons
Two extensions only Found in ears, nose, and eyes Functions as sensory neurons, allows you to feel
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Pressure change
Breathing associated with skeletal muscles that are constantly contracting and relaxing, gases are quantified by pressur Atmospheric pressure (Patm)- pressure on the outside in the environment Alveolar pressure (Palv)-pressure inside your lungs Intrapleural pressure (Pip)- pressure in pleural sac, fills up with fluid that exerts pressure Alveolar and interpleural pressure are constantly fluctuating because they depend on your state
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Parts of the respiratory system
Nasal/oral cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, primary/secondary/tertiary bronchus, bronchioles (if you don't need a lot of oxygen bronchioles are slightly constricted), alveoli (site of exchange) All made of cartilage up to the trachea
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T-Tubules and SR
Special voltage sensitive calcium channels (more like sensors of electrical activity) known as dihydropyridine receptors located on T Tubules, undergoes a conformational change when activated Ryanodine receptors(foot proteins) located on lateral sacs of SR, they are typical ligand gated calcium channels that are a gateway for calcium ions to go into the cell cytosol because there is a high concentration in the SR that could build up and be toxic
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Compliance
Ability to change volume and pressure Balloon is like the lungs- highly compliant Paper bag- not compliant
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How do arteries move blood?
Arteries have high pressure, and blood aided by gravity so blood can reach far such as feet
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Types of lipids
Fats and oils- store energy Phospholipids- structural role in cell membranes Carotenoids and chlorophylls- capture light energy in plants Steroids and modified fatty acids- hormones and vitamins Animal fat- thermal insulation Lipid coating around nerves- electrical insulation Oil and wax on skin fur and feathers- repels water
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The three fundamental steps of sexual reproduction are:
–  Gametogenesis (producing sperm and eggs, requires meiosis) –  Mating (getting sperm and egg together) –  Fertilization (fusion of sperm and egg) *   Gametogenesis and fertilization are fairly similar in different groups of animals. *   Mating behaviors, however, show incredible diversity.
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Functional group
Groups of atoms with specific chemical properties and consistent behavior Each macromolecule has at least one
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Triglycerides
Simple lipids composed of fatty acids and glycerol (ex:fats and oils)
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How do gases cross the lung/bloodmedia?
Process of diffusion. Alveoli made of single layered cells, blood capillaries only have tunica intima and some connective tissue, so very thin, and easy process of diffusion Both the capillaries and the alveoli are lined with simple squamous epithelium
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Childbirth
*   Passage of the baby is assisted by the mother’s bearing down with her abdominal muscles. *   Once the baby is clear of the birth canal it canstart breathing and become independent of the mother’s circulation, so the umbilical cord is clamped and cut. *   Finally, the placenta and fetal membranes are detached from the mother and expelled (several minutes–1 hour)
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Autoimmune disease
Immune system turned against you, attacks a particular tissue - diabetes type 1: attacks beta cells that produce insulin - multiple sclerosis: attacks myelin, slows electrical activities - rheumatoid arthritis: attacks joints
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Energy transfer and electron transport
Light energy absorbed by antenna chlorophylls, and passed on to reaction center Molecule goes to excited state Energized electron from chlorophyll molecules passed to electron acceptor to reduce it
252
Energy transfer and electron transport
Light energy absorbed by antenna chlorophylls, and passed on to reaction center Molecule goes to excited state Energized electron from chlorophyll molecules passed to electron acceptor to reduce it
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Nucleoplasm
Surrounds the chromatin
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Lymphoid progenitor cells
Form into B lymphocytes, T lymphocytes
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Sodium-potassium pump
Primary active transport, found in all animal cells Pump is an integral membrane glycoprotein that is an antiporter Gets 3 sodium ions out and 2 potassium ions in by hydrolyzing ATP
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Photosystem
Multiple antenna systems, surround reaction centers Pigments packed together on thylakoids membrane proteins Excitation energy passes from the pigments that absorb short wavelengths to those that absorb longer wavelengths, and ends up in the reaction center pigment
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Protist
Uni or multicellular, contaminate lakes and drinking water to invade host
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Hemoglobin
Hemoglobin is a metal (iron) that is positively charged, and oxygen negatively charged, so they bind
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Mechanisms of steroids action on target cells
Every cell exposed to this hormone, and steroid cell is hydrophobic so can interact with every cell but not every cell has receptor Exits blood vessel to get to the target cell Steroid permeates through cell membrane and forms complex called hormone receptor complex in nucleus, bind to a section of DNA gene called hormone response element that activates the gene to start gene expression Messenger RNA made and goes to the cell cytosol Synthesizes protien and makes changes inside the cell and causes cellular response Slow process but major changes
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Pressure and Volume Change
During inspiration the volume of the lungs increases and the pressure decreases- atmospheric pressure is higher than alveolar pressure, and diffusion can occur During expiration, the volume of the lungs decreases and the pressure increases- alveolar pressure becomes higher than atmospheric pressure- diffusion outwards
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Kinesin
Motor protein, moves toward plus end
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seminiferous tubules
*   Spermatogenesis takes place in the seminiferous tubules of the testis. *   Each tubule is lined with a stratified epithelium, within which spermatogoniareside and mature into sperm cells Production of sperm is temperature dependent- if cold scrotum will cuddle against body Stem cells can divide and divide and divide make sperm
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Gas transport through membranes
Oxygen has to cross alveoli and membrane of the capillaries to get into the plasma, and then another membrane to get inside the red blood cells Loading phase- hemoglobin picks up oxygen Unloading phase- release oxygen into your tissues to use, takes into mitochondria to produce ATP
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Korbian Brodmann
Successfully mapped the brain- 52 areas responsible for different functions
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Secondary lysosome
Phagosomes fuse with primary lysosomes to form secondary lysosomes Enzymes hydrolyze the food molecules
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Carbs can be modified by the addition of functional groups
``` Sugar phosphate (can make fructose biphosphate, intermediate compound in biochemical pathways) Amino sugars (glucosamine, major component of cartilage) Chitin ( insect and crustacean skeletons) ```
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AP Step 5
Once membrane reaches +30 mV the VGSC inactivate blocking the flow of sodium ions VGPC opens causing potassium ions to flow out and repolarize the membrane At -70 perfect repolarization begins
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Blastocoel
a central fluid-filled cavity that forms in the ball of cells The embryo becomes a blastula and its cells are called blastomeres
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Blastocoel
a central fluid-filled cavity that forms in the ball of cells The embryo becomes a blastula and its cells are called blastomeres
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Extensive ER membrane system
Cells specialized for synthesizing proteins have these
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Function of Saliva in theMouth
*   Contains amylase (enzyme that helps general digestion) and lingual lipase (digests lipids, minimal role) *   Facilitates swallowing by moistening food particles *   Provides antibacterial action by releasing lysozymes *   Saliva dissolves food particles to stimulate taste buds, which need to be moist in order for you to taste *   Aids in speech *   Neutralizes ingested acid
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Specific Recognition Between Sperm and Egg
*   Specific recognition molecules mediate interactions between sperm and eggs. *   This ensures that activities of the sperm are directed toward eggs and not other cells and prevents eggs from being fertilized by sperm of the wrong species. *   This latter function is particularly importantin aquatic species, such as sea urchins, that release sperm and eggs into the surrounding water.
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Carotenoids
Light-absorbing pigments Source of vitamin A
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Fluorescence
When a pigment returns to ground state some of the energy may be given off as heat and some as fluorescence Fluorescence has longer wavelengths and less energy than the absorbed light energy No chemical work done If pigment can pass the energy to another molecule, there's no fluorescence, the energy can be passed to a reaction center where it is converted to chemical energy
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Glycosidic linkages
Monosaccharides bind together in these condensation reactions Can be alpha or beta
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First trimester
embryo becomes a fetus Heart begins to beat by week 4 Limbs form by week 8 The first trimester is the period during which the fetus is most susceptible to damage from radiation, drugs, chemicals, and agents that cause birth defects. The hormone hCG (human chorionic gonadotropin) is released after implantation and is an early indicator of pregnancy
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Primary lysosomes
Originate from Golgi apparatus Contain digestive enzymes- macromolecules are hydrolyzed into monomers
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Waxes
Highly nonpolar and impermeable to water Ester linkage between saturated long chain fatty acid and a saturated long chain alcohol
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Lipids digestion
Dietary lipids Pancreas and liver: bile salts break fat globules down into fat droplets, pancreatic lipase breaks them down into glycerol, fatty acids, monoglycerides
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Glycolipids
Carbohydrate and lipid
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Tympanic membrane
Ear drum, small membrane connected to ossicles
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During gastrulation, three germ layers form
–  The inner germ layer is the endoderm and gives rise to the digestive tract, circulatory tract, and respiratory tract. –  The outer layer, the ectoderm, gives rise to the epidermis and nervous system. –  The middle layer, the mesoderm, contributes to bone, muscle, liver, heart, and blood vessels
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Types of lipids
Fats and oils- store energy Phospholipids- structural role in cell membranes Carotenoids and chlorophylls- capture light energy in plants Steroids and modified fatty acids- hormones and vitamins Animal fat- thermal insulation Lipid coating around nerves- electrical insulation Oil and wax on skin fur and feathers- repels water
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Pathogens
Parasite Bacteria Protist Fungi Virus
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Lymphoid progenitor cells
Form into B lymphocytes, T lymphocytes
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Phagocytosis
Attatchment (opsonization)- Physically bind to pathogen Internalization, turns into phagosome Degradation- Fuses with lysosome and becomes phagolysosome, and after the digestive enzymes can be reused Exocytosis- elimination of debris
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Polar covalent bond
One atom has more electronegativity
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Mast cells
* Mast cells are found throughout connective tissues (not found in blood) * They release histamine and other chemicals involved in inflammation
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Polypeptides
Another name for proteins (dipeptide, tripeptide, etc)
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Branching of the airways
Conducting zone: trachea, primary bronchi, secondary bronchi, tertiary bronchi, bronchioles Respiratory zone: respiratory bronchioles, alveoli (each alveolus is covered with many capillaries to facilitate the exchange of materials)
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Saltatory conductance part 1
Active node at peak of action potential, depolarization spreads to adjacent inactive node and raises it to the threshold. Remainder of nodes still at resting potential
292
Viagra
first introduced for heart problems, sexual excitation, want blood to flow to the penis faster than it flows out, need dilation of blood vessels which requires neurotransmitter nitrous oxide, produces a dilation of the blood vessels. If excessive production of phosphodiesterase, it breaks down nitrous oxide. But Viagra inhibits phosphodiesterase, that can cause problems with vision and the breakdown of cyclic gmp
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Coupling of reactions
Endergonic reaction releases energy (cell respiration and catabolism), high energy bonds in ATP because it takes a lot of energy to hold together the negatively charged phosphate groups, so a lot of engy is released when broken Exeronic reaction requires energy (active transport, cell movements, anabolism) Ends up in a cycle
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Pili
Threadlike structures, help bacteria adhere to one another during mating or to other cells for food and protection Some prokaryotes have these
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Bacteria
Unicellular prokaryotes
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Fluorescence
When a pigment returns to ground state some of the energy may be given off as heat and some as fluorescence Fluorescence has longer wavelengths and less energy than the absorbed light energy No chemical work done If pigment can pass the energy to another molecule, there's no fluorescence, the energy can be passed to a reaction center where it is converted to chemical energy
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Centrioles
Made of microtubules Fund in organizing center near the cell nucleus Similar to basal bodies, but in center of call and help in movement of chromosomes during cell division
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Energy transfer and electron transport
Light energy absorbed by antenna chlorophylls, and passed on to reaction center Molecule goes to excited state Energized electron from chlorophyll molecules passed to electron acceptor to reduce it
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Sarcolemma
has extensions (invaginations) that dig deep into the cytoplasm known as TTubules Phospholipid with embedded proteins but the many invaginations maximize contact and make the electrical activities go deep inside the muscle cells so that it is closer to the myofibrils, activates certain muscles located near the SR
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Function of Saliva in theMouth
*   Contains amylase (enzyme that helps general digestion) and lingual lipase (digests lipids, minimal role) *   Facilitates swallowing by moistening food particles *   Provides antibacterial action by releasing lysozymes *   Saliva dissolves food particles to stimulate taste buds, which need to be moist in order for you to taste *   Aids in speech *   Neutralizes ingested acid
301
Sharp object penetrating skin
Easiest way to get infected by a pathogen Some cells are already in the vicinity, they destroy and then call for back up
302
Virus
Cause major problems by taking over/infecting cells
303
Oogenesis
*   Oogenesis produces eggs. *   Individual egg maturation can be arrested for months, or for as long as 10 (puberty) to 50 (menopause) years in humans! *   During this phase, the primary oocyte grows and addsto its energy, ribosome, and organelle stores. This tpermits the resulting embryo to have nourishment.
304
Regulatory subunit
Inhibitors and activators bind here
305
Vacuoles
In plant and protist cells Store waste products and toxic compounds; some may deter herbivores Provides structure for plant cells, water enters by osmosis and creates turbot pressure Stores anthocyanins(pigment) in flowers/fruit to attract pollinators Digestive enzymes to hydrolyze stored food for early growth
306
CO2 fixation
CO2 is reduced to carbohydrates Enzymes in the stroma use the energy in ATP and NADPH to reduce CO2 Because the ATP and NADPH are not "stockpiled," these light independent reactions must also take place in light
307
AIDS
Acquired immune deficiency syndrome, viruses attack immune cells, vulnerable system open to opportunistic infection
308
Gastrulation
Gastrulation is the process in which a blastulais transformed into an embryo with three tissue layers and body axes
309
Sharp object penetrating skin
Easiest way to get infected by a pathogen Some cells are already in the vicinity, they destroy and then call for back up
310
Acid
Releases hydrogen ions through ionization, ph less than 7
311
Cilia
Shorter, present in great numbers
312
Proteins digestion
Dietary proteins Salivary glands: pepsin breaks them down to small polypeptides Pancreas: pancreatic trypsinogen and chymotrypsinogen breaks them down into smaller polypeptides, pancreatic procarboxypeptidase breaks them down into very small peptides and amino acids Small intestine: aminopeptidases break them down into amino acids
313
Different contributions to the zygote:
*   Sperm: DNA and a centriole, in somespecies. | *   Egg: DNA, organelles, nutrients, transcription factors, mRNAs.
314
Phagocytosis
Attatchment (opsonization)- Physically bind to pathogen Internalization, turns into phagosome Degradation- Fuses with lysosome and becomes phagolysosome, and after the digestive enzymes can be reused Exocytosis- elimination of debris
315
Microbes
Harmful substances, living or dead
316
Chorionic villus sampling
tissue isremoved from the chorion after the eighth week
317
Chemical barriers
Sebum- oily acidic substance released from sebaceous glands Lacrimal glands- tears protect sclera and cornea, dripping through nasal cavity, washing of the eye Lysozymes- degrading/digestive enzymes secreted from the mucous membranes Defensins- peptides secreted from the mucous membranes Ear wax- things get stuck Sweat- cools body and at same time destroys microorganisms on skin, B.O. Is the degradation of bacteria on skin Macrophages- immune cells Stomach acid- HCl, damaging Saliva
318
When a pigment molecule absorbs a photon (excited state) the energy can be-
Released as heat and/or light Transferred to another molecule Used for a chemical reaction
319
Chromatin
Diffuse or long thin fibers in which DNA is bound to proteins Prior to cell division these condense and form chromosomes
320
Path of zygote
*   Still in the oviduct, the zygote divides to become a blastocyst and continues down the oviduct. *   In the uterus, the blastocyst attaches to the wall lining called the endometrium.
321
Autoimmune disease
Immune system turned against you, attacks a particular tissue - diabetes type 1: attacks beta cells that produce insulin - multiple sclerosis: attacks myelin, slows electrical activities - rheumatoid arthritis: attacks joints
322
Absorption spectrum
Plot of wavelengths absorbed by a pigment
323
Amniocentesis
extraction of amnioticfluid with a needle, after the fourteenth week of pregnancy
324
Sertoli cells
•  The germ cells are protected from noxioussubstances in the blood by Sertoli cells, which also provide nutrients for the developing sperm and are involved in the hormonal control of spermatogenesis.
325
Photosynthesis in noncyclic electron electron transport
Each photosystem consists of several chlorophyll and accessory pigment molecules Complement each other, must be constantly absorbing light energy to power noncyclic electron transport
326
Mitochondrial matrix
Region enclosed by inner membrane Krebs or citric acid cycle takes place here
327
Smooth ER
Ribosome free region
328
Phagocytosis & Recruitment
* Macrophages in the nearby tissue detect bacteria using receptor proteins to engulf them * Macrophages release cytokines- chemicals for recruitment * Mast cells release histamine- causes vasodilation * Injured cells release chemotaxins- chemo attractants to attract immune cells
329
Sharp object penetrating skin
Easiest way to get infected by a pathogen Some cells are already in the vicinity, they destroy and then call for back up
330
Bacteria
Unicellular prokaryotes
331
Lipids digestion
Dietary lipids Pancreas and liver: bile salts break fat globules down into fat droplets, pancreatic lipase breaks them down into glycerol, fatty acids, monoglycerides
332
Eukaryotes
Membrane enclosed nucleus as well as other membrane enclosed compartments Animals, plants, fungi, protists Contains organelles, membrane enclosed nucleus Protein scaffolding called cytoskeleton
333
Hypothalamus and anterior pituitary
•  The hypothalamus controls the anterior pituitary by secreting hypophysiotropic hormones (releasing hormones) –  Dopamine (DA) –  Gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH) –  Thyrotropin releasing hormone (TRH) –  Corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH) –  Growth hormone releasing hormone (GHRH)–  Somatostatin (SS)
334
Phagocytosis
Attatchment (opsonization)- Physically bind to pathogen Internalization, turns into phagosome Degradation- Fuses with lysosome and becomes phagolysosome, and after the digestive enzymes can be reused Exocytosis- elimination of debris
335
Components of homeostatic system
•  Receptors –  Provide information about specific conditions •  Control Center –  Evaluates the information from receptors –  Set point •  Effectors –  Respond to restore the deviation from the setvalues of the internal environment
336
Amino Acids Absorption
*   Absorbed by secondary active transportsimilar to carbohydrates absorption *   Taken to the blood via carrier proteins
337
Nuclear pores
In the nuclear envelope, connect the interior of the nucleus with the rest of the cytoplasm Pore complex- 8 large protein granules surround each pore RNA and proteins must pass through these pores to enter or leave the nucleus
338
Processes in Calvin Benson cycle
Fixation of CO2 by combination with RuBP (catalyzes by rubisco) Conversion of fixed CO2 into carbohydrate G3P (using ATP and NADPH) Regeneration of CO2 acceptor RuBP by ATP
339
Base
Releases hydroxide ions, accept H+, ph greater than 7
340
Photo system 1
Light energy reduces NADP+ to NADPH Reaction center has chlorophyll a molecules: P700 absorbs in the 700nm range
341
Absorption spectrum
Plot of wavelengths absorbed by a pigment
342
Sharp object penetrating skin
Easiest way to get infected by a pathogen Some cells are already in the vicinity, they destroy and then call for back up
343
Second trimester
limbs elongate and facial features form
344
Golgi apparatus
Has flattened membrane sacs and small membrane enclosed vesicles
345
Phagocytosis
Attatchment (opsonization)- Physically bind to pathogen Internalization, turns into phagosome Degradation- Fuses with lysosome and becomes phagolysosome, and after the digestive enzymes can be reused Exocytosis- elimination of debris
346
G3P
Gylceraldehyde 3 phosphate 5/6 recycled into RuBP 1/6 converted to starch and sucrose to make glucose and fructose
347
Blastocoel
a central fluid-filled cavity that forms in the ball of cells The embryo becomes a blastula and its cells are called blastomeres
348
Pathogens
Parasite Bacteria Protist Fungi Virus
349
Male genitalia
Penis and scrotum
350
Pressure and Volume Change
During inspiration the volume of the lungs increases and the pressure decreases- atmospheric pressure is higher than alveolar pressure, and diffusion can occur During expiration, the volume of the lungs decreases and the pressure increases- alveolar pressure becomes higher than atmospheric pressure- diffusion outwards
351
Photosynthesis
"synthesis from light" Plants take in CO2, produce carbohydrates, and release O2 and water Light is required 6CO2 + 12H2O--> C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O
352
Sterile cotton swab
Collect microorganisms by smearing on surface Put on a culture dish with solution called tryptic soy agar, which has nutrients that make bacteria reproduce so you can see them
353
Premature Contractions and Delivery
*   A positive feedback loop develops (mechanical stimuli increase the release of oxytocin, and vice versa), and this converts Braxton-Hicks contractions into stronger labor contractions. *   In the early stage of labor, contractions gradually become more frequent and intense until they haveopened the cervix. *   In the delivery stage, the baby’s head moves into the vagina and becomes visible from the outside. *   The usual head-down position of the baby comes about during the seventh month of pregnancy.
354
Nuclear pores
In the nuclear envelope, connect the interior of the nucleus with the rest of the cytoplasm Pore complex- 8 large protein granules surround each pore RNA and proteins must pass through these pores to enter or leave the nucleus
355
Pili
Threadlike structures, help bacteria adhere to one another during mating or to other cells for food and protection Some prokaryotes have these
356
TRH
Thyrotropin releasing hormone Stimulates release of TSH
357
Photosynthesis
"synthesis from light" Plants take in CO2, produce carbohydrates, and release O2 and water Light is required 6CO2 + 12H2O--> C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O
358
Anencephaly
failure of the neural tube to close at the anterior end and no forebrain develops
359
Cleavage
a rapid series of celldivision, but no cell growth In mammals cleavage is rotational: First cell division is parallel to the animal–vegetal axis; yields two blastomeres. In second division two blastomeres divide at right angles to each other;one is parallel to the axis and the other is perpendicular to it. This pattern of division is unique to mammals with placentas.
360
Centrioles
Made of microtubules Fund in organizing center near the cell nucleus Similar to basal bodies, but in center of call and help in movement of chromosomes during cell division
361
How does photosynthesis convert light energy to chemical energy?
Reaction center converts light energy to chemical energy Excited chlorophyll a molecule (Chl*) is a reducing agent (electron donor) A is an acceptor molecule (oxidizing agent) Chl* + A --> Chl+ + A- A is the first in a chain of electron carriers on the thylakoid membrane (electron transport) a series of redox reactions Final electron acceptor is NADP+ NADP+ + e- --> NADPH + H+
362
Eukaryotes
Membrane enclosed nucleus as well as other membrane enclosed compartments Animals, plants, fungi, protists Contains organelles, membrane enclosed nucleus Protein scaffolding called cytoskeleton
363
Genome
Complete set of DNA in a living organism
364
Vasodilation & Increased Permeability
• Histamine causes vasodilation – increases diameter, Increase in blood flow to infected area – Redness occurs – Increase delivery of proteins – Edema occurs- swelling, fluid from blood cells into interstitial tissue * increased permeability- proteins gain entry from blood to interstitial fluid * objective- get more immune cells
365
Secondary structure
Alpha helix- right handed coil, resulting from hydrogen bonding, common in fibrous structural proteins Beta pleated sheet- two or more polypeptide chains are aligned, hydrogen bonded
366
Muscles of Expiration
•  Passive expiration –  Elastic recoil of the lungs •  Active expiration –  Contraction of internal intercostals –  Contraction of abdominal muscles (causesdiaphragm to be pushed up)
367
Monosaccharides with different numbers of carbons
Hexoses: six carbons, has structural isomers (mannose, galactose, fructose) Pentoses: five carbons (ribose has OH, deoxyribose is more stable, has H)
368
Processes in Calvin Benson cycle
Fixation of CO2 by combination with RuBP (catalyzes by rubisco) Conversion of fixed CO2 into carbohydrate G3P (using ATP and NADPH) Regeneration of CO2 acceptor RuBP by ATP
369
Photosystem 2
Light energy oxidizes water to oxygen, H+, and electrons Reaction center has chlorophyll a molecules: P680 absorbs at 680 nm (more energetic than P700) Excited first
370
Non spontaneous reaction
Need input of energy Endergonic, positive delta G Reverse process must be exergonic
371
Oval window
Membrane covered opening, leads from middle ear to inner ear
372
Lymphoid progenitor cells
Form into B lymphocytes, T lymphocytes
373
How do veins move blood?
low pressure because at the end of that circuit, hold the majority of blood, and if the blood is going back up it is working against gravity, dead on skeletal muscles Skeletal muscle pump- veins are in between muscles and contraction pumps blood, valves in veins prevent blood from coming back down when muscles relax
374
Microbes
Harmful substances, living or dead
375
Autoimmune disease
Immune system turned against you, attacks a particular tissue - diabetes type 1: attacks beta cells that produce insulin - multiple sclerosis: attacks myelin, slows electrical activities - rheumatoid arthritis: attacks joints
376
Ingredients for photosynthesis
Co2 reduced to sugars that travel throughout the plant body Water up taken by roots Water and oxygen released
377
Path of the egg
the mature egg is released into the body cavity and is swept into the end of the oviduct (Fallopian tube) by an undulating fringe of tissue (Fertilization takes place in the oviduct and, in humans, the second meiotic division takes place) Cilia lining the oviduct propel the fertilized or unfertilized egg toward the uterus, a muscular, thick-walled cavity The opening at the bottom of the uterus is the cervix,which leads into the vagina
378
Salts
Ionically bonded compounds
379
Hemoglobin
Hemoglobin is a metal (iron) that is positively charged, and oxygen negatively charged, so they bind
380
Pressure change
Breathing associated with skeletal muscles that are constantly contracting and relaxing, gases are quantified by pressur Atmospheric pressure (Patm)- pressure on the outside in the environment Alveolar pressure (Palv)-pressure inside your lungs Intrapleural pressure (Pip)- pressure in pleural sac, fills up with fluid that exerts pressure Alveolar and interpleural pressure are constantly fluctuating because they depend on your state
381
If blocker blocked gated channels?
It would stop action potentials Tetrodotoxin- in puffer fish, affects predators novociane- pain suppressors block VGSC, both reversible
382
Spina bifida
failure of the neural tube to fuse in a posterior region dueto vitamin B deficiency
383
Lungs and the mechanisms of the chest
Easy, effortless to breath because of the mechanics of the lungs- always slightly inflated to make inspiration easier Lungs attached to chest wall and inner layer of your rib cage by very thin set of membranes called a pleural sac Ribs protect your lungs and work in synchrony with them, chest expands and increase in volume along with your lungs
384
Cations
Positive
385
Function of the DigestiveSystem
*  Breaks down the food we eat, breaking the covalent bonds that make up large molecules *   Absorbs the food to transfer it to cells - Food can be used with oxygen to produce energy - travels from digestive system into blood, so it can be accessible to our cells
386
Gated channels
Can be closed or open to ion passage, most ion channels are gated Gate opens when protein is stimulated to change shape Stimulus can be molecule (ligand gated) or electrical charge resulting from many ions (voltage gated)
387
Stoma
Mouth of plant Co2 enters and O2/water exit through these pores
388
How is Carbon Dioxide Transported?
5-6% dissolved in plasma 5-8% bind to hemoglobin at a different binding site than oxygen 86-90% converted to hydrogen ions and bicarbonate by enzyme called carbonic anhydrase. When co2 goes up hydrogen ions go up and ph decreases, and vice versa. Want ph of 7.4
389
Binocular vision
Overlap of left and right visual field, gives us depth perception
390
Spermatogenesis
Male germ cell (2n) Mitosis Spermatogonium (2n) Mitosis (first DNA synthesis-Chromosomes don't separate, cross over- DNA from two pairs get scrambled) Primary spermatocyte (2n) first meiotic division (no DNA synthesis) Secondary spermatocytes (1n) Secondary meiotic division, independent assortment of chromosomes Spermatids (1n) Differentiation and maturation Sperm cells (1n)
391
Chemoreceptors
Homeostatic mechanism: Chemoreceptors constantly measuring level of oxygen and co2, send signal through sensory nerve fibers Need increased inspiration during exercise, or if holding breath (decrease oxygen availability and increase co2 availability) •  Peripheral –  Carotid bodies –  Aortic bodies •  Central- within nervous system, medulla oblongata
392
Major endocrine glands
Hypothalamus, pineal, pituitary, Thyroid,Parathyroid, Adrenal glands, Pancreas, Gonads
393
Hemoglobin
Hemoglobin is a metal (iron) that is positively charged, and oxygen negatively charged, so they bind
394
Complement system
Pore formation: First complement protein (inactive), cascade of protein activation in bacterial cell Swelling: fluid rushes into cells Lysis
395
emission
contractions of smooth muscles in the vasa deferentia and accessory glands move semen into the urethra
396
Gas transport through membranes
Oxygen has to cross alveoli and membrane of the capillaries to get into the plasma, and then another membrane to get inside the red blood cells Loading phase- hemoglobin picks up oxygen Unloading phase- release oxygen into your tissues to use, takes into mitochondria to produce ATP
397
Ruben and kamen
Used radioisotope tracers (O18 and O16) to determine that water was the source of O2 released during photosynthesis rather than CO2
398
Autoimmune disease
Immune system turned against you, attacks a particular tissue - diabetes type 1: attacks beta cells that produce insulin - multiple sclerosis: attacks myelin, slows electrical activities - rheumatoid arthritis: attacks joints
399
Processes in Calvin Benson cycle
Fixation of CO2 by combination with RuBP (catalyzes by rubisco) Conversion of fixed CO2 into carbohydrate G3P (using ATP and NADPH) Regeneration of CO2 acceptor RuBP by ATP
400
Neutrophils
Most abundant phagocytic cells Release: Cytokines- alarming chemicals to alarm other immune cells Vasodilators- increases size of blood cells, Make blood vessel bigger so immune cells can travel Chemotaxins- chemo attractants, attract other immune cells, travel in blood vessels and squeeze out of them, can get anywhere in the body
401
Accessory pigments
Transfer energy absorbed to chorophylls Carotenoids and phycobilins Absorb intermediate between red and blue
402
Sterile cotton swab
Collect microorganisms by smearing on surface Put on a culture dish with solution called tryptic soy agar, which has nutrients that make bacteria reproduce so you can see them
403
Phagocytosis
Food molecules enter the cell through a formed phagosome
404
Peroxisomes
Also called microbodies Small organelles specialized to compartmentalize toxic peroxides and break them down Break down of hydrogen peroxide through catalase
405
Autoimmune disease
Immune system turned against you, attacks a particular tissue - diabetes type 1: attacks beta cells that produce insulin - multiple sclerosis: attacks myelin, slows electrical activities - rheumatoid arthritis: attacks joints
406
Pigments
Molecule that undergoes chemical change when responding to light Rods- protein rhodopsin Cones- protein photopsin, S(blue) M(green) L(red) pigments These proteins contain a pigment called retinal
407
third trimester
internal organs mature and organ systems begin to function The last organs to mature before birthare the lungs
408
Parts of the respiratory system
Nasal/oral cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, primary/secondary/tertiary bronchus, bronchioles (if you don't need a lot of oxygen bronchioles are slightly constricted), alveoli (site of exchange) All made of cartilage up to the trachea
409
Mast cells
* Mast cells are found throughout connective tissues (not found in blood) * They release histamine and other chemicals involved in inflammation
410
Organization of the immune system
Nonspecific immune response- protects against foreign substances without having to recognize their identity Specific immune response- highly specific, usually a major problem that your body is really trying to fight
411
Cochlea
Filled with fluid 3 chambers: scala vestibuli/tympani (filled with perilymph, a filtrate of csf, movement of this generates electrical activity) and also cochlear duct (filled with endolymph) Organ of corti in the center Connected to auditory nerve
412
Hormonal secretion
Gland releases hormone by triggering mechanism to stimulate gland to release hormone- Different gland triggered in different ways
413
Cytotoxic T Cell
Release perform and granzymes Induce apoptosis (Fas) Attack cancer cells which stop mitosis regulation and keep dividing- they bond to these and release perforins that poke h ones in the membrane, eater can go in, releases granzymes in the hole or proteins that activate apoptosis
414
Nuclear envelope
Formed by two lipid bilayers
415
Photo system 1
Light energy reduces NADP+ to NADPH Reaction center has chlorophyll a molecules: P700 absorbs in the 700nm range
416
Gestation
pregnancy in humans is about 266 days and is divided into trimesters
417
Blood
Made of cellular components, erythrocytes(red blood cells, carry oxygen), leukocytes, and platelets (minimize blood loss and promote blood plotting) suspended in a plasma fluid Plasma contains water and proteins (hormones, ions, glucose, amino acids etc) Only fluid like connective tissue, 90% water. Fluid and cellular component
418
Energy transfer and electron transport
Light energy absorbed by antenna chlorophylls, and passed on to reaction center Molecule goes to excited state Energized electron from chlorophyll molecules passed to electron acceptor to reduce it
419
G3P
Gylceraldehyde 3 phosphate 5/6 recycled into RuBP 1/6 converted to starch and sucrose to make glucose and fructose
420
Premature Contractions and Delivery
*   A positive feedback loop develops (mechanical stimuli increase the release of oxytocin, and vice versa), and this converts Braxton-Hicks contractions into stronger labor contractions. *   In the early stage of labor, contractions gradually become more frequent and intense until they haveopened the cervix. *   In the delivery stage, the baby’s head moves into the vagina and becomes visible from the outside. *   The usual head-down position of the baby comes about during the seventh month of pregnancy.
421
Artery
Strong elastic vessels that carry blood away from the heart Branch into smaller arterioles Elastic- when heart ejects blood they have to accommodate a large amount of blood, very high pressure, contraction of heart, arteries accommodating this force Uniform shape
422
Lipids
Non polar hydrocarbons | Van der waals forces- not polymers in strict sense because they are not covalently bonded
423
Amniocentesis
extraction of amnioticfluid with a needle, after the fourteenth week of pregnancy
424
Unipolar neurons
Short single process and divide into two long branches Function as sensory (efferent) neuron
425
Movement from capillaries into interstitial fluid
Small things such as ions, glucose, amino acids can move through slits Small proteins need to move by transcytosis (endo and exo cytosis) Large proteins cannot get through
426
Gap junctions
Allow communication, transmit current through channels Regulated and controlled by ions
427
Ruben and kamen
Used radioisotope tracers (O18 and O16) to determine that water was the source of O2 released during photosynthesis rather than CO2
428
GH
Growth hormone Promotes growth Target organ: muscles, liver, bones, etc
429
Chemical structure of hormones
*   Hormones can be made of steroids or peptides *   Their synthesis and secretion vary *   Their chemical structure determines their mechanisms of action on target cells
430
Gestation
pregnancy in humans is about 266 days and is divided into trimesters
431
Different contributions to the zygote:
*   Sperm: DNA and a centriole, in somespecies. | *   Egg: DNA, organelles, nutrients, transcription factors, mRNAs.
432
Control of breathing
Voluntary until it becomes physiologically dangerous, your brain will force you to breathe. •  Inspiration is initiated by stimulating the respiratory muscles –  Diaphragm and external intercostals •  The stimulation is initiated in the medullary centers and the pons Medulla oblongata sends signal to spinal cord, phrenic nerve sends action potential to diaphragm. 100% controlled by brain unless you voluntarily change it, stimulation always occurring. Neurons called central patter generator, send action potentials then they stop, perfectly synced on/off mechanism
433
Rods in the dark
Photoreceptors are depolarized, no signal to the brain Chemically gated channels area activated by guanosine mono phosphate (a nucleotide), when these levels are high channels are opened Steps: CGMP levels are high Na+ channels are open Na+ influx causes depolarization- small activity, receptor potential Ca+ channels open Ca+ influx occurs NT release causes graded potential in bipolar cells
434
Peroxisomes
Also called microbodies Small organelles specialized to compartmentalize toxic peroxides and break them down Break down of hydrogen peroxide through catalase
435
Pacemaker cells
*   Sinoatrial node (SA) located in the right atrium *   Atrioventricular node (AV) located on the interatrial septum *   Bundle of His: located on the interventicular septum *   Bundle branches *   Purkinje fibers: located on the ventricular walls
436
When a pigment molecule absorbs a photon (excited state) the energy can be-
Released as heat and/or light Transferred to another molecule Used for a chemical reaction
437
Inferior vena cava
Brings deoxygenated blood from all structures below diaphragm
438
Complement system
Pore formation: First complement protein (inactive), cascade of protein activation in bacterial cell Swelling: fluid rushes into cells Lysis
439
Cyclic electron transport
Electron from excited P700 chlorophyll molecule n photosystem one cycles back to the same chlorophyll molecule Involves a series of exergonic redox reactions, the released energy creates a proton gradient that is used to synthesize ATP
440
Proteins and lipids in the membrane interacting
Independent, only interact noncovalently Some membrane proteins have fatty acids or other lipid groups covalently attached, called anchored membrane proteins
441
Pressure and Volume Change
During inspiration the volume of the lungs increases and the pressure decreases- atmospheric pressure is higher than alveolar pressure, and diffusion can occur During expiration, the volume of the lungs decreases and the pressure increases- alveolar pressure becomes higher than atmospheric pressure- diffusion outwards
442
Receptors
Provide information about specific conditions Group of cells that detects and senses the environment, do not have the ability to change anything, they are like a reporting agency that sends info to control center
443
Flagella
Come in ones and twos, longer than cilia
444
Blastomere
*   Blastomeres become determined, or committed toa specific fate, at different times in different animals. *   Roundworm and clam blastomeres are already determined at the 8-cell stage. *   If one cell is removed, a portion of the embryo fails to develop normally. This is called mosaic development. *   Humans have regulative development. If some cells are lost during cleavage, other cells can compensate. For genetic testing in humans, one cell can be removed from a blastula following in vitro fertilization. If there are no mutations in the gene of interest, that blastula can be implanted
445
Diameter of blood vessels
Blood vessels decrease in diameter when a part of your body is not in use, happens because of the tunica media. Arteries- more tunica media because more regulation Rest (tone), vasoconstriction, vasodilation
446
Arrangement of microtubules in flagella and cilia
9+2 array- 9 pairs and 2 individual microtubules in center At the base of flagella and cilia is the nasal body, the 9 rings extend there
447
Peristaltic contraction
Unidirectional movement of food through the stomach
448
Chorionic villus sampling
tissue isremoved from the chorion after the eighth week
449
Protist
Uni or multicellular, contaminate lakes and drinking water to invade host
450
Axon
Each neuron has one, generates and conducts signals away from the soma (unidirectional) Abundant micro tubules for transport Also known as nerve fibers
451
Phagocytosis & Recruitment
* Macrophages in the nearby tissue detect bacteria using receptor proteins to engulf them * Macrophages release cytokines- chemicals for recruitment * Mast cells release histamine- causes vasodilation * Injured cells release chemotaxins- chemo attractants to attract immune cells
452
How is polypeptide chain organized?
Like a sentence- "capital letter" is like the amino group of the first amino acid, and the "period" is like the carboxyl group of the last amino acid
453
Components of homeostatic system
Receptors Control centers Effectors
454
Vein
Carry blood back to the heart Have thinner walls than arteries Small branches are called venules Not elastic, have low pressure Thin and collapsed
455
Triglycerides
Simple lipids composed of fatty acids and glycerol (ex:fats and oils)
456
Creatine supplements
Do not make a difference for the average individual (maybe will give Olympic athlete the extra boost they need) increases power for a limited amount of time and then the effect is gone
457
Photo system 1
Light energy reduces NADP+ to NADPH Reaction center has chlorophyll a molecules: P700 absorbs in the 700nm range
458
Antenna systems
Pigments arranged in these Also called light harvesting complexes
459
Limit of resolution for light microscopy
.61 x .4u / 1.4 = .17u
460
Photosystem
Multiple antenna systems, surround reaction centers Pigments packed together on thylakoids membrane proteins Excitation energy passes from the pigments that absorb short wavelengths to those that absorb longer wavelengths, and ends up in the reaction center pigment
461
Somites
separate, segmented blocks of cells on either side of the neural tube. Muscle, cartilage, bone, and lower layer of the skin form from somites. Neural crest cells are guided by somites to develop into peripheral nerves and other structures
462
Where are these microorganisms?
They like moisture, food particles, want to get in blood vessels (from there they can travel all over the body)
463
Nuclear envelope
Formed by two lipid bilayers
464
Mast cells
* Mast cells are found throughout connective tissues (not found in blood) * They release histamine and other chemicals involved in inflammation
465
Inspiration
Diaphragm- Lungs physically sit on diaphragm, main muscle for respiration, pushes down during inspiration External intercostal muscles- contact and push down
466
Hypophysis (pituitary gland)
Located behind your nose, size of pea, need it to survive 9 hormones each with particular function Two separate lobes (anterior and posterior)
467
Alveolar type II cells
Secrete surfactant which keeps the alveoli from collapsing
468
Neural pathway
Skin receptors to sensory neuron (receives signal and sends to CNS) to interneuron(processes) to motor neuron to effector
469
Photosynthesis
"synthesis from light" Plants take in CO2, produce carbohydrates, and release O2 and water Light is required 6CO2 + 12H2O--> C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O
470
Functions of the Respiratory System
*   Provides oxygen *   Eliminates carbon dioxide *   Regulates pH level- More co2 you get rid of the more hydrogen ions you get rid of *   Speech production *   Defense against foreign bodies- non specific immunity
471
Extracellular destruction: complement
• Membrane Attack Complex (MAC) – Embeds itself in the microbe membrane, forming pores – Water and salt enter the microbe Proteins released by liver to do the job: complement system
472
Z scheme
Model of noncyclic electron transport Extracts electrons from water and transfers them to NADPH, using energy from photosynthesis one and two and resulting in ATP synthesis Yields ATP, NADPH, and O2
473
Accessory Digestive Organs
Food does not get to them but there is important secretion ``` •  Salivary glands –  Sublingual (under tongue), submandibular (under mandible), parotid (gland by ear •  Pancreas •  Liver •  Gallbladder ```
474
What Affects Hb-OxygenBinding?
Demands for oxygen changing depending on your state. (if sitting, cells in legs not picking up that much oxygen) so ATP production chants, and more ATP produced the more oxygen you get delivered. Waste products signify how much ATP you are making so your red blood cells know. *   BPG (2,3 Bisphosphoglyceric acid)- BPG by product of glycolysis- when increases, unload more oxygen. *   Temperature *   Acidity- lactic acid is byproduct of fermentation
475
Ribosomes
Sites of protein synthesis found free in cytoplasm, in mitochondria, bound to the endoplasmic reticulum, and in chloroplasts Consist of ribosomal RNA and more than 50 other proteins
476
Functions of the Respiratory System
*   Provides oxygen *   Eliminates carbon dioxide *   Regulates pH level- More co2 you get rid of the more hydrogen ions you get rid of *   Speech production *   Defense against foreign bodies- non specific immunity
477
Calvin and benson
Used 14C radioisotope to determine the sequence of reactions in CO2 fixation Exposed chlorella to 14CO2 then extracted the organic compounds and separated them by paper chromatography 3 second exposure of chlorella to 14CO2 revealed that the first compound to be formed is 3PG, a 3 carbon sugar phosphate
478
Gas transport through membranes
Oxygen has to cross alveoli and membrane of the capillaries to get into the plasma, and then another membrane to get inside the red blood cells Loading phase- hemoglobin picks up oxygen Unloading phase- release oxygen into your tissues to use, takes into mitochondria to produce ATP
479
Where are these microorganisms?
They like moisture, food particles, want to get in blood vessels (from there they can travel all over the body)
480
Functions of the extracellular matrix
Holds cells together in tissues Contributes to physical properties of tissue Helps filter material passing between tissues Helps orient cell movement Role in chemical signaling
481
Leydig cells
Male sex hormones are produced by clusters of Leydig cells lying between the seminiferous tubules.
482
Ester linkage
Carboxyl bind with hydroxyls of glycerol
483
Cell membranes and the extracellular matrix
Cell membranes adhere to the extracellular matrix Tans,embrace protein integrity binds to the matrix outside epithelial cells and to actin filaments inside the cells, noncovalent and reversible binding
484
Secondary active transport
Energy comes from an ion concentration gradient that is established by primary active transport Energy can be "regained" by letting ions move across a membrane with the concentration gradient Aids in uptake of amino acids and sugars Uses symporters and antiporters
485
Light reactions
Convert light energy to chemical energy as ATP and NADH
486
Entry of Sperm into the Egg
*   In animals with internal fertilization, egg–sperm recognition mechanisms also exist. *   In the female reproductive tract, mammalian sperm are metabolically activated and attracted to the egg in the oviduct, but also aided in their movement by muscular contractions. *   The mammalian egg is surrounded by a thick layer called the cumulus. Beneath that is a protein envelope called the zona pellucida. *   A species-specific glycoprotein in the zona pellucida binds to the head of the sperm. *   The acrosomal reaction is triggered, releasing acrosomal enzymes that digest a path through the zona pellucida
487
Plasma
•  Contain proteins that exert osmoticpressure •  Many types: –  Albumins: transport proteins –  Globulins: immune function –  Fibrinogen: clotting function •  Minerals and electrolytes
488
Physical barriers
Skin- brick layers of cells, most pathogens can't get through it, also produces a hard and fibrous protein called keratin. The closest layer to the surface has the highest amount of keratin- the outermost layer of skin is dead, it produced too much keratin to function Fibrous layer of the eyes Mucous membrane of the respiratory, digestive, urinary, and reproductive systems, and ear- thick membrane that prevents pathogens from getting into the circulation Cilia
489
Gastrulation
Gastrulation is the process in which a blastulais transformed into an embryo with three tissue layers and body axes
490
Osmosis
Diffusion of water Depends on number of solute particles present, not the type of particles If two solutions are separated by a membrane that allows water but not solutes to pass through the water will diffuse of the region of higher water concentration to the region of lower water concentration (water will go from hypotonic to hypertonic)
491
The small intestine
*   The small intestine is made of three parts: duodenum, jejunum, and ileum *   Bile and pancreatic enzymes are released into the duodenum *   The circular folds of the small intestine contain finger like projections called villi *   Villi increase the surface area, space in between called crypt of Lieberk hn *   Each villus is made of many epithelial cells *   Each epithelial cell contains microvilli (brush border)- One end of epithelial cell faces the food, one end faces the blood vessel, side that faces food have micro villi
492
Functions of the extracellular matrix
Holds cells together in tissues Contributes to physical properties of tissue Helps filter material passing between tissues Helps orient cell movement Role in chemical signaling
493
placenta
organ of exchange of nutrients and waste products between the embryo’s and the mother’s blood
494
emission
contractions of smooth muscles in the vasa deferentia and accessory glands move semen into the urethra
495
Photosystem 2
Light energy oxidizes water to oxygen, H+, and electrons Reaction center has chlorophyll a molecules: P680 absorbs at 680 nm (more energetic than P700) Excited first
496
Roles of Golgi apparatus
Receive proteins from ER and modify them Concentrate/package/sort proteins before they are sent to their destinations Sme polysaccharides for plant cell walls are synthesized
497
Rubisco
Enzyme that catalyzes fixation of CO2 Ribosome bisphosphate carboxylase/ Most abundant protein in the world, 50% of the protein in a leaf
498
seminal vesicles
produce about two-thirds of the volume of semen, consisting of mucus, fibrinogen (clotting agent), and fructose as an energy source for the sperm
499
Antenna systems
Pigments arranged in these Also called light harvesting complexes
500
During gastrulation, three germ layers form
–  The inner germ layer is the endoderm and gives rise to the digestive tract, circulatory tract, and respiratory tract. –  The outer layer, the ectoderm, gives rise to the epidermis and nervous system. –  The middle layer, the mesoderm, contributes to bone, muscle, liver, heart, and blood vessels
501
Secondary lysosome
Phagosomes fuse with primary lysosomes to form secondary lysosomes Enzymes hydrolyze the food molecules
502
Path of zygote
*   Still in the oviduct, the zygote divides to become a blastocyst and continues down the oviduct. *   In the uterus, the blastocyst attaches to the wall lining called the endometrium.
503
Nucleotides
Monomers of nucleic acid Pentoses sugar, phosphate group, nitrogen containing base (without phosphate group called nucleosides)
504
Parasite
Any organism that invades and lives by the expense of another body Most are animals, either micro or macroscopic Infects muscles and digestive system takes blood (muscles) and nutrients (liver)
505
How do gases cross the lung/bloodmedia?
Process of diffusion. Alveoli made of single layered cells, blood capillaries only have tunica intima and some connective tissue, so very thin, and easy process of diffusion Both the capillaries and the alveoli are lined with simple squamous epithelium
506
Barriers to infection
Physical barriers Chemical barriers Reflexes
507
ovarian cycle
*   The ovarian cycle repeats about every 28 days. *   A woman’s fertile years total about 450 ovarian cycles. In each cycle in most cases, one oocyte matures and is released. *   The end of fertility (menopause) occurs at about age 50, and only a few oocytes are left in each ovary.
508
Dunedin
Microtubules cross linked by the spokes of this motor protein Changes shape when energy is released from ATP, move vesicles toward minus end
509
The immune system
Protects against infection and microbes Isolates and removes non microbial foreign substances
510
Sterile cotton swab
Collect microorganisms by smearing on surface Put on a culture dish with solution called tryptic soy agar, which has nutrients that make bacteria reproduce so you can see them
511
Sarcoplasmic reticulum
Modified smooth ER, stores calcium Found around myofibrils Lateral sacs are the the end segments that release calcium upon stimulation Calcium released by a series of events
512
The immune system
Protects against infection and microbes Isolates and removes non microbial foreign substances
513
Gestation
pregnancy in humans is about 266 days and is divided into trimesters
514
Chemical bond
Attractive force that links atoms together to form molecules All chemical bonds involve changes in the relationships of electrons one with the other
515
Bone marrow
Produces mulitpotent hematopoietic cell, which in return can be a myeloid or a lymphoid progenitor cel Stem cells- have not differentiated yet, blood stem cells can become blood cells
516
Boyle's law
Pressure and volume are inversely proportiona Gases in a container, when volume decreased, pressure increases due to collision of gas molecules and now these gas molecules are confined to a smaller place, so more bombardment Lungs are always changing in volume so the pressure changes as well with inspiration and expiration
517
First trimester
embryo becomes a fetus Heart begins to beat by week 4 Limbs form by week 8 The first trimester is the period during which the fetus is most susceptible to damage from radiation, drugs, chemicals, and agents that cause birth defects. The hormone hCG (human chorionic gonadotropin) is released after implantation and is an early indicator of pregnancy
518
Inner cell mass
•  The inner cell mass of the blastocyst splits into an epiblast and hypoblast with a fluid-filled cavity in between (just like the reptilian and avian gastrula). *   The embryo forms from the epiblast. *   The epiblast also splits off a layer of cells that form the amnion. The amnion grows around the developing embryo. *   The hypoblast cells extend to form the chorion. Thechorion and other tissues produce the placenta. *   The epiblast produces the amnion. Allantoic tissues form the umbilical cord.
519
Pathogens
Parasite Bacteria Protist Fungi Virus
520
Vasodilation & Increased Permeability
• Histamine causes vasodilation – increases diameter, Increase in blood flow to infected area – Redness occurs – Increase delivery of proteins – Edema occurs- swelling, fluid from blood cells into interstitial tissue * increased permeability- proteins gain entry from blood to interstitial fluid * objective- get more immune cells
521
Fertilization
Fertilization is the union of haploid sperm and haploid egg to produce a single diploid cell, the zygote
522
Negative feedback mechanism
a decrease in function in response to a stimulus
523
Mixed endocrine glands
Thymus, heart, stomach, kidneys, and small intestine
524
The small intestine
*   The small intestine is made of three parts: duodenum, jejunum, and ileum *   Bile and pancreatic enzymes are released into the duodenum *   The circular folds of the small intestine contain finger like projections called villi *   Villi increase the surface area, space in between called crypt of Lieberk hn *   Each villus is made of many epithelial cells *   Each epithelial cell contains microvilli (brush border)- One end of epithelial cell faces the food, one end faces the blood vessel, side that faces food have micro villi
525
Inner cell mass
•  The inner cell mass of the blastocyst splits into an epiblast and hypoblast with a fluid-filled cavity in between (just like the reptilian and avian gastrula). *   The embryo forms from the epiblast. *   The epiblast also splits off a layer of cells that form the amnion. The amnion grows around the developing embryo. *   The hypoblast cells extend to form the chorion. Thechorion and other tissues produce the placenta. *   The epiblast produces the amnion. Allantoic tissues form the umbilical cord.
526
Centrioles
Made of microtubules Fund in organizing center near the cell nucleus Similar to basal bodies, but in center of call and help in movement of chromosomes during cell division
527
Duodenum
Receives: Food from stomach Important secretions from pancreas Secretion from liver and gall bladder Complete absorption will occur here
528
System of respiration
Constant exchange of air: ventilation (tidal volume) Diffusion- oxygen from lungs to blood Circulation- bulk transport Diffusion of oxygen into cells Cellular respiration
529
Positive feedback system
Things are out of control and we lose stability, things keep increasing and we cannot stop it Ex: Menstrual cycle, keep producing estrogen and very unstable, also lactation, can continue basically forever
530
Childbirth
*   Passage of the baby is assisted by the mother’s bearing down with her abdominal muscles. *   Once the baby is clear of the birth canal it canstart breathing and become independent of the mother’s circulation, so the umbilical cord is clamped and cut. *   Finally, the placenta and fetal membranes are detached from the mother and expelled (several minutes–1 hour)
531
Photosynthesis in noncyclic electron electron transport
Each photosystem consists of several chlorophyll and accessory pigment molecules Complement each other, must be constantly absorbing light energy to power noncyclic electron transport
532
Path of sperm
*   To achieve fertilization, sperm swim up the vagina, assisted by contractions of the female reproductive tract. *   The sperm then pass through the cervix and most of the oviduct to the egg (secondary oocyte) in the upper oviduct. *   Egg and sperm nucleus (both haploid) fuse to produce the diploid zygote.
533
Photosynthesis in noncyclic electron electron transport
Each photosystem consists of several chlorophyll and accessory pigment molecules Complement each other, must be constantly absorbing light energy to power noncyclic electron transport
534
Allergy
Overactive or disproportionate immune system Chemicals released Anti histamine can be used (because histamine is the alarm)
535
Allergy
Overactive or disproportionate immune system Chemicals released Anti histamine can be used (because histamine is the alarm)
536
Peripheral membrane proteins
Lack exposed hydrophobic groups, do not penetrate bilayer (stay inside)
537
Bacteria
Unicellular prokaryotes
538
Total energy in any system
Total energy = usable energy + unusable energy Enthalpy (H)= free energy (G) + entropy (S) H= G + TS
539
Gastrulation
Gastrulation is the process in which a blastulais transformed into an embryo with three tissue layers and body axes
540
Hemoglobin
Hemoglobin is a metal (iron) that is positively charged, and oxygen negatively charged, so they bind
541
Muscle cell
Excitable cell Modified plasma membrane known as the sarcolemma
542
Gastrulation
Gastrulation is the process in which a blastulais transformed into an embryo with three tissue layers and body axes
543
Amniocentesis
extraction of amnioticfluid with a needle, after the fourteenth week of pregnancy
544
Phospholipid movement in the bilayer
Lateral diffusion, flexing, and rotation but no flip flop
545
Action spectrum
Plot of biological activity as a function of exposure to varied wavelengths of light
546
Cyclic electron transport
Electron from excited P700 chlorophyll molecule n photosystem one cycles back to the same chlorophyll molecule Involves a series of exergonic redox reactions, the released energy creates a proton gradient that is used to synthesize ATP
547
Fungi
Yeast is a unicellular form Ex: athlete's foot
548
Organization of the immune system
Nonspecific immune response- protects against foreign substances without having to recognize their identity Specific immune response- highly specific, usually a major problem that your body is really trying to fight
549
Quaternary structure
Interaction of subunits by hydrophobic interactions, van der waals forces, ionic bonds, and hydrogen bonds Each subunit has its own tertiary structure
550
Chlorophylls a and b
Ring structure with magnesium atom in center Hydrocarbon tail which anchors them to integral proteins in the thylakoids membrane Absorb in red and blue region
551
How does photosynthesis convert light energy to chemical energy?
Reaction center converts light energy to chemical energy Excited chlorophyll a molecule (Chl*) is a reducing agent (electron donor) A is an acceptor molecule (oxidizing agent) Chl* + A --> Chl+ + A- A is the first in a chain of electron carriers on the thylakoid membrane (electron transport) a series of redox reactions Final electron acceptor is NADP+ NADP+ + e- --> NADPH + H+
552
Amniocentesis
extraction of amnioticfluid with a needle, after the fourteenth week of pregnancy
553
Macrophages in alveoli
Ward against foreign bodies, get rid of debris
554
Pathogens
Parasite Bacteria Protist Fungi Virus
555
Lipid composition in plasma membranes
Phospholipids vary- fatty acid chain length, degree of saturation, phosphate groups Can be up to 25 percent cholesterol
556
Fluorescence
When a pigment returns to ground state some of the energy may be given off as heat and some as fluorescence Fluorescence has longer wavelengths and less energy than the absorbed light energy No chemical work done If pigment can pass the energy to another molecule, there's no fluorescence, the energy can be passed to a reaction center where it is converted to chemical energy
557
What Affects Hb-OxygenBinding?
Demands for oxygen changing depending on your state. (if sitting, cells in legs not picking up that much oxygen) so ATP production chants, and more ATP produced the more oxygen you get delivered. Waste products signify how much ATP you are making so your red blood cells know. *   BPG (2,3 Bisphosphoglyceric acid)- BPG by product of glycolysis- when increases, unload more oxygen. *   Temperature *   Acidity- lactic acid is byproduct of fermentation
558
Blastocoel
a central fluid-filled cavity that forms in the ball of cells The embryo becomes a blastula and its cells are called blastomeres
559
Hyperpolarization
Membrane potential more negative than resting potential
560
Membrane of rod
When light shines at photoreceptor, the protein rhodopsin changes shape and activates, then transducin (protein) breaks off it's complex and moves along the membrane to activate phosphodiesterase, triggering cGMP breakdown, so reduces cGMP level
561
How Are Gases Transported?
•  Once in the blood, oxygen is transported in two ways –  1.5% is dissolved in the plasma and cytosol of erythrocytes –  98.5 % Bound to hemoglobin
562
Ingredients for photosynthesis
Co2 reduced to sugars that travel throughout the plant body Water up taken by roots Water and oxygen released
563
Resolution
Limiting factor in all microscopes, need high resolution to see detail
564
Cytotoxic T Cell
Release perform and granzymes Induce apoptosis (Fas) Attack cancer cells which stop mitosis regulation and keep dividing- they bond to these and release perforins that poke h ones in the membrane, eater can go in, releases granzymes in the hole or proteins that activate apoptosis
565
Chloroplasts
Sites where photosynthesis occurs, one type of plastid Surrounded by two layers and have interal membrane system
566
Lysosomes
Vesicles containing digestive enzymes that come in part from the Golgi Sites for breakdown of food and foreign material brought into the cell by phagocytosis Detection of spent cellular components- autophagy- cell components are frequently destroyed and replaced with new ones
567
During gastrulation, three germ layers form
–  The inner germ layer is the endoderm and gives rise to the digestive tract, circulatory tract, and respiratory tract. –  The outer layer, the ectoderm, gives rise to the epidermis and nervous system. –  The middle layer, the mesoderm, contributes to bone, muscle, liver, heart, and blood vessels
568
What properties of water make it so important in biology?
Polar molecule Forms hydrogen bonds Has tetrahedral shape
569
Organization of the immune system
Nonspecific immune response- protects against foreign substances without having to recognize their identity Specific immune response- highly specific, usually a major problem that your body is really trying to fight
570
Path of sperm
*   To achieve fertilization, sperm swim up the vagina, assisted by contractions of the female reproductive tract. *   The sperm then pass through the cervix and most of the oviduct to the egg (secondary oocyte) in the upper oviduct. *   Egg and sperm nucleus (both haploid) fuse to produce the diploid zygote.
571
Supraoptic nucleus
Makes vasopressin Anti diuretic hormone,prevents water loss. Target organ is kidneys where we have water control
572
Chemoreceptors
Homeostatic mechanism: Chemoreceptors constantly measuring level of oxygen and co2, send signal through sensory nerve fibers Need increased inspiration during exercise, or if holding breath (decrease oxygen availability and increase co2 availability) •  Peripheral –  Carotid bodies –  Aortic bodies •  Central- within nervous system, medulla oblongata
573
Repolarization
When a membrane potential has been depolarized or hyperpolarized and returns to its resting value
574
Polar covalent bond
One atom has more electronegativity
575
Macrophages in alveoli
Ward against foreign bodies, get rid of debris
576
Heart beat
The closing of one set of valves after another
577
Depolarization
Membrane potential is less negative an resting potential
578
Photosynthetic prokaryotes
Some bacteria, including Cyanobacteria can do carry on photosynthesis Plasma membrane is unfolded and has chlorophyll
579
Inner cell mass
•  The inner cell mass of the blastocyst splits into an epiblast and hypoblast with a fluid-filled cavity in between (just like the reptilian and avian gastrula). *   The embryo forms from the epiblast. *   The epiblast also splits off a layer of cells that form the amnion. The amnion grows around the developing embryo. *   The hypoblast cells extend to form the chorion. Thechorion and other tissues produce the placenta. *   The epiblast produces the amnion. Allantoic tissues form the umbilical cord.
580
Myeloid progenitor cells
Blood/platelets or immune cells produced Types of immune cells: Granular cells- neutrophils, mast cells agranular cells- monocytes, macrophages,
581
Mechanisms of Valve Action
Shaped to prevent the back flow of blood
582
trophoblast
*   In mammals, the first extraembryonic membrane to form is the trophoblast. *   When the blastocyst hatches from the zona pellucida, the trophoblast cells attach to the uterine wall, This is the beginning of implantation. *   The trophoblast becomes part of the uterine wall, and sends out villi to increase surface area and contact with maternal blood.
583
Blood
Made of cellular components, erythrocytes(red blood cells, carry oxygen), leukocytes, and platelets (minimize blood loss and promote blood plotting) suspended in a plasma fluid Plasma contains water and proteins (hormones, ions, glucose, amino acids etc) Only fluid like connective tissue, 90% water. Fluid and cellular component
584
Chemical structure of hormones
*   Hormones can be made of steroids or peptides *   Their synthesis and secretion vary *   Their chemical structure determines their mechanisms of action on target cells
585
Starch
Storage of glucose in plants | Branched
586
The Stomach
*   Located between the esophagus and the small intestine *   Starts the digestion of proteins, constantly mixing the food to mix it with enzymes and secretions *   Functions in gastric mixing and gastric emptying * Large temporary storage area * Top gastroesophagael sphincter and bottom pyloric sphincter that slowly allows food into the duodenum
587
Photosynthesis in noncyclic electron electron transport
Each photosystem consists of several chlorophyll and accessory pigment molecules Complement each other, must be constantly absorbing light energy to power noncyclic electron transport
588
Boyle's law
Pressure and volume are inversely proportiona Gases in a container, when volume decreased, pressure increases due to collision of gas molecules and now these gas molecules are confined to a smaller place, so more bombardment Lungs are always changing in volume so the pressure changes as well with inspiration and expiration
589
Chemoreceptors
Homeostatic mechanism: Chemoreceptors constantly measuring level of oxygen and co2, send signal through sensory nerve fibers Need increased inspiration during exercise, or if holding breath (decrease oxygen availability and increase co2 availability) •  Peripheral –  Carotid bodies –  Aortic bodies •  Central- within nervous system, medulla oblongata
590
The Stomach
*   Located between the esophagus and the small intestine *   Starts the digestion of proteins, constantly mixing the food to mix it with enzymes and secretions *   Functions in gastric mixing and gastric emptying * Large temporary storage area * Top gastroesophagael sphincter and bottom pyloric sphincter that slowly allows food into the duodenum
591
Stoma
Mouth of plant Co2 enters and O2/water exit through these pores
592
Components of the cytoskeleton
Microfilaments Intermediate filaments Microtubules
593
Phagocytic cell migration
* The cytokines released by macrophages signal the endothelial cells to express selectin * Margination occurs- dock and fuse with membrane, carbohydrate ligands on macrophages bind to selectin in blood vessel, move in blood vessel by rolling * Phagocytic cells produce integrin on their membrane * Stronger attachment occurs- immune cells are allowed to slow down and exit * Phagocytic cells begin to move from the blood to the infected area in a process known as diapedisis * Once in the interstitial fluid, phagocytic cells are attracted to the site of injury by chemotaxins- tell phagocytic cells exactly where to go
594
Viagra
first introduced for heart problems, sexual excitation, want blood to flow to the penis faster than it flows out, need dilation of blood vessels which requires neurotransmitter nitrous oxide, produces a dilation of the blood vessels. If excessive production of phosphodiesterase, it breaks down nitrous oxide. But Viagra inhibits phosphodiesterase, that can cause problems with vision and the breakdown of cyclic gmp
595
Equilibrium
Particles continue to move but there is no net change in distribution Net movement is directional until equilibrium is reached
596
Allergy
Overactive or disproportionate immune system Chemicals released Anti histamine can be used (because histamine is the alarm)
597
Chromatin
Diffuse or long thin fibers in which DNA is bound to proteins Prior to cell division these condense and form chromosomes
598
CO2 fixation
CO2 is reduced to carbohydrates Enzymes in the stroma use the energy in ATP and NADPH to reduce CO2 Because the ATP and NADPH are not "stockpiled," these light independent reactions must also take place in light
599
Gastric Mucosa
•  Mucosa cells –  Release mucus, watery solution with salt ions, basic chemicals to neutralize acid and make it less harmful to stomach •  Chief cells –  Release pepsinogen, enzyme that can break down proteins but it's not activated, needs highly acidic environment •  Parietal cells –  Release HCl, and Intrinsic factor (absorption of vitamins, B12)
600
Blastocyst
When blastula reaches 16 to 32 cells, it divides into two groups: *   Inner cell mass: becomes the embryo *   Trophoblast: a sac that forms from the outer cells. Its cells secrete fluid and create the blastocoel, with the inner cell mass at one end. Embryo is now called a blastocyst.
601
G3P
Gylceraldehyde 3 phosphate 5/6 recycled into RuBP 1/6 converted to starch and sucrose to make glucose and fructose
602
Photosynthesis
"synthesis from light" Plants take in CO2, produce carbohydrates, and release O2 and water Light is required 6CO2 + 12H2O--> C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O
603
Fertilization
Fertilization is the union of haploid sperm and haploid egg to produce a single diploid cell, the zygote
604
Phagocytosis
Food molecules enter the cell through a formed phagosome
605
Steps in neurulation
*   The ectoderm over the notochord thickens and forms the neural plate. *   Edges of the neural plate fold and a deep groove forms. *   The folds fuse, forming the neural tube and a layer of ectoderm, The anterior end of the neural tube becomes the brain, the rest becomes the spinal cord
606
Vasodilation & Increased Permeability
• Histamine causes vasodilation – increases diameter, Increase in blood flow to infected area – Redness occurs – Increase delivery of proteins – Edema occurs- swelling, fluid from blood cells into interstitial tissue * increased permeability- proteins gain entry from blood to interstitial fluid * objective- get more immune cells
607
Cytotoxic T Cell
Release perform and granzymes Induce apoptosis (Fas) Attack cancer cells which stop mitosis regulation and keep dividing- they bond to these and release perforins that poke h ones in the membrane, eater can go in, releases granzymes in the hole or proteins that activate apoptosis
608
Cytotoxic T Cell
Release perform and granzymes Induce apoptosis (Fas) Attack cancer cells which stop mitosis regulation and keep dividing- they bond to these and release perforins that poke h ones in the membrane, eater can go in, releases granzymes in the hole or proteins that activate apoptosis
609
Branching of the airways
Conducting zone: trachea, primary bronchi, secondary bronchi, tertiary bronchi, bronchioles Respiratory zone: respiratory bronchioles, alveoli (each alveolus is covered with many capillaries to facilitate the exchange of materials)
610
Chromatin
Diffuse or long thin fibers in which DNA is bound to proteins Prior to cell division these condense and form chromosomes
611
Blastocyst
When blastula reaches 16 to 32 cells, it divides into two groups: *   Inner cell mass: becomes the embryo *   Trophoblast: a sac that forms from the outer cells. Its cells secrete fluid and create the blastocoel, with the inner cell mass at one end. Embryo is now called a blastocyst.
612
Chlorophylls a and b
Ring structure with magnesium atom in center Hydrocarbon tail which anchors them to integral proteins in the thylakoids membrane Absorb in red and blue region
613
Somites
separate, segmented blocks of cells on either side of the neural tube. Muscle, cartilage, bone, and lower layer of the skin form from somites. Neural crest cells are guided by somites to develop into peripheral nerves and other structures
614
Endotherm in heat
Sweat and vasal dilation in heat, metabolic reaction Body temperature remains the same even though it is getting hotter
615
epididymis
*   From the lumen of the seminiferous tubules, sperm move to the epididymis, a storage sac, where theymature. *   The epididymis connects to the urethra via the vas deferens
616
Mixed endocrine glands
Thymus, heart, stomach, kidneys, and small intestine
617
Stroma
Fluid in which grana are suspended in chloroplasts
618
Saccharides
Simple sugars, monomers of carbohydrates Di- 2 Oligo- 3-20 Poly- hundreds of thousands
619
What Affects Hb-OxygenBinding?
Demands for oxygen changing depending on your state. (if sitting, cells in legs not picking up that much oxygen) so ATP production chants, and more ATP produced the more oxygen you get delivered. Waste products signify how much ATP you are making so your red blood cells know. *   BPG (2,3 Bisphosphoglyceric acid)- BPG by product of glycolysis- when increases, unload more oxygen. *   Temperature *   Acidity- lactic acid is byproduct of fermentation
620
Reversible inhibition
Inhibitor bonds noncovalently to the active site and prevents subtrate from binding- competitive inhibitor When concentration of inhibitor is reduced it detaches from the active site
621
Electroreceptors
Perceives natural electrical stimuli
622
AP Step 6
Membrane hyperpolarizes and refractory period occurs VGPC starts to close, but closes too slowly (around -80) so it dips below threshold
623
Allergy
Overactive or disproportionate immune system Chemicals released Anti histamine can be used (because histamine is the alarm)
624
Photophosphorylation
Light driven production of ATP H+ transported via electron carriers across the thylakoid membrane from the stroma into the lumen, creating an electrochemical gradient
625
Complement system
Pore formation: First complement protein (inactive), cascade of protein activation in bacterial cell Swelling: fluid rushes into cells Lysis
626
Ingredients for photosynthesis
Co2 reduced to sugars that travel throughout the plant body Water up taken by roots Water and oxygen released
627
Pulmonary trunk
Takes deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle to the lungs Very big, can see with naked eye. Splits, and goes to two lungs
628
Transmural pressure
The pressure difference between two membranes
629
Calvin cycle stimulated by light
Protons pumped form stroma into thylakoids, increasing the pH which favors the activation of rubisco Electron flow from photosystem one reduces disulfide bonds to activate calvin cycle enzymes
630
Induced fit
Enzyes change shape when they bind to the substrate
631
First trimester
embryo becomes a fetus Heart begins to beat by week 4 Limbs form by week 8 The first trimester is the period during which the fetus is most susceptible to damage from radiation, drugs, chemicals, and agents that cause birth defects. The hormone hCG (human chorionic gonadotropin) is released after implantation and is an early indicator of pregnancy
632
Ventricular diastole
heart is in relaxed state and ventricles are filling up its blood coming from the left and right atrium Blood aided by gravity (80%) before atria even contracts Aortic and pulmonary valves are closed Bicuspid and tricuspid valves are open
633
Isotonic solution
Equal water and solute concentration
634
Lipids absorption
*   Can easily permeate through the plasma membrane, tightly controlled so it doesn't pass freely, bile salt packages glycerol and fatty acids into micelles - lipoprotein vehicle that is hydrophilic on the outside and hydrophobic on the inside, allows it to move into the small intestine cells *   Once micelles approach the apical side of the epithelial cell membrane, the glycerol and fatty acid passively diffuse into the cell *   The glycerol and fatty acid are then resynthesized into triglycerides and packaged into a lipoprotein known as chylomicrons- large vesicles that cannot fit into the capillaries, does not go into the blood immediately *   Chylomicrons are then exocytosed into the lymphatic system which has fluid in its own circulation and vessels that are more permeable, eventually drain into superior vena cava and ends up in circulation, liver sorts and ships these lipids
635
TSH
Thyroid stimulating hormone Increases rate of metabolism Target cell: thyroid gland
636
Fluid mosaic model
General structure of membranes Phospholipids form a bilayer which is like a lakes which proteins float
637
Barriers to infection
Physical barriers Chemical barriers Reflexes
638
Red eye
A lot of light goes into eye because pupils cannot dilate in time, some light is refracted back
639
Parts of the respiratory system
Nasal/oral cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, primary/secondary/tertiary bronchus, bronchioles (if you don't need a lot of oxygen bronchioles are slightly constricted), alveoli (site of exchange) All made of cartilage up to the trachea
640
The immune system
Protects against infection and microbes Isolates and removes non microbial foreign substances
641
Endotherm
All mammals and birds regulate body temperature by generating metabolic heatand/or preventing heat loss
642
Light independent reactions
"dark reactions" Use ATP and NADH from light reactions plus CO2 to produce carbohydrates (because coenzymes ATP and NADH are not stored, need light for light reaction first)
643
Chlorophylls a and b
Ring structure with magnesium atom in center Hydrocarbon tail which anchors them to integral proteins in the thylakoids membrane Absorb in red and blue region
644
Two functions of DNA
Can reproduce itself (replication) Can copy its information into RNA (transcription), RNA can specify a sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide (translation)
645
Nonspecific immunity
Prevention Attack- if it gets in the circulatory system
646
Dunedin
Microtubules cross linked by the spokes of this motor protein Changes shape when energy is released from ATP, move vesicles toward minus end
647
Ovarian cycle steps
1- primary oocytes (2n) are present in the ovary at birth 2- about once a month, between puberty and menopause, 6-12 primary oocytes begin to mature. A primary oocyte and it's surrounding cells is called a follicle 3- the developing oocyte is nourished by follicle cells which also produce estrogen 4- after one week, usually only one primary oocyte begins to develop. A meiotic division just before ovulation creates the secondary oocyte (n). First polar body 5- at ovulation on the 14th day, the follicle ruptures and releases the egg which is caught by the Fallopian t uses 6- remaining follicle cells create the corpus lutenum, which produces progesterone and estrogen 7-if pregnancy does not occur, the corpus lutenum degenerates
648
How do atoms bond to form molecules
Reactive atoms have unpaired electrons in their outermost shell, atoms share, gain, or lose electrons
649
Z scheme
Model of noncyclic electron transport Extracts electrons from water and transfers them to NADPH, using energy from photosynthesis one and two and resulting in ATP synthesis Yields ATP, NADPH, and O2
650
Cyclic electron transport
Electron from excited P700 chlorophyll molecule n photosystem one cycles back to the same chlorophyll molecule Involves a series of exergonic redox reactions, the released energy creates a proton gradient that is used to synthesize ATP
651
Barriers to infection
Physical barriers Chemical barriers Reflexes
652
How are neurons classified?
Function- sensory, interneurons, motor neurons Structure- multipolar, bipolar, unipolar
653
Chemical equilibrium
Relative concentrations of A and B are such that forward and reverse reactions take place at the same rate No further net change, but reactions continue The further a reaction goes toward completion in order to reach equilibrium, the greater amount of free energy released
654
Double helix
Two strands of DNA molecule form this All have this structure so diversity is in the sequence of base pairs, info encoded in this sequence
655
Parasite
Any organism that invades and lives by the expense of another body Most are animals, either micro or macroscopic Infects muscles and digestive system takes blood (muscles) and nutrients (liver)
656
CO2 fixation
CO2 is reduced to carbohydrates Enzymes in the stroma use the energy in ATP and NADPH to reduce CO2 Because the ATP and NADPH are not "stockpiled," these light independent reactions must also take place in light
657
Phagocytosis
Attatchment (opsonization)- Physically bind to pathogen Internalization, turns into phagosome Degradation- Fuses with lysosome and becomes phagolysosome, and after the digestive enzymes can be reused Exocytosis- elimination of debris
658
Selective permeability
Membranes allow some substances to pass through but not others
659
Fatty acid
Non polar hydrocarbon with a polar carboxyl group Ampipathic- opposing chemical properties, when carboxyl group ionizes it forms COO- and H+ and is hydrophilic while the other end is hydrophobic
660
Compliance
Ability to change volume and pressure Balloon is like the lungs- highly compliant Paper bag- not compliant
661
How do arteries move blood?
Arteries have high pressure, and blood aided by gravity so blood can reach far such as feet
662
Photophosphorylation
Light driven production of ATP H+ transported via electron carriers across the thylakoid membrane from the stroma into the lumen, creating an electrochemical gradient
663
Blastocyst
When blastula reaches 16 to 32 cells, it divides into two groups: *   Inner cell mass: becomes the embryo *   Trophoblast: a sac that forms from the outer cells. Its cells secrete fluid and create the blastocoel, with the inner cell mass at one end. Embryo is now called a blastocyst.
664
Focusing on distant objects
Ciliary muscles are attached in a circular way, so when they are relaxed the lens is stretched This pulls zonular fibers Lens is elongated and flat to focus on distant objects
665
Barriers to infection
Physical barriers Chemical barriers Reflexes
666
Hypothalamus and anterior pituitary
•  The hypothalamus controls the anterior pituitary by secreting hypophysiotropic hormones (releasing hormones) –  Dopamine (DA) –  Gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH) –  Thyrotropin releasing hormone (TRH) –  Corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH) –  Growth hormone releasing hormone (GHRH)–  Somatostatin (SS)
667
How do veins move blood?
low pressure because at the end of that circuit, hold the majority of blood, and if the blood is going back up it is working against gravity, dead on skeletal muscles Skeletal muscle pump- veins are in between muscles and contraction pumps blood, valves in veins prevent blood from coming back down when muscles relax
668
Centrioles
Made of microtubules Fund in organizing center near the cell nucleus Similar to basal bodies, but in center of call and help in movement of chromosomes during cell division
669
Peristaltic contraction
Unidirectional movement of food through the stomach
670
Myeloid progenitor cells
Blood/platelets or immune cells produced Types of immune cells: Granular cells- neutrophils, mast cells agranular cells- monocytes, macrophages,
671
GnRH
Gonadotropin releasing hormone Stimulates release of FSH/LH
672
Cellular respiration
Production of ATP
673
Pressure change
Breathing associated with skeletal muscles that are constantly contracting and relaxing, gases are quantified by pressur Atmospheric pressure (Patm)- pressure on the outside in the environment Alveolar pressure (Palv)-pressure inside your lungs Intrapleural pressure (Pip)- pressure in pleural sac, fills up with fluid that exerts pressure Alveolar and interpleural pressure are constantly fluctuating because they depend on your state
674
Absorption spectrum
Plot of wavelengths absorbed by a pigment
675
Steps of fertilization
–  The sperm and egg recognize each other. –  The sperm is activated so that it can gain access to the plasma membrane of the egg. –  The plasma membranes of the sperm and egg fuse. –  The egg blocks entry of additional sperm. –  The egg is stimulated to start development. –  The egg and sperm nuclei fuse
676
The female reproductive cycle actually consists of two linked cycles:
an ovarian cycle that produces eggs and hormones and a uterine cycle that prepares the endometrium for the arrival of a blastocyst
677
Glycoproteins
Carbohydrate and protein
678
Smooth ER
Ribosome free region
679
Mechanisms of peptide action
Peptide- hydrophillic, so receptor in membrane because it cannot permeate inside the cell When receptor bound to hormone become activated, associates with/activates membrane communication protein called g protein made of multiple subunits alpha subunit moves along membrane and activates adenylyl cyclase and coverts a molecule in into cyclic AMP triggers a cascade of activation in proteins (protein kinase A activated, particular protein phosphorylates and changes shape protein shape and function altered, brings about cellular reponse) A lot quicker but local changes
680
Mitochondrial matrix
Region enclosed by inner membrane Krebs or citric acid cycle takes place here
681
epididymis
*   From the lumen of the seminiferous tubules, sperm move to the epididymis, a storage sac, where theymature. *   The epididymis connects to the urethra via the vas deferens
682
Covalent bonds
Atoms share one or more electrons so that the outer shells are filled
683
Air composition
78.1% nitrogen (goes into lungs and leaves), 20.9% oxygen Total atmospheric pressure= 760 mmHg (Pressure= concentration)- Patm = PN2 + PO2 Temperature and altitude changes atmospheric pressure Partial pressure of N2 = 760 mmHg x 0.781 ~ 600 mmHg Partial pressure of O2 = 760 mmHg x 0.21 ~ 160mmHg We breathe very easily, so partial pressure in lungs should be lower, so process of diffusion is easy. 100 mm mercury
684
Action spectrum
Plot of biological activity as a function of exposure to varied wavelengths of light
685
Renal system
Proteins help make energy only in very bad situation, but protein metabolism generates urea which is toxic, excreted through renal system (kidneys)
686
Nuclear envelope
Formed by two lipid bilayers
687
Processes in Calvin Benson cycle
Fixation of CO2 by combination with RuBP (catalyzes by rubisco) Conversion of fixed CO2 into carbohydrate G3P (using ATP and NADPH) Regeneration of CO2 acceptor RuBP by ATP
688
Macromolecules crossing membranes
Too large to cross the membrane, so they can be taken in or secreted by membrane vesicles
689
uterine cycle
*   The uterine cycle parallels the ovarian cycle and involves the buildup, then breakdown, of the endometrium. *   About five days into the ovarian cycle, the endometrium builds in preparation for the blastocyst. *   About five days after ovulation, the uterus is maximally prepared and stays that way for another nine days. *   If the blastocyst does not arrive by then, the endometrium breaks down and sloughs off during menstruation.
690
Morula
the embryo as a solid ball ofsmall cells. (from Latin for mulberry)
691
Thylakoids
The way internal membranes are arranged in chloroplasts, thylakoids make stacks called grana These membranes contain chlorophyll and other pigments
692
Physical barriers
Skin- brick layers of cells, most pathogens can't get through it, also produces a hard and fibrous protein called keratin. The closest layer to the surface has the highest amount of keratin- the outermost layer of skin is dead, it produced too much keratin to function Fibrous layer of the eyes Mucous membrane of the respiratory, digestive, urinary, and reproductive systems, and ear- thick membrane that prevents pathogens from getting into the circulation Cilia
693
Lobes of the brain
``` Frontal Parietal Temporal Occipital Cerebellum ```
694
AP step 1
At rest both VGSC and VGPC are closed, but you still have the leak channels and the pump
695
Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis
Hypothalamus- releases CRH, is always in control by measuring the amount of cortisol, if levels are below the set point, mechanism is turned on to increase cortisol Anterior pituitary- acted on by hypothalamus, stimulates release of ACTH, travels in circulation Adrenal cortex- stimulated to release another hormone called cortisol which helps our body deal with long term stress (external factor that causes major changes in your body) body thinks starvation is happening and there is not enough energy, so cortisols major function is to make sure your brain is well protected and that it had adequate amount of energy available Increases plasma concentration of glucose (for the use of the brain, muscles can't use it) fatty acids, and amino acids (for the muscles as an energy replacement for glucose)
696
Right and left ventricle
pumping chambers, physically contracting to make the blood exit (simultaneously in both circuits)
697
The immune system
Protects against infection and microbes Isolates and removes non microbial foreign substances
698
Thylakoids
The way internal membranes are arranged in chloroplasts, thylakoids make stacks called grana These membranes contain chlorophyll and other pigments
699
Polymers
Formed by covalent linkages of smaller units called monomers
700
Connection between lungs and circulatory system
Closed connection between heart and lungs because lungs are the site for oxygen intake, circulatory picks up oxygen from lungs and delivers it to cells with heart as intermediate
701
Pathogens
Parasite Bacteria Protist Fungi Virus
702
Compartmentalization in eukaryotic cells
Key to eukaryotic cell function Each organelle/ compartment has specific role defined by chemical processes Membranes surrounding these molecules keep away inappropriate molecules and also act as traffic regulators for raw materials into and out of the organelle
703
CO2 fixation
CO2 is reduced to carbohydrates Enzymes in the stroma use the energy in ATP and NADPH to reduce CO2 Because the ATP and NADPH are not "stockpiled," these light independent reactions must also take place in light
704
Spina bifida
failure of the neural tube to fuse in a posterior region dueto vitamin B deficiency
705
Compartmentalization in eukaryotic cells
Key to eukaryotic cell function Each organelle/ compartment has specific role defined by chemical processes Membranes surrounding these molecules keep away inappropriate molecules and also act as traffic regulators for raw materials into and out of the organelle
706
Pressure and Volume Change
During inspiration the volume of the lungs increases and the pressure decreases- atmospheric pressure is higher than alveolar pressure, and diffusion can occur During expiration, the volume of the lungs decreases and the pressure increases- alveolar pressure becomes higher than atmospheric pressure- diffusion outwards
707
Blastomere
*   Blastomeres become determined, or committed toa specific fate, at different times in different animals. *   Roundworm and clam blastomeres are already determined at the 8-cell stage. *   If one cell is removed, a portion of the embryo fails to develop normally. This is called mosaic development. *   Humans have regulative development. If some cells are lost during cleavage, other cells can compensate. For genetic testing in humans, one cell can be removed from a blastula following in vitro fertilization. If there are no mutations in the gene of interest, that blastula can be implanted
708
Accessory Digestive Organs
Food does not get to them but there is important secretion ``` •  Salivary glands –  Sublingual (under tongue), submandibular (under mandible), parotid (gland by ear •  Pancreas •  Liver •  Gallbladder ```
709
Parts of the respiratory system
Nasal/oral cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, primary/secondary/tertiary bronchus, bronchioles (if you don't need a lot of oxygen bronchioles are slightly constricted), alveoli (site of exchange) All made of cartilage up to the trachea
710
Gated channels
Can be closed or open to ion passage, most ion channels are gated Gate opens when protein is stimulated to change shape Stimulus can be molecule (ligand gated) or electrical charge resulting from many ions (voltage gated)
711
Macrophages in alveoli
Ward against foreign bodies, get rid of debris
712
Absorption spectrum
Plot of wavelengths absorbed by a pigment
713
DNA bases
Adenine/guanine = purines Cytocine/thymine = pyrimidines A-T and C-G, bond by hydrogen bonding
714
Connect of artery to vein
Artery, arteriole, capillaries, venue, vein
715
The pancreas
*   Mixed gland that contain both endocrine and exocrine tissue *   The exocrine tissue contains two types of cells - Duct cells secrete NaHCO3 and Bicarbonate release to neutralize acid - Acina cells secrete pancreatic juice- Mixture of enzymes that are produced from pancreas
716
Myeloid progenitor cells
Blood/platelets or immune cells produced Types of immune cells: Granular cells- neutrophils, mast cells agranular cells- monocytes, macrophages,
717
Gestation
pregnancy in humans is about 266 days and is divided into trimesters
718
Blastomere
*   Blastomeres become determined, or committed toa specific fate, at different times in different animals. *   Roundworm and clam blastomeres are already determined at the 8-cell stage. *   If one cell is removed, a portion of the embryo fails to develop normally. This is called mosaic development. *   Humans have regulative development. If some cells are lost during cleavage, other cells can compensate. For genetic testing in humans, one cell can be removed from a blastula following in vitro fertilization. If there are no mutations in the gene of interest, that blastula can be implanted
719
Catalysts
Speed up rate of reaction Not altered by the reaction Most biological catalysts are enzymes that act as a framework in which reactions can take place No catalyst maks a reaction occur that cannot otherwise occur
720
Oogenesis steps
Female germ cell (2n) Mitosis Oogonium (2n) Mitosis Primary oocyte (2n) First meiotic division Secondary oocyte (n) and first polar body Second meiotic division, independent assortment of chromosomes Ootid (n) and second polar body Ovum (egg) (n), polar bodies degrade
721
Calvin cycle stimulated by light
Protons pumped form stroma into thylakoids, increasing the pH which favors the activation of rubisco Electron flow from photosystem one reduces disulfide bonds to activate calvin cycle enzymes
722
Lymphoid tissues
Adenoids, tonsils, thymus, lymph noes, spleen, bone marrow, lymphatic vessels Immune cells originate here, majorly from bone marrow immune cells are scattered all over, but they are clustered in certain areas in case of infection
723
Fungi
Yeast is a unicellular form Ex: athlete's foot
724
Photosynthetic prokaryotes
Some bacteria, including Cyanobacteria can do carry on photosynthesis Plasma membrane is unfolded and has chlorophyll
725
Neural pathway of hearing
Cochlear nerve fibers synapse on neurons in the cochlear nuclei in the medulla oblongata Signal then sent to the thalamus (medial geniculate nucleus) From thalamus, info travels to the auditory cortex of the temporal lobe
726
Most common phospholipids
Derived from glycerol except for sphingomylein
727
Two systems of electron transport
Non cyclic electron transport- produces NADPH and ATP Cyclic electron transport- produces ATP only * when you need more sugar you need more ATP than NADH, so cyclic transport is needed
728
The immune system
Protects against infection and microbes Isolates and removes non microbial foreign substances
729
Non polar covalent bond
Share electrons equally
730
Immunization
Series of shots MMR- immunization shot against meals, mumps, rubella Small quantity of pathogens to build immune response, memory cells to speed up recovery next time
731
Ruben and kamen
Used radioisotope tracers (O18 and O16) to determine that water was the source of O2 released during photosynthesis rather than CO2
732
Glucose
Monosaccharide All cells use it as an energy source Exists most often in a ring as alpha or beta glucose depending on position of the aldehyde group (can also be found in a chain)
733
Kinesin
Motor protein, moves toward plus end
734
CO2 fixation
CO2 is reduced to carbohydrates Enzymes in the stroma use the energy in ATP and NADPH to reduce CO2 Because the ATP and NADPH are not "stockpiled," these light independent reactions must also take place in light
735
Lungs and the mechanisms of the chest
Easy, effortless to breath because of the mechanics of the lungs- always slightly inflated to make inspiration easier Lungs attached to chest wall and inner layer of your rib cage by very thin set of membranes called a pleural sac Ribs protect your lungs and work in synchrony with them, chest expands and increase in volume along with your lungs
736
The endocrine system
*  Major communication system *  Consists of many glands located throughout the body *  Glands secrete hormones that act as chemical messengers *  Uses the blood as a medium to transport the hormones *  Each hormone has specific target cells * Hormonal mechanisms can help us maintain homeostasis
737
The liver
•  Hepatocytes of the liver release bile salts that functions in fat emulsification, hydrophobic lipids aggregate together, lipase cannot do its function without bile to emulsify the fat –  The break down of large fat droplets into smaller ones •  Bile salts are stored in the gall bladder
738
Action spectrum
Plot of biological activity as a function of exposure to varied wavelengths of light
739
Vacuoles
In plant and protist cells Store waste products and toxic compounds; some may deter herbivores Provides structure for plant cells, water enters by osmosis and creates turbot pressure Stores anthocyanins(pigment) in flowers/fruit to attract pollinators Digestive enzymes to hydrolyze stored food for early growth
740
Amniocentesis
extraction of amnioticfluid with a needle, after the fourteenth week of pregnancy
741
Phagocytic cell migration
* The cytokines released by macrophages signal the endothelial cells to express selectin * Margination occurs- dock and fuse with membrane, carbohydrate ligands on macrophages bind to selectin in blood vessel, move in blood vessel by rolling * Phagocytic cells produce integrin on their membrane * Stronger attachment occurs- immune cells are allowed to slow down and exit * Phagocytic cells begin to move from the blood to the infected area in a process known as diapedisis * Once in the interstitial fluid, phagocytic cells are attracted to the site of injury by chemotaxins- tell phagocytic cells exactly where to go
742
Lymphoid progenitor cells
Form into B lymphocytes, T lymphocytes
743
Nonspecific immunity
Prevention Attack- if it gets in the circulatory system
744
Turgor pressure
Plant cells with rigid walls build up internal pressure that keeps more water from entering
745
Inner cell mass
•  The inner cell mass of the blastocyst splits into an epiblast and hypoblast with a fluid-filled cavity in between (just like the reptilian and avian gastrula). *   The embryo forms from the epiblast. *   The epiblast also splits off a layer of cells that form the amnion. The amnion grows around the developing embryo. *   The hypoblast cells extend to form the chorion. Thechorion and other tissues produce the placenta. *   The epiblast produces the amnion. Allantoic tissues form the umbilical cord.
746
Nucleus
Contains most of the cells DNA and is the site of DNA duplication to support cell reproduction Plays role in DNA control of cell activities
747
Flagella
Come in ones and twos, longer than cilia
748
Nodes of ranvier
Gaps in myelin sheaths along the axon
749
Protist
Uni or multicellular, contaminate lakes and drinking water to invade host
750
Monosaccharide absorption
*   Glucose and galactose are absorbed by secondary active transport, takes glucose independent of concentration from the lumen to the inside of the epithelial cells *   They leave the cells into the plasma (blood vessels)via carrier proteins passively by facilitated diffusion, majority stored in liver and muscles
751
Mast cells
* Mast cells are found throughout connective tissues (not found in blood) * They release histamine and other chemicals involved in inflammation
752
Microcirculation
Traveling of arterioles to capillaries to venules Cells are taking the oxygen and glucose and dumping co2 by process of diffusion
753
Gastrulation
Gastrulation is the process in which a blastulais transformed into an embryo with three tissue layers and body axes
754
Extracellular destruction: complement
• Membrane Attack Complex (MAC) – Embeds itself in the microbe membrane, forming pores – Water and salt enter the microbe Proteins released by liver to do the job: complement system
755
Nucleus
Contains most of the cells DNA and is the site of DNA duplication to support cell reproduction Plays role in DNA control of cell activities
756
Myeloid progenitor cells
Blood/platelets or immune cells produced Types of immune cells: Granular cells- neutrophils, mast cells agranular cells- monocytes, macrophages,
757
Air composition
78.1% nitrogen (goes into lungs and leaves), 20.9% oxygen Total atmospheric pressure= 760 mmHg (Pressure= concentration)- Patm = PN2 + PO2 Temperature and altitude changes atmospheric pressure Partial pressure of N2 = 760 mmHg x 0.781 ~ 600 mmHg Partial pressure of O2 = 760 mmHg x 0.21 ~ 160mmHg We breathe very easily, so partial pressure in lungs should be lower, so process of diffusion is easy. 100 mm mercury
758
Pacemaker cells
*   Sinoatrial node (SA) located in the right atrium *   Atrioventricular node (AV) located on the interatrial septum *   Bundle of His: located on the interventicular septum *   Bundle branches *   Purkinje fibers: located on the ventricular walls
759
Gestation
pregnancy in humans is about 266 days and is divided into trimesters
760
Light
A form of electromagnetic radiation Propagated as waves, energy of light is inversely proportional to wavelength (must be appropriate wavelength to be absorbed by receptive molecules Light also behaves as particles called photons, plants absorb these
761
Tertiary structure
``` Many bonds: Covalent disulfide bridges Hydrophobic side chain interactions Van der waals forces Ionic bonds Hydrogen bonds ```
762
Protist
Uni or multicellular, contaminate lakes and drinking water to invade host
763
Nonspecific Immune response/inflammation
• Occurs through cut or injury to the skin • Sequence of events ensue to protect the body against infection – Phagocytosis and recruitment – Vasodilation and increase in permeability – Phagocytic cells migration – Tissue repair
764
Isotonic solution
Equal water and solute concentration
765
Macromolecules
Giant polymers, molecular weight usually greater than 1000 daltons All form through condensation reactions where water is removed during bond formation
766
Control of breathing
Voluntary until it becomes physiologically dangerous, your brain will force you to breathe. •  Inspiration is initiated by stimulating the respiratory muscles –  Diaphragm and external intercostals •  The stimulation is initiated in the medullary centers and the pons Medulla oblongata sends signal to spinal cord, phrenic nerve sends action potential to diaphragm. 100% controlled by brain unless you voluntarily change it, stimulation always occurring. Neurons called central patter generator, send action potentials then they stop, perfectly synced on/off mechanism
767
Pinocytosis
"cell drinking" Vesicles for,s to bring small dissolved substances or fluids into a cell, much smaller vesicles than in phagocytosis Constant in endothelial cells
768
Movement from capillaries into interstitial fluid
Small things such as ions, glucose, amino acids can move through slits Small proteins need to move by transcytosis (endo and exo cytosis) Large proteins cannot get through
769
Accommodation
Changing the shape of the lens Ciliary muscles allow objects to be focused onto the retina no matter how near or distant they are, light rays need to fall on the retina Lens can change shape
770
Energy transfer and electron transport
Light energy absorbed by antenna chlorophylls, and passed on to reaction center Molecule goes to excited state Energized electron from chlorophyll molecules passed to electron acceptor to reduce it
771
Phagocytosis & Recruitment
* Macrophages in the nearby tissue detect bacteria using receptor proteins to engulf them * Macrophages release cytokines- chemicals for recruitment * Mast cells release histamine- causes vasodilation * Injured cells release chemotaxins- chemo attractants to attract immune cells
772
Microbes
Harmful substances, living or dead
773
Spina bifida
failure of the neural tube to fuse in a posterior region dueto vitamin B deficiency
774
Hypertonic solution
Higher solute concentration
775
Specific Recognition Between Sperm and Egg
*   Specific recognition molecules mediate interactions between sperm and eggs. *   This ensures that activities of the sperm are directed toward eggs and not other cells and prevents eggs from being fertilized by sperm of the wrong species. *   This latter function is particularly importantin aquatic species, such as sea urchins, that release sperm and eggs into the surrounding water.
776
Functions of the nervous system
Recieves information, processes information, outputs information
777
Arrangement of microtubules in flagella and cilia
9+2 array- 9 pairs and 2 individual microtubules in center At the base of flagella and cilia is the nasal body, the 9 rings extend there
778
Electron microscope
Use electromagnets to focus an electron beam, wavelength is much shorter than light so much higher resolution .5 nm
779
Limit of resolution
.61 x wavelength / NA NA= refractive index x sine of angle of most oblique ray
780
Oogenesis
*   Oogenesis produces eggs. *   Individual egg maturation can be arrested for months, or for as long as 10 (puberty) to 50 (menopause) years in humans! *   During this phase, the primary oocyte grows and addsto its energy, ribosome, and organelle stores. This tpermits the resulting embryo to have nourishment.
781
Proteins
Polymers of amino acids, each has different AA composition and order Folding is crucial to the function of a protein, influenced by the AA sequence
782
Where are these microorganisms?
They like moisture, food particles, want to get in blood vessels (from there they can travel all over the body)
783
Alveolar type I cells
form the wall of the alveoli
784
Transmural pressure
The pressure difference between two membranes
785
Boyle's law
Pressure and volume are inversely proportiona Gases in a container, when volume decreased, pressure increases due to collision of gas molecules and now these gas molecules are confined to a smaller place, so more bombardment Lungs are always changing in volume so the pressure changes as well with inspiration and expiration
786
B lymphocytes
Transform into plasma cells and release antibodies into the circulation, which are proteins that tag the pathogens to signal the immune cells to destroy it Form memory cells- every pathogen has specific surface receptors (signature), they can remember for next time how to fight the infection
787
Path of the egg
the mature egg is released into the body cavity and is swept into the end of the oviduct (Fallopian tube) by an undulating fringe of tissue (Fertilization takes place in the oviduct and, in humans, the second meiotic division takes place) Cilia lining the oviduct propel the fertilized or unfertilized egg toward the uterus, a muscular, thick-walled cavity The opening at the bottom of the uterus is the cervix,which leads into the vagina
788
Mode of travel of peptides and steroids
Peptides- travel easy in blood because water soluble Lipids- mostly water so need transport proteins to shield them from hydrophillicity of blood because not water soluble
789
Amino acids
Have carbonyl and amino groups with a hydrogen and an R group function as an acid and base R group make differences in amino acids
790
Spontaneous reaction
Goes more than halfway to completion without input of energy Exergonic, negative delta G Release energy in form of heat, light, etc Reverse process must be endergonic
791
Amniocentesis
extraction of amnioticfluid with a needle, after the fourteenth week of pregnancy
792
Cristae
Folds of the inner membrane give rise to these Contains large protein molecules used in cellular respiration
793
Lymphoid tissues
Adenoids, tonsils, thymus, lymph noes, spleen, bone marrow, lymphatic vessels Immune cells originate here, majorly from bone marrow immune cells are scattered all over, but they are clustered in certain areas in case of infection
794
Organization of the immune system
Nonspecific immune response- protects against foreign substances without having to recognize their identity Specific immune response- highly specific, usually a major problem that your body is really trying to fight
795
Twinning
*   If blastomeres separate into two groups, each can produce an embryo. *   Monozygotic twins come from the same zygote and are identical. *   Nonidentical twins are from two eggs fertilized by two sperm.
796
Rubisco
Enzyme that catalyzes fixation of CO2 Ribosome bisphosphate carboxylase/ Most abundant protein in the world, 50% of the protein in a leaf
797
Limit of resolution
.61 x wavelength / NA NA= refractive index x sine of angle of most oblique ray
798
Signaling events
Graded potential- from dendrites into the cell body, minor change in electrical activity Action potential- at axon hillock and axon Propagation- traveling of electron activity Neurotransmitter release
799
Occipital lobe
Visual cortex Process visual information
800
RNA bases
Uracil instead of thymine Single stranded but complementary base pairing occurs in the structure of some types of RNA
801
Pathogens
Parasite Bacteria Protist Fungi Virus
802
Entry of Sperm into the Egg
*   In animals with internal fertilization, egg–sperm recognition mechanisms also exist. *   In the female reproductive tract, mammalian sperm are metabolically activated and attracted to the egg in the oviduct, but also aided in their movement by muscular contractions. *   The mammalian egg is surrounded by a thick layer called the cumulus. Beneath that is a protein envelope called the zona pellucida. *   A species-specific glycoprotein in the zona pellucida binds to the head of the sperm. *   The acrosomal reaction is triggered, releasing acrosomal enzymes that digest a path through the zona pellucida
803
Antenna systems
Pigments arranged in these Also called light harvesting complexes
804
Optimal conditions for enzymes
pH and temperature
805
FSH/LH
Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) & luteinizing hormone (LH) Produces gametes and sex hormones Target organs: testes or ovaries
806
The Cardiovascular System
A closed system (blood always contained in blood vessels, always circulating) that consists of the heart, blood vessels, and the blood –  The heart pumps blood –  Blood vessels provide the path for the blood to travel (like a freeway) –  Blood carries nutrients and picks up wastes
807
Mechanisms of steroids action on target cells
Every cell exposed to this hormone, and steroid cell is hydrophobic so can interact with every cell but not every cell has receptor Exits blood vessel to get to the target cell Steroid permeates through cell membrane and forms complex called hormone receptor complex in nucleus, bind to a section of DNA gene called hormone response element that activates the gene to start gene expression Messenger RNA made and goes to the cell cytosol Synthesizes protien and makes changes inside the cell and causes cellular response Slow process but major changes
808
Accessory pigments
Transfer energy absorbed to chorophylls Carotenoids and phycobilins Absorb intermediate between red and blue
809
third trimester
internal organs mature and organ systems begin to function The last organs to mature before birthare the lungs
810
Alveolar type I cells
form the wall of the alveoli
811
Carotenoids
Light-absorbing pigments Source of vitamin A
812
Fluorescence
When a pigment returns to ground state some of the energy may be given off as heat and some as fluorescence Fluorescence has longer wavelengths and less energy than the absorbed light energy No chemical work done If pigment can pass the energy to another molecule, there's no fluorescence, the energy can be passed to a reaction center where it is converted to chemical energy
813
Photosynthesis
"synthesis from light" Plants take in CO2, produce carbohydrates, and release O2 and water Light is required 6CO2 + 12H2O--> C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O
814
Chloroplasts
Sites where photosynthesis occurs, one type of plastid Surrounded by two layers and have interal membrane system
815
Cyclic electron transport
Electron from excited P700 chlorophyll molecule n photosystem one cycles back to the same chlorophyll molecule Involves a series of exergonic redox reactions, the released energy creates a proton gradient that is used to synthesize ATP
816
Pigments
Molecules that absorb specific wavelengths in the visible range of the spectrum Photons can have a wide range of wavelengths and energy levels
817
Gastrulation
Gastrulation is the process in which a blastulais transformed into an embryo with three tissue layers and body axes
818
Organization of the immune system
Nonspecific immune response- protects against foreign substances without having to recognize their identity Specific immune response- highly specific, usually a major problem that your body is really trying to fight
819
Where Does Fertilization Take Place?
*   Fertilization in mammals occurs in the upper oviduct; cleavage occurs as the zygote travels down the oviduct. *   When the blastocyst arrives in the uterus, the trophoblast adheres to the uterine wall (the endometrium), which begins the process of implantation. *   Early implantation in the oviduct wall is prevented by the zona pellucida. Inadvertent implantationcauses a tubal pregnancy, which is very dangerous. *   In the uterus, the blastocyst hatches out of the zona pellucida, and implantation can occur. *   Stimulated by estrogen, the endometrium develops new blood vessels to cradle the blastocyst. *   The blastocyst burrows in (implantation), interacting with the wall to form the placenta.
820
Ruben and kamen
Used radioisotope tracers (O18 and O16) to determine that water was the source of O2 released during photosynthesis rather than CO2
821
Lymphoid progenitor cells
Form into B lymphocytes, T lymphocytes
822
Photosystem 2
Light energy oxidizes water to oxygen, H+, and electrons Reaction center has chlorophyll a molecules: P680 absorbs at 680 nm (more energetic than P700) Excited first
823
Premature Contractions and Delivery
*   A positive feedback loop develops (mechanical stimuli increase the release of oxytocin, and vice versa), and this converts Braxton-Hicks contractions into stronger labor contractions. *   In the early stage of labor, contractions gradually become more frequent and intense until they haveopened the cervix. *   In the delivery stage, the baby’s head moves into the vagina and becomes visible from the outside. *   The usual head-down position of the baby comes about during the seventh month of pregnancy.
824
Parasite
Any organism that invades and lives by the expense of another body Most are animals, either micro or macroscopic Infects muscles and digestive system takes blood (muscles) and nutrients (liver)
825
Mitochondrial matrix
Region enclosed by inner membrane Krebs or citric acid cycle takes place here
826
Complement system
Pore formation: First complement protein (inactive), cascade of protein activation in bacterial cell Swelling: fluid rushes into cells Lysis
827
Somites
separate, segmented blocks of cells on either side of the neural tube. Muscle, cartilage, bone, and lower layer of the skin form from somites. Neural crest cells are guided by somites to develop into peripheral nerves and other structures
828
Other roles for nucleotides
ATP- energy transducer in biochemical reactions GTP- energy source in protein synthesis cAMP- essential to the action of hormones and transmission of information in the nervous system
829
Adenohypophysis
Anterior pituitary gland made of secretory glands, non neuronal, makes and releases own hormones. No neuronal connects on to hypothalamus •  Releases six peptide hormones, all made of peptides –  Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) & luteinizing hormone (LH) –  Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) –  Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)–  Prolactin –  Growth hormone (GH)
830
Where does calcium come from?
Important ion, numerous functions High intercellular level can be toxic and therefore must be maintained at a very low level inside the cell (10^-9 M) Stored in muscle cells, no reliance on extracellular calcium concentration
831
DNA replication
Depends on base pairing, as does transcription Involves entire molecule only small sections of DNA are transcribed into RNA
832
third trimester
internal organs mature and organ systems begin to function The last organs to mature before birthare the lungs
833
Correlation of Electrocardiogram graph and heart activities
Beginning of P wave- SA Node, AV Middle to end of P wave- AV Nodal delay Between P wave and QRS- Signals travel through bundle of his reaching the apex QRS complex- pukinje fibers Within ventricles, heart contracts from bottom to top, all the blood comes out, none remains below
834
Boyle's law
Pressure and volume are inversely proportiona Gases in a container, when volume decreased, pressure increases due to collision of gas molecules and now these gas molecules are confined to a smaller place, so more bombardment Lungs are always changing in volume so the pressure changes as well with inspiration and expiration
835
Light microscopes
Glass lenses focus visible light, max resolution of .2 um
836
Retina
Photoreceptors recover light and end it to the brain through optic nerve Contains fovea centralis( photoreceptors scattered all of retina, but these are the places where they have the guest concentrate on, called high visual acuity) Types of cells: ganglion- long axons that send signals to the brain Amacrine- support cells, strengthen synapses, between ganglion and bipolar bipolar- form synapses with rods and cones horizontal- support cells, strengthen synapses, between photoreceptors and bipolar cells photoreceptors (rods and cones)- when stimulated, electrical activity begins When light first hits ganglion and bipolar cells nothing happens because they are not equipped to react to light,
837
How do gases cross the lung/bloodmedia?
Process of diffusion. Alveoli made of single layered cells, blood capillaries only have tunica intima and some connective tissue, so very thin, and easy process of diffusion Both the capillaries and the alveoli are lined with simple squamous epithelium
838
Entry of Sperm into the Egg
*   In animals with internal fertilization, egg–sperm recognition mechanisms also exist. *   In the female reproductive tract, mammalian sperm are metabolically activated and attracted to the egg in the oviduct, but also aided in their movement by muscular contractions. *   The mammalian egg is surrounded by a thick layer called the cumulus. Beneath that is a protein envelope called the zona pellucida. *   A species-specific glycoprotein in the zona pellucida binds to the head of the sperm. *   The acrosomal reaction is triggered, releasing acrosomal enzymes that digest a path through the zona pellucida
839
Frontal lobe
Motor functions, movement of muscles Premotor cortex- planning Primary motor cortex- initiates motor movements (motor homunculus), bottom up Prefrontal association cortex- complex tasks and cognitive functions Broca's area- speech production
840
Axon terminals
Axon collaterals terminate in many axon terminals Contain neurotransmitter filled vesicles Electrical signal changes to chemical signal
841
How do gases cross the lung/bloodmedia?
Process of diffusion. Alveoli made of single layered cells, blood capillaries only have tunica intima and some connective tissue, so very thin, and easy process of diffusion Both the capillaries and the alveoli are lined with simple squamous epithelium
842
What causes binding to occur?
ATP and calcium
843
Ossicles
3 small bones, malleus, incus, and stapes(attatched to oval window)
844
Intermediate filaments
Fund in multicellular organisms, form rope like structures in cells Stabilize cell strucuture and resist tension Can maintain the positions of organelles Lamins provide structural support to the nuclear membrane
845
Peptide linkage
Condensation reactions between amino group of one amino acid and the carboxyl group of another Synthesizes proteins
846
Cell recognition and adhesion
Sponge cells- separation and come back together Glycoproteins are involved in cell recognition and binding Homotypic binding- same molecule sticks out from both cells and forms a bond Heterotypic binding- cells have different proteins
847
Macrophages in alveoli
Ward against foreign bodies, get rid of debris
848
Gap junctions in cardiac muscles
protein ensures exchange of material between cells, important in heart because they ensure synchrony in contraction by spreading electrical activities (ex all cells in atria contract at the same time, in ventricles those cells contract simultaneously to ensure efficiency)
849
Blastomere
*   Blastomeres become determined, or committed toa specific fate, at different times in different animals. *   Roundworm and clam blastomeres are already determined at the 8-cell stage. *   If one cell is removed, a portion of the embryo fails to develop normally. This is called mosaic development. *   Humans have regulative development. If some cells are lost during cleavage, other cells can compensate. For genetic testing in humans, one cell can be removed from a blastula following in vitro fertilization. If there are no mutations in the gene of interest, that blastula can be implanted
850
Tunica externa
Connective tissue with elastic and collagen fibers
851
Substrates
Reactants in a catalytic reactions
852
Morula
the embryo as a solid ball ofsmall cells. (from Latin for mulberry)
853
AP Step 2
Threshold is reached and the VGSC are triggered to open while the VGPC are still closed- they are slower
854
Male genitalia
Penis and scrotum
855
Entry of Sperm into the Egg
*   In animals with internal fertilization, egg–sperm recognition mechanisms also exist. *   In the female reproductive tract, mammalian sperm are metabolically activated and attracted to the egg in the oviduct, but also aided in their movement by muscular contractions. *   The mammalian egg is surrounded by a thick layer called the cumulus. Beneath that is a protein envelope called the zona pellucida. *   A species-specific glycoprotein in the zona pellucida binds to the head of the sperm. *   The acrosomal reaction is triggered, releasing acrosomal enzymes that digest a path through the zona pellucida
856
Phagocytosis
Attatchment (opsonization)- Physically bind to pathogen Internalization, turns into phagosome Degradation- Fuses with lysosome and becomes phagolysosome, and after the digestive enzymes can be reused Exocytosis- elimination of debris
857
Non competitive inhibitors
Bind to enzyme at a different site than the active site Enzyme changes shape and alters the active site
858
Stoma
Mouth of plant Co2 enters and O2/water exit through these pores
859
Cleavage
a rapid series of celldivision, but no cell growth In mammals cleavage is rotational: First cell division is parallel to the animal–vegetal axis; yields two blastomeres. In second division two blastomeres divide at right angles to each other;one is parallel to the axis and the other is perpendicular to it. This pattern of division is unique to mammals with placentas.
860
Mitochondrial matrix
Region enclosed by inner membrane Krebs or citric acid cycle takes place here
861
Phospholipid belayer
Hydrophobic tails line up and the hydrophilic heads face outward
862
trophoblast
*   In mammals, the first extraembryonic membrane to form is the trophoblast. *   When the blastocyst hatches from the zona pellucida, the trophoblast cells attach to the uterine wall, This is the beginning of implantation. *   The trophoblast becomes part of the uterine wall, and sends out villi to increase surface area and contact with maternal blood.
863
Extensive ER membrane system
Cells specialized for synthesizing proteins have these
864
Nonspecific immunity
Prevention Attack- if it gets in the circulatory system
865
Fertilization
Fertilization is the union of haploid sperm and haploid egg to produce a single diploid cell, the zygote
866
Morula
the embryo as a solid ball ofsmall cells. (from Latin for mulberry)
867
Bacteria
Unicellular prokaryotes
868
Rubisco
Enzyme that catalyzes fixation of CO2 Ribosome bisphosphate carboxylase/ Most abundant protein in the world, 50% of the protein in a leaf
869
Adenohypophysis
Anterior pituitary gland made of secretory glands, non neuronal, makes and releases own hormones. No neuronal connects on to hypothalamus •  Releases six peptide hormones, all made of peptides –  Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) & luteinizing hormone (LH) –  Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) –  Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)–  Prolactin –  Growth hormone (GH)
870
Light reactions
Convert light energy to chemical energy as ATP and NADH
871
When a pigment molecule absorbs a photon (excited state) the energy can be-
Released as heat and/or light Transferred to another molecule Used for a chemical reaction
872
Pigments
Molecules that absorb specific wavelengths in the visible range of the spectrum Photons can have a wide range of wavelengths and energy levels
873
Protist
Uni or multicellular, contaminate lakes and drinking water to invade host
874
Ester linkage
Carboxyl bind with hydroxyls of glycerol
875
Channel proteins
Central pore lined with amino acids
876
Integral membrane proteins
Hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions Sme extend across the lipid bilayer and others are partially embedded
877
Complement system
Pore formation: First complement protein (inactive), cascade of protein activation in bacterial cell Swelling: fluid rushes into cells Lysis
878
Air composition
78.1% nitrogen (goes into lungs and leaves), 20.9% oxygen Total atmospheric pressure= 760 mmHg (Pressure= concentration)- Patm = PN2 + PO2 Temperature and altitude changes atmospheric pressure Partial pressure of N2 = 760 mmHg x 0.781 ~ 600 mmHg Partial pressure of O2 = 760 mmHg x 0.21 ~ 160mmHg We breathe very easily, so partial pressure in lungs should be lower, so process of diffusion is easy. 100 mm mercury
879
AP Step 7
Both voltage gated channels are closed and membrane comes back to resting potential
880
How does electronegativity determine the structure of water?
O is more electronegative than H, so the O has a more negative charge
881
Muscles of Expiration
•  Passive expiration –  Elastic recoil of the lungs •  Active expiration –  Contraction of internal intercostals –  Contraction of abdominal muscles (causesdiaphragm to be pushed up)
882
Fluid mosaic model
General structure of membranes Phospholipids form a bilayer which is like a lakes which proteins float
883
Z scheme
Model of noncyclic electron transport Extracts electrons from water and transfers them to NADPH, using energy from photosynthesis one and two and resulting in ATP synthesis Yields ATP, NADPH, and O2
884
Fungi
Yeast is a unicellular form Ex: athlete's foot
885
ejaculation
(orgasm), contractions of the muscles at the base of the penis force semen throughthe urethra and out of the penis After ejaculation, the autonomic nervous system causes constriction of the vessels in the penis and thus a decrease in blood pressure in the erectile tissue; the compression of blood vessels leaving the penis is relieved and the erection declines
886
Radioisotopes after world war II
Became readily available to cell biologists to study cell metabolism Ex: tritium(3H) emits beta particle when one extra neutron changes into a proton Autoradiography- radioisotopes can trace the fate of molecules in cells
887
Prokaryotes
No nucleus or other membrane enclosed compartments Lack distinct organelles
888
Functions of the Respiratory System
*   Provides oxygen *   Eliminates carbon dioxide *   Regulates pH level- More co2 you get rid of the more hydrogen ions you get rid of *   Speech production *   Defense against foreign bodies- non specific immunity
889
Lysosomes
Vesicles containing digestive enzymes that come in part from the Golgi Sites for breakdown of food and foreign material brought into the cell by phagocytosis Detection of spent cellular components- autophagy- cell components are frequently destroyed and replaced with new ones
890
Aorta
Delivers oxygenated blood from left ventricle to body Biggest blood vessel in body
891
Second trimester
limbs elongate and facial features form
892
Processes of the Digestive
*   Motility- mixing of food *   Secretion- enzymes being released, produced in digestive system cells, ingredient sometimes produced in blood. *   Digestion- chemical breakdown of covalent bonds *   Absorption- Broken down into individual units, can be absorbed, accessible to cells
893
Immunization
Series of shots MMR- immunization shot against meals, mumps, rubella Small quantity of pathogens to build immune response, memory cells to speed up recovery next time
894
Pathogens
Parasite Bacteria Protist Fungi Virus
895
Steps in neurulation
*   The ectoderm over the notochord thickens and forms the neural plate. *   Edges of the neural plate fold and a deep groove forms. *   The folds fuse, forming the neural tube and a layer of ectoderm, The anterior end of the neural tube becomes the brain, the rest becomes the spinal cord
896
Pressure and Volume Change
During inspiration the volume of the lungs increases and the pressure decreases- atmospheric pressure is higher than alveolar pressure, and diffusion can occur During expiration, the volume of the lungs decreases and the pressure increases- alveolar pressure becomes higher than atmospheric pressure- diffusion outwards
897
Magnetoreceptors
Responds to earths magnetic field Ex: birds in migration
898
Photosynthetic prokaryotes
Some bacteria, including Cyanobacteria can do carry on photosynthesis Plasma membrane is unfolded and has chlorophyll
899
Two functions of DNA
Can reproduce itself (replication) Can copy its information into RNA (transcription), RNA can specify a sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide (translation)
900
Golgi apparatus
Has flattened membrane sacs and small membrane enclosed vesicles
901
Muscles of Expiration
•  Passive expiration –  Elastic recoil of the lungs •  Active expiration –  Contraction of internal intercostals –  Contraction of abdominal muscles (causesdiaphragm to be pushed up)
902
Action spectrum
Plot of biological activity as a function of exposure to varied wavelengths of light
903
Proteins and lipids in the membrane interacting
Independent, only interact noncovalently Some membrane proteins have fatty acids or other lipid groups covalently attached, called anchored membrane proteins
904
Densities of H2O at various states
Water>ice>vapor
905
Lymphoid progenitor cells
Form into B lymphocytes, T lymphocytes
906
Penis
The penis is a tubular shaft, the tip of which has sensitive skin called the glans penis that is very responsive to sexual stimulation
907
PRL
Prolactin Hormone responsible for milk production Target cell: mammary glands
908
Gastrulation
Gastrulation is the process in which a blastulais transformed into an embryo with three tissue layers and body axes
909
Nucleolus
Specialized region inside the nucleus where ribosomes are initially assembled
910
Cellular respiration
Production of ATP
911
Rate of reactions
Rate of uncalled reaction is proportional to concentration of reactants Rate of catalyzed reaction is proportional to reactants until the enzyme is saturated, and then the rate levels off
912
Active site
Substrate molecules bind here on the enzyme Small region of whole protein
913
Flagella
Locomotory structures shaped like corkscrew Some prokaryotes have this
914
Energy transfer and electron transport
Light energy absorbed by antenna chlorophylls, and passed on to reaction center Molecule goes to excited state Energized electron from chlorophyll molecules passed to electron acceptor to reduce it
915
Calvin and benson
Used 14C radioisotope to determine the sequence of reactions in CO2 fixation Exposed chlorella to 14CO2 then extracted the organic compounds and separated them by paper chromatography 3 second exposure of chlorella to 14CO2 revealed that the first compound to be formed is 3PG, a 3 carbon sugar phosphate
916
Light
A form of electromagnetic radiation Propagated as waves, energy of light is inversely proportional to wavelength (must be appropriate wavelength to be absorbed by receptive molecules Light also behaves as particles called photons, plants absorb these
917
How do gases cross the lung/bloodmedia?
Process of diffusion. Alveoli made of single layered cells, blood capillaries only have tunica intima and some connective tissue, so very thin, and easy process of diffusion Both the capillaries and the alveoli are lined with simple squamous epithelium
918
Vasodilation & Increased Permeability
• Histamine causes vasodilation – increases diameter, Increase in blood flow to infected area – Redness occurs – Increase delivery of proteins – Edema occurs- swelling, fluid from blood cells into interstitial tissue * increased permeability- proteins gain entry from blood to interstitial fluid * objective- get more immune cells
919
Double helix
Two strands of DNA molecule form this All have this structure so diversity is in the sequence of base pairs, info encoded in this sequence
920
Sertoli cells
•  The germ cells are protected from noxioussubstances in the blood by Sertoli cells, which also provide nutrients for the developing sperm and are involved in the hormonal control of spermatogenesis.
921
Tetanus
Clostridium tetani- anaerobic bacteria, can still survive in a wound even if there is poor circulation because it needs no oxygen, muscles lock due to overstimulation Bacteria releases a toxin that travels to the CNS (BBB can usually prevent toxins from reaching the brain but not these), and then it fucks with inhibitory activity allowing neurotransmitters to be available for long periods of time and not allowing them to be broken down, hyperexcitability of muscles
922
Sharp object penetrating skin
Easiest way to get infected by a pathogen Some cells are already in the vicinity, they destroy and then call for back up
923
Different amino acids
5 charged hydrophilic side chains 5 polar uncharged side chains 7 non polar hydrophobic side chains Cysteine- has terminal sulfhydryl that allows for disulfide bonding Glycine- H as R group Proline- modified amino group, forms a ring with R group
924
Somites
separate, segmented blocks of cells on either side of the neural tube. Muscle, cartilage, bone, and lower layer of the skin form from somites. Neural crest cells are guided by somites to develop into peripheral nerves and other structures
925
Pinocytosis
"cell drinking" Vesicles for,s to bring small dissolved substances or fluids into a cell, much smaller vesicles than in phagocytosis Constant in endothelial cells
926
Inspiration
Diaphragm- Lungs physically sit on diaphragm, main muscle for respiration, pushes down during inspiration External intercostal muscles- contact and push down
927
Two systems related to muscles in heart
Within a heartbeat, it pumps both ways simultaneously, pulmonary circuit doesn't require as much work as systemic, so left side has more muscle thickness because that is where it pumps the blood to the rest of the body
928
How is Carbon Dioxide Transported?
5-6% dissolved in plasma 5-8% bind to hemoglobin at a different binding site than oxygen 86-90% converted to hydrogen ions and bicarbonate by enzyme called carbonic anhydrase. When co2 goes up hydrogen ions go up and ph decreases, and vice versa. Want ph of 7.4
929
prostate gland
produces the thin, milky fluid thatmakes up the rest of the volume of semen Prostate fluid makes the uterine environment morehospitable to sperm and converts the semen, by enzyme action on the fibrinogen, into a gelatinous mass
930
The large intestine
Small intestine drains into the large intestine at the cecum Ascending, transverse, descending, sigmoid colons, rectum, anal sphincter *   Mostly contains things we cannot digest, but some absorption of water and electrolytes occurs *   Houses bacteria- Symbiotic relationship, they get unlimited source of food, generate methane gas, they produce vitamin K for us which we absorb in the large intestine *   Indigested material is known as feces
931
Visual fields
If one's head is always facing forward: Fixation point straight ahead, R and L visual field, nasal Fixation point slightly to the right- R and L visual field, R nasal and L temporal Fixation point far right- loss of depth perception, can only see with right eye
932
Alveolar type I cells
form the wall of the alveoli
933
Electronegativity
Depends on number of + charges in the nucleus and the distances of the electron from the nucleus
934
Prokaryotes
No nucleus or other membrane enclosed compartments Lack distinct organelles
935
Saturated fatty acids
No double bonds between carbons, saturated with H+ atoms Close packing of phospholipids into a monolayer, solid at room temperature
936
Complement system
Pore formation: First complement protein (inactive), cascade of protein activation in bacterial cell Swelling: fluid rushes into cells Lysis
937
System of respiration
Constant exchange of air: ventilation (tidal volume) Diffusion- oxygen from lungs to blood Circulation- bulk transport Diffusion of oxygen into cells Cellular respiration
938
Virus
Cause major problems by taking over/infecting cells
939
Light reactions
Convert light energy to chemical energy as ATP and NADH
940
Hair cell
Mechanoreceptors with cilia on surface (stereo ilium, tallest called kinocilium) Stretch gated ion channels, cilia bonding stretches membrane and opens channel Endolymph surrounding hair cells is rich in K+ that moves inward, causes depolarization
941
Second trimester
limbs elongate and facial features form
942
Action potential
Electrical activity in nervous system Membrane depolarizes, repolarizes, then hyperpolarizes Two voltage gated channels play a major role (sodium and potassium) Threshold: -50 to -55 mV 225mph, .02 seconds
943
Pressure and Volume Change
During inspiration the volume of the lungs increases and the pressure decreases- atmospheric pressure is higher than alveolar pressure, and diffusion can occur During expiration, the volume of the lungs decreases and the pressure increases- alveolar pressure becomes higher than atmospheric pressure- diffusion outwards
944
Aquaporins
Special water channels for water to cross a membrane with Also can cross by hitch hiking with other molecules
945
When a pigment molecule absorbs a photon (excited state) the energy can be-
Released as heat and/or light Transferred to another molecule Used for a chemical reaction
946
Gas transport through membranes
Oxygen has to cross alveoli and membrane of the capillaries to get into the plasma, and then another membrane to get inside the red blood cells Loading phase- hemoglobin picks up oxygen Unloading phase- release oxygen into your tissues to use, takes into mitochondria to produce ATP
947
Vasodilation & Increased Permeability
• Histamine causes vasodilation – increases diameter, Increase in blood flow to infected area – Redness occurs – Increase delivery of proteins – Edema occurs- swelling, fluid from blood cells into interstitial tissue * increased permeability- proteins gain entry from blood to interstitial fluid * objective- get more immune cells
948
Amniocentesis
extraction of amnioticfluid with a needle, after the fourteenth week of pregnancy
949
Monocytes/macrophages
Monocytes are inactive form, on patrol, macrophages are active, they attack Engulf and digest Activate T cells Once monocytes enter tissue they become macrophages
950
Receptor mediated endocytosis in mammalian cells
Take in cholesterol I liver, cholesterol packaged into low density lipoprotein (LDL) and secreted into the bloodstream Cells that need cholesterol have receptors for the LDLs in clathrin coated pits
951
Active transport involves 3 kinds of proteins
Uniporters- one ion, one direction Symporters- 2 ions, same direction Antiporters- 2 ions, different directions
952
Phagocytosis & Recruitment
* Macrophages in the nearby tissue detect bacteria using receptor proteins to engulf them * Macrophages release cytokines- chemicals for recruitment * Mast cells release histamine- causes vasodilation * Injured cells release chemotaxins- chemo attractants to attract immune cells
953
Beta glucose
OH up, H down
954
Oogenesis
*   Oogenesis produces eggs. *   Individual egg maturation can be arrested for months, or for as long as 10 (puberty) to 50 (menopause) years in humans! *   During this phase, the primary oocyte grows and addsto its energy, ribosome, and organelle stores. This tpermits the resulting embryo to have nourishment.
955
Morula
the embryo as a solid ball ofsmall cells. (from Latin for mulberry)
956
Reversible reactions
In principle all actions are reversible A<-->B Adding more A speeds up the forward reaction, more B speeds up reverse reaction
957
Erythropoitin
Hormone produced in kidney to maintain homeostasis of red blood cells, life span at 120 days so it is measured by a receptor, this hormone is sent to bone and told to release more
958
Monocytes/macrophages
Monocytes are inactive form, on patrol, macrophages are active, they attack Engulf and digest Activate T cells Once monocytes enter tissue they become macrophages
959
Cleavage
a rapid series of celldivision, but no cell growth In mammals cleavage is rotational: First cell division is parallel to the animal–vegetal axis; yields two blastomeres. In second division two blastomeres divide at right angles to each other;one is parallel to the axis and the other is perpendicular to it. This pattern of division is unique to mammals with placentas.
960
Specific Recognition Between Sperm and Egg
*   Specific recognition molecules mediate interactions between sperm and eggs. *   This ensures that activities of the sperm are directed toward eggs and not other cells and prevents eggs from being fertilized by sperm of the wrong species. *   This latter function is particularly importantin aquatic species, such as sea urchins, that release sperm and eggs into the surrounding water.
961
Compliance
Ability to change volume and pressure Balloon is like the lungs- highly compliant Paper bag- not compliant
962
Spina bifida
failure of the neural tube to fuse in a posterior region dueto vitamin B deficiency
963
Myeloid progenitor cells
Blood/platelets or immune cells produced Types of immune cells: Granular cells- neutrophils, mast cells agranular cells- monocytes, macrophages,
964
The large intestine
Small intestine drains into the large intestine at the cecum Ascending, transverse, descending, sigmoid colons, rectum, anal sphincter *   Mostly contains things we cannot digest, but some absorption of water and electrolytes occurs *   Houses bacteria- Symbiotic relationship, they get unlimited source of food, generate methane gas, they produce vitamin K for us which we absorb in the large intestine *   Indigested material is known as feces
965
Roles of the plasma membrane
Selectively permeable barrier Interface for cells where info is received from adjacent cells and extracellular signals Allows cells to maintain a constant internal environment Molecules responsible for binding to adjacent cells
966
Photoreceptors
Sense light
967
Cell theory
Cells are the fundamental units of life All organisms are composed of cells All cells come from preexisting cells
968
Microbes
Harmful substances, living or dead
969
Catalytic subunit
Active site on this subunit
970
Propagation of the action potential
Once the action potential occurs, depolarization spreads to other parts of the axons Depolarization triggers VGSC to open and more action potentials to occur
971
Nociceptors
Pain receptors on skin
972
What properties of water make it so important in biology?
Polar molecule Forms hydrogen bonds Has tetrahedral shape
973
Functions of the Respiratory System
*   Provides oxygen *   Eliminates carbon dioxide *   Regulates pH level- More co2 you get rid of the more hydrogen ions you get rid of *   Speech production *   Defense against foreign bodies- non specific immunity
974
Organization of the immune system
Nonspecific immune response- protects against foreign substances without having to recognize their identity Specific immune response- highly specific, usually a major problem that your body is really trying to fight
975
Covalent catalysis
Functional group in the side chain bonds covalently with the substrate
976
Twinning
*   If blastomeres separate into two groups, each can produce an embryo. *   Monozygotic twins come from the same zygote and are identical. *   Nonidentical twins are from two eggs fertilized by two sperm.
977
Photosynthesis in noncyclic electron electron transport
Each photosystem consists of several chlorophyll and accessory pigment molecules Complement each other, must be constantly absorbing light energy to power noncyclic electron transport
978
Superior vena cava
Brings deoxygenated blood from all structures above diaphragm
979
Parasite
Any organism that invades and lives by the expense of another body Most are animals, either micro or macroscopic Infects muscles and digestive system takes blood (muscles) and nutrients (liver)
980
Blastocyst
When blastula reaches 16 to 32 cells, it divides into two groups: *   Inner cell mass: becomes the embryo *   Trophoblast: a sac that forms from the outer cells. Its cells secrete fluid and create the blastocoel, with the inner cell mass at one end. Embryo is now called a blastocyst.
981
Beta glucose
OH up, H down
982
Non cyclic electron transport
Light energy is used to oxidize water, produces O2, H+, and electrons After excitation by light, Chl+ is an unstable molecule and seeks electrons Chl+ is a stron oxidizing agent and takes electrons from water, splitting the water molecule
983
Alveolar type II cells
Secrete surfactant which keeps the alveoli from collapsing
984
Nucleus
Contains most of the cells DNA and is the site of DNA duplication to support cell reproduction Plays role in DNA control of cell activities
985
First trimester
embryo becomes a fetus Heart begins to beat by week 4 Limbs form by week 8 The first trimester is the period during which the fetus is most susceptible to damage from radiation, drugs, chemicals, and agents that cause birth defects. The hormone hCG (human chorionic gonadotropin) is released after implantation and is an early indicator of pregnancy
986
Starch
Storage of glucose in plants | Branched
987
Erythropoitin
Hormone produced in kidney to maintain homeostasis of red blood cells, life span at 120 days so it is measured by a receptor, this hormone is sent to bone and told to release more
988
Childbirth
*   Passage of the baby is assisted by the mother’s bearing down with her abdominal muscles. *   Once the baby is clear of the birth canal it canstart breathing and become independent of the mother’s circulation, so the umbilical cord is clamped and cut. *   Finally, the placenta and fetal membranes are detached from the mother and expelled (several minutes–1 hour)
989
Allergy
Overactive or disproportionate immune system Chemicals released Anti histamine can be used (because histamine is the alarm)
990
Where are these microorganisms?
They like moisture, food particles, want to get in blood vessels (from there they can travel all over the body)
991
Right and left atrium
Receiving chambers
992
Twinning
*   If blastomeres separate into two groups, each can produce an embryo. *   Monozygotic twins come from the same zygote and are identical. *   Nonidentical twins are from two eggs fertilized by two sperm.
993
Tight junctions
Prevent substances from moving through spaces between cells Barrier to diffusion of proteins within the lipid bilayer so it defines functional regions
994
Branching of the airways
Conducting zone: trachea, primary bronchi, secondary bronchi, tertiary bronchi, bronchioles Respiratory zone: respiratory bronchioles, alveoli (each alveolus is covered with many capillaries to facilitate the exchange of materials)
995
Radioisotopes after world war II
Became readily available to cell biologists to study cell metabolism Ex: tritium(3H) emits beta particle when one extra neutron changes into a proton Autoradiography- radioisotopes can trace the fate of molecules in cells
996
CRH
Corticotropin releasing hormone Stimulate release of ACTH
997
Sterile cotton swab
Collect microorganisms by smearing on surface Put on a culture dish with solution called tryptic soy agar, which has nutrients that make bacteria reproduce so you can see them
998
Ionic bonds
Formed by the electrical attraction of positive and negative ions
999
During gastrulation, three germ layers form
–  The inner germ layer is the endoderm and gives rise to the digestive tract, circulatory tract, and respiratory tract. –  The outer layer, the ectoderm, gives rise to the epidermis and nervous system. –  The middle layer, the mesoderm, contributes to bone, muscle, liver, heart, and blood vessels
1000
AIDS
Acquired immune deficiency syndrome, viruses attack immune cells, vulnerable system open to opportunistic infection
1001
Physical barriers
Skin- brick layers of cells, most pathogens can't get through it, also produces a hard and fibrous protein called keratin. The closest layer to the surface has the highest amount of keratin- the outermost layer of skin is dead, it produced too much keratin to function Fibrous layer of the eyes Mucous membrane of the respiratory, digestive, urinary, and reproductive systems, and ear- thick membrane that prevents pathogens from getting into the circulation Cilia
1002
Lungs and the mechanisms of the chest
Easy, effortless to breath because of the mechanics of the lungs- always slightly inflated to make inspiration easier Lungs attached to chest wall and inner layer of your rib cage by very thin set of membranes called a pleural sac Ribs protect your lungs and work in synchrony with them, chest expands and increase in volume along with your lungs
1003
Cleavage
a rapid series of celldivision, but no cell growth In mammals cleavage is rotational: First cell division is parallel to the animal–vegetal axis; yields two blastomeres. In second division two blastomeres divide at right angles to each other;one is parallel to the axis and the other is perpendicular to it. This pattern of division is unique to mammals with placentas.
1004
Compartmentalization in eukaryotic cells
Key to eukaryotic cell function Each organelle/ compartment has specific role defined by chemical processes Membranes surrounding these molecules keep away inappropriate molecules and also act as traffic regulators for raw materials into and out of the organelle
1005
Spina bifida
failure of the neural tube to fuse in a posterior region dueto vitamin B deficiency
1006
Connect of artery to vein
Artery, arteriole, capillaries, venue, vein
1007
Steps in neurulation
*   The ectoderm over the notochord thickens and forms the neural plate. *   Edges of the neural plate fold and a deep groove forms. *   The folds fuse, forming the neural tube and a layer of ectoderm, The anterior end of the neural tube becomes the brain, the rest becomes the spinal cord
1008
Cyclic electron transport
Electron from excited P700 chlorophyll molecule n photosystem one cycles back to the same chlorophyll molecule Involves a series of exergonic redox reactions, the released energy creates a proton gradient that is used to synthesize ATP
1009
Cellular respiration
Production of ATP
1010
prostate gland
produces the thin, milky fluid thatmakes up the rest of the volume of semen Prostate fluid makes the uterine environment morehospitable to sperm and converts the semen, by enzyme action on the fibrinogen, into a gelatinous mass
1011
Inspiration
Diaphragm- Lungs physically sit on diaphragm, main muscle for respiration, pushes down during inspiration External intercostal muscles- contact and push down
1012
How Are Gases Transported?
•  Once in the blood, oxygen is transported in two ways –  1.5% is dissolved in the plasma and cytosol of erythrocytes –  98.5 % Bound to hemoglobin
1013
Hormonal mechanism
Endocrine organs are put into action by other hormones
1014
Heart beat
The closing of one set of valves after another
1015
Monocytes/macrophages
Monocytes are inactive form, on patrol, macrophages are active, they attack Engulf and digest Activate T cells Once monocytes enter tissue they become macrophages
1016
Glycogen
Storage of glucose in animals | Highly branched
1017
GnRH
Gonadotropin releasing hormone Stimulates release of FSH/LH
1018
Nuclear lamina
Meshwork of proteins which maintains the shape of the nuclear envelope and the nucleus
1019
Calvin cycle stimulated by light
Protons pumped form stroma into thylakoids, increasing the pH which favors the activation of rubisco Electron flow from photosystem one reduces disulfide bonds to activate calvin cycle enzymes
1020
Autoimmune disease
Immune system turned against you, attacks a particular tissue - diabetes type 1: attacks beta cells that produce insulin - multiple sclerosis: attacks myelin, slows electrical activities - rheumatoid arthritis: attacks joints
1021
Chorionic villus sampling
tissue isremoved from the chorion after the eighth week
1022
Tunica externa
Connective tissue with elastic and collagen fibers
1023
Homeostasis
Homeostasis is the maintenance of constant internal environment (sodium level glucose level, pH level, temperature) The internal environment consists of the interstitial fluid that bathes every cell Cells exchange materials with their environment
1024
Organization of the immune system
Nonspecific immune response- protects against foreign substances without having to recognize their identity Specific immune response- highly specific, usually a major problem that your body is really trying to fight
1025
Movement of membrane proteins
Some can move freely within the bilayer, some anchored to a specific region When cells are fused experimentally some proteins from each cell distribute themselves uniformly around the membrane
1026
Air composition
78.1% nitrogen (goes into lungs and leaves), 20.9% oxygen Total atmospheric pressure= 760 mmHg (Pressure= concentration)- Patm = PN2 + PO2 Temperature and altitude changes atmospheric pressure Partial pressure of N2 = 760 mmHg x 0.781 ~ 600 mmHg Partial pressure of O2 = 760 mmHg x 0.21 ~ 160mmHg We breathe very easily, so partial pressure in lungs should be lower, so process of diffusion is easy. 100 mm mercury
1027
Cristae
Folds of the inner membrane give rise to these Contains large protein molecules used in cellular respiration
1028
Macrophages in alveoli
Ward against foreign bodies, get rid of debris
1029
Antenna systems
Pigments arranged in these Also called light harvesting complexes
1030
Mitochondria
Converts potential energy of fuel molecules into form that cell can use (ATP) Outer lipid bilayer and highly folded inner membrane
1031
Stoma
Mouth of plant Co2 enters and O2/water exit through these pores
1032
Resolution
Limiting factor in all microscopes, need high resolution to see detail
1033
Morula
the embryo as a solid ball ofsmall cells. (from Latin for mulberry)
1034
Morula
the embryo as a solid ball ofsmall cells. (from Latin for mulberry)
1035
Vasodilation & Increased Permeability
• Histamine causes vasodilation – increases diameter, Increase in blood flow to infected area – Redness occurs – Increase delivery of proteins – Edema occurs- swelling, fluid from blood cells into interstitial tissue * increased permeability- proteins gain entry from blood to interstitial fluid * objective- get more immune cells
1036
Morula
the embryo as a solid ball ofsmall cells. (from Latin for mulberry)
1037
Ingredients for photosynthesis
Co2 reduced to sugars that travel throughout the plant body Water up taken by roots Water and oxygen released
1038
Transmural pressure
The pressure difference between two membranes
1039
trophoblast
*   In mammals, the first extraembryonic membrane to form is the trophoblast. *   When the blastocyst hatches from the zona pellucida, the trophoblast cells attach to the uterine wall, This is the beginning of implantation. *   The trophoblast becomes part of the uterine wall, and sends out villi to increase surface area and contact with maternal blood.
1040
How Are Gases Transported?
•  Once in the blood, oxygen is transported in two ways –  1.5% is dissolved in the plasma and cytosol of erythrocytes –  98.5 % Bound to hemoglobin
1041
Densities of H2O at various states
Water>ice>vapor
1042
Aorta
Delivers oxygenated blood from left ventricle to body Biggest blood vessel in body
1043
How do we study organelles?
First studied using light microscopy Cell fractionation separates organelles for study by chemical methods (spin tubes of cells with rotor)
1044
Antenna systems
Pigments arranged in these Also called light harvesting complexes
1045
Temporal lobe
Primary auditory cortex- hearing Vision-visual association area for facial recognition Olfaction
1046
Fertilization
Fertilization is the union of haploid sperm and haploid egg to produce a single diploid cell, the zygote
1047
clitoris
the anatomical analog of the male penis that is capable of erection and is highly sensitive to sexual stimulation Both the labia minora and clitoris become engorgedwith blood during sexual stimulation
1048
Nonspecific immunity
Prevention Attack- if it gets in the circulatory system
1049
Accessory pigments
Transfer energy absorbed to chorophylls Carotenoids and phycobilins Absorb intermediate between red and blue
1050
Cyclic electron transport
Electron from excited P700 chlorophyll molecule n photosystem one cycles back to the same chlorophyll molecule Involves a series of exergonic redox reactions, the released energy creates a proton gradient that is used to synthesize ATP
1051
Rigor Mortis
Muscles are stiff, myosin remains attatched to actin because there is no ATP to unbind it
1052
Hyperpolarizing potential
Negative ion goes to postsynaptic cell Inhibitory synapse
1053
Sterile cotton swab
Collect microorganisms by smearing on surface Put on a culture dish with solution called tryptic soy agar, which has nutrients that make bacteria reproduce so you can see them
1054
Path of zygote
*   Still in the oviduct, the zygote divides to become a blastocyst and continues down the oviduct. *   In the uterus, the blastocyst attaches to the wall lining called the endometrium.
1055
Gas transport through membranes
Oxygen has to cross alveoli and membrane of the capillaries to get into the plasma, and then another membrane to get inside the red blood cells Loading phase- hemoglobin picks up oxygen Unloading phase- release oxygen into your tissues to use, takes into mitochondria to produce ATP
1056
Calvin and benson
Used 14C radioisotope to determine the sequence of reactions in CO2 fixation Exposed chlorella to 14CO2 then extracted the organic compounds and separated them by paper chromatography 3 second exposure of chlorella to 14CO2 revealed that the first compound to be formed is 3PG, a 3 carbon sugar phosphate
1057
Anencephaly
failure of the neural tube to close at the anterior end and no forebrain develops
1058
Pressure change
Breathing associated with skeletal muscles that are constantly contracting and relaxing, gases are quantified by pressur Atmospheric pressure (Patm)- pressure on the outside in the environment Alveolar pressure (Palv)-pressure inside your lungs Intrapleural pressure (Pip)- pressure in pleural sac, fills up with fluid that exerts pressure Alveolar and interpleural pressure are constantly fluctuating because they depend on your state
1059
Action spectrum
Plot of biological activity as a function of exposure to varied wavelengths of light
1060
Allergy
Overactive or disproportionate immune system Chemicals released Anti histamine can be used (because histamine is the alarm)
1061
Leydig cells
Male sex hormones are produced by clusters of Leydig cells lying between the seminiferous tubules.
1062
Actin
Actin is globular protein that polymerizes to form an intertwined helix binding site is on actin molecules with attachment for myosin crossbridge
1063
Photo system 1
Light energy reduces NADP+ to NADPH Reaction center has chlorophyll a molecules: P700 absorbs in the 700nm range
1064
Pulmonary circulation
Short distance circuit Delivers deoxygenated (blood never has absolutely no oxygen) blood from the heart to the lungs
1065
Sarcomere
Thick and thin filaments, alternating proteins Force come from interactions between thick and thin filaments Z line is boundary of sarcomere
1066
Allostery
Shapes exist in more than one shape Active- can bind substrate Inactive- cannot bind substrate but can bind inhibitor Most allosteric enzymes are proteins with quaternary structure
1067
Twinning
*   If blastomeres separate into two groups, each can produce an embryo. *   Monozygotic twins come from the same zygote and are identical. *   Nonidentical twins are from two eggs fertilized by two sperm.
1068
Vasodilation & Increased Permeability
• Histamine causes vasodilation – increases diameter, Increase in blood flow to infected area – Redness occurs – Increase delivery of proteins – Edema occurs- swelling, fluid from blood cells into interstitial tissue * increased permeability- proteins gain entry from blood to interstitial fluid * objective- get more immune cells
1069
Intermediate filaments
Fund in multicellular organisms, form rope like structures in cells Stabilize cell strucuture and resist tension Can maintain the positions of organelles Lamins provide structural support to the nuclear membrane
1070
Photosynthesis
"synthesis from light" Plants take in CO2, produce carbohydrates, and release O2 and water Light is required 6CO2 + 12H2O--> C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O
1071
Bacteria
Unicellular prokaryotes
1072
Barriers to infection
Physical barriers Chemical barriers Reflexes
1073
Phagocytosis
Attatchment (opsonization)- Physically bind to pathogen Internalization, turns into phagosome Degradation- Fuses with lysosome and becomes phagolysosome, and after the digestive enzymes can be reused Exocytosis- elimination of debris
1074
Anencephaly
failure of the neural tube to close at the anterior end and no forebrain develops
1075
Barriers to infection
Physical barriers Chemical barriers Reflexes
1076
Components of homeostatic system
•  Receptors –  Provide information about specific conditions •  Control Center –  Evaluates the information from receptors –  Set point •  Effectors –  Respond to restore the deviation from the setvalues of the internal environment
1077
Electron microscope
Use electromagnets to focus an electron beam, wavelength is much shorter than light so much higher resolution .5 nm
1078
Chemical barriers
Sebum- oily acidic substance released from sebaceous glands Lacrimal glands- tears protect sclera and cornea, dripping through nasal cavity, washing of the eye Lysozymes- degrading/digestive enzymes secreted from the mucous membranes Defensins- peptides secreted from the mucous membranes Ear wax- things get stuck Sweat- cools body and at same time destroys microorganisms on skin, B.O. Is the degradation of bacteria on skin Macrophages- immune cells Stomach acid- HCl, damaging Saliva
1079
uterine cycle
*   The uterine cycle parallels the ovarian cycle and involves the buildup, then breakdown, of the endometrium. *   About five days into the ovarian cycle, the endometrium builds in preparation for the blastocyst. *   About five days after ovulation, the uterus is maximally prepared and stays that way for another nine days. *   If the blastocyst does not arrive by then, the endometrium breaks down and sloughs off during menstruation.
1080
Peptide linkage
Condensation reactions between amino group of one amino acid and the carboxyl group of another Synthesizes proteins
1081
Extracellular destruction: complement
• Membrane Attack Complex (MAC) – Embeds itself in the microbe membrane, forming pores – Water and salt enter the microbe Proteins released by liver to do the job: complement system
1082
Blastocyst
When blastula reaches 16 to 32 cells, it divides into two groups: *   Inner cell mass: becomes the embryo *   Trophoblast: a sac that forms from the outer cells. Its cells secrete fluid and create the blastocoel, with the inner cell mass at one end. Embryo is now called a blastocyst.
1083
Alveolar type II cells
Secrete surfactant which keeps the alveoli from collapsing
1084
urethra
the common duct for urinary and reproductive systems
1085
Lymphoid tissues
Adenoids, tonsils, thymus, lymph noes, spleen, bone marrow, lymphatic vessels Immune cells originate here, majorly from bone marrow immune cells are scattered all over, but they are clustered in certain areas in case of infection
1086
Functions of the extracellular matrix
Holds cells together in tissues Contributes to physical properties of tissue Helps filter material passing between tissues Helps orient cell movement Role in chemical signaling
1087
Photosystem
Multiple antenna systems, surround reaction centers Pigments packed together on thylakoids membrane proteins Excitation energy passes from the pigments that absorb short wavelengths to those that absorb longer wavelengths, and ends up in the reaction center pigment
1088
Allergy
Overactive or disproportionate immune system Chemicals released Anti histamine can be used (because histamine is the alarm)
1089
Genome
Complete set of DNA in a living organism
1090
Erections
sexually aroused male’s autonomic nervous system causes penis blood vessel dilation. The nerve endings release nitric oxide, (NO, a gas) a neurotransmitter that stimulates the production of cGMP a second messenger that acts on the blood vessels This swells the spongy, erectile tissue and compresses the blood flow from the penis
1091
Transmural pressure
The pressure difference between two membranes
1092
Photosystem 2
Light energy oxidizes water to oxygen, H+, and electrons Reaction center has chlorophyll a molecules: P680 absorbs at 680 nm (more energetic than P700) Excited first
1093
Absorption spectrum
Plot of wavelengths absorbed by a pigment
1094
G3P
Gylceraldehyde 3 phosphate 5/6 recycled into RuBP 1/6 converted to starch and sucrose to make glucose and fructose
1095
Sharp object penetrating skin
Easiest way to get infected by a pathogen Some cells are already in the vicinity, they destroy and then call for back up
1096
Lysosomes
Vesicles containing digestive enzymes that come in part from the Golgi Sites for breakdown of food and foreign material brought into the cell by phagocytosis Detection of spent cellular components- autophagy- cell components are frequently destroyed and replaced with new ones
1097
Fungi
Yeast is a unicellular form Ex: athlete's foot
1098
Chorionic villus sampling
tissue isremoved from the chorion after the eighth week
1099
Acid base catalysis
Enzyme side chains transfer H+ to or from the substrate to break a covalent bond
1100
Air composition
78.1% nitrogen (goes into lungs and leaves), 20.9% oxygen Total atmospheric pressure= 760 mmHg (Pressure= concentration)- Patm = PN2 + PO2 Temperature and altitude changes atmospheric pressure Partial pressure of N2 = 760 mmHg x 0.781 ~ 600 mmHg Partial pressure of O2 = 760 mmHg x 0.21 ~ 160mmHg We breathe very easily, so partial pressure in lungs should be lower, so process of diffusion is easy. 100 mm mercury
1101
Diffusion rate depends on
Diameter of molecules or ions Temperature of solution Concentration gradient
1102
Movement of membrane proteins
Some can move freely within the bilayer, some anchored to a specific region When cells are fused experimentally some proteins from each cell distribute themselves uniformly around the membrane
1103
Allergy
Overactive or disproportionate immune system Chemicals released Anti histamine can be used (because histamine is the alarm)
1104
Path of the egg
the mature egg is released into the body cavity and is swept into the end of the oviduct (Fallopian tube) by an undulating fringe of tissue (Fertilization takes place in the oviduct and, in humans, the second meiotic division takes place) Cilia lining the oviduct propel the fertilized or unfertilized egg toward the uterus, a muscular, thick-walled cavity The opening at the bottom of the uterus is the cervix,which leads into the vagina
1105
labia majora and labia minora
The external opening of the vagina has two sets of folded skin, the labia majora and labia minora, which also surround the urethra Labia majora equivalent of scrotum Lania minora becomes engorged with blood
1106
Lymphoid tissues
Adenoids, tonsils, thymus, lymph noes, spleen, bone marrow, lymphatic vessels Immune cells originate here, majorly from bone marrow immune cells are scattered all over, but they are clustered in certain areas in case of infection
1107
Sodium-potassium pump
Primary active transport, found in all animal cells Pump is an integral membrane glycoprotein that is an antiporter Gets 3 sodium ions out and 2 potassium ions in by hydrolyzing ATP
1108
Active transport
Moves substances against a concentration or electrical gradient, it requires energy (often ATP)
1109
Compliance
Ability to change volume and pressure Balloon is like the lungs- highly compliant Paper bag- not compliant
1110
Muscles of Expiration
•  Passive expiration –  Elastic recoil of the lungs •  Active expiration –  Contraction of internal intercostals –  Contraction of abdominal muscles (causesdiaphragm to be pushed up)
1111
Nuclear lamina
Meshwork of proteins which maintains the shape of the nuclear envelope and the nucleus
1112
Where does the muscle get the energy from?
Many mitochondria in muscles to keep up with the energy demand Get glucose and oxygen to produce energy Three sources: creatine phosphate (limited short term source of energy, immediately available and only lasts about 1 second), cellular respiration (until O2 debt,more oxygen needed than had), glycolysis followed by fermentation, and then fatigue hits
1113
Photosynthesis in noncyclic electron electron transport
Each photosystem consists of several chlorophyll and accessory pigment molecules Complement each other, must be constantly absorbing light energy to power noncyclic electron transport
1114
Non polar covalent bond
Share electrons equally
1115
Phospholipid movement in the bilayer
Lateral diffusion, flexing, and rotation but no flip flop
1116
Lipids absorption
*   Can easily permeate through the plasma membrane, tightly controlled so it doesn't pass freely, bile salt packages glycerol and fatty acids into micelles - lipoprotein vehicle that is hydrophilic on the outside and hydrophobic on the inside, allows it to move into the small intestine cells *   Once micelles approach the apical side of the epithelial cell membrane, the glycerol and fatty acid passively diffuse into the cell *   The glycerol and fatty acid are then resynthesized into triglycerides and packaged into a lipoprotein known as chylomicrons- large vesicles that cannot fit into the capillaries, does not go into the blood immediately *   Chylomicrons are then exocytosed into the lymphatic system which has fluid in its own circulation and vessels that are more permeable, eventually drain into superior vena cava and ends up in circulation, liver sorts and ships these lipids
1117
Interneurons
Connect neurons within the CNS, processes
1118
GH
Growth hormone Promotes growth Target organ: muscles, liver, bones, etc
1119
Lumen
Cavity within blood vessel
1120
Electrocardiogram graph
P wave- atrial depolarization(contraction) and electrical activities QRS- Ventricular depolarization/contraction, much higher than atrial contraction because atria only have to pump to ventricle, but ventricle has to pump far T- ventricular repolarization
1121
Tight junctions
Prevent substances from moving through spaces between cells Barrier to diffusion of proteins within the lipid bilayer so it defines functional regions
1122
Rubisco
Enzyme that catalyzes fixation of CO2 Ribosome bisphosphate carboxylase/ Most abundant protein in the world, 50% of the protein in a leaf
1123
Absorption spectrum
Plot of wavelengths absorbed by a pigment
1124
Compliance
Ability to change volume and pressure Balloon is like the lungs- highly compliant Paper bag- not compliant
1125
Vacuoles
In plant and protist cells Store waste products and toxic compounds; some may deter herbivores Provides structure for plant cells, water enters by osmosis and creates turbot pressure Stores anthocyanins(pigment) in flowers/fruit to attract pollinators Digestive enzymes to hydrolyze stored food for early growth
1126
Cleavage
a rapid series of celldivision, but no cell growth In mammals cleavage is rotational: First cell division is parallel to the animal–vegetal axis; yields two blastomeres. In second division two blastomeres divide at right angles to each other;one is parallel to the axis and the other is perpendicular to it. This pattern of division is unique to mammals with placentas.
1127
Thylakoids
The way internal membranes are arranged in chloroplasts, thylakoids make stacks called grana These membranes contain chlorophyll and other pigments
1128
Concentration of ions against the neuronal membrane
Na: Extracellular 150mM, intracellular 15mM K: Extracellular 5 mM, intracellular 140 mM
1129
Nuclear pores
In the nuclear envelope, connect the interior of the nucleus with the rest of the cytoplasm Pore complex- 8 large protein granules surround each pore RNA and proteins must pass through these pores to enter or leave the nucleus
1130
How is Carbon Dioxide Transported?
5-6% dissolved in plasma 5-8% bind to hemoglobin at a different binding site than oxygen 86-90% converted to hydrogen ions and bicarbonate by enzyme called carbonic anhydrase. When co2 goes up hydrogen ions go up and ph decreases, and vice versa. Want ph of 7.4
1131
How is polypeptide chain organized?
Like a sentence- "capital letter" is like the amino group of the first amino acid, and the "period" is like the carboxyl group of the last amino acid
1132
Non cyclic electron transport
Light energy is used to oxidize water, produces O2, H+, and electrons After excitation by light, Chl+ is an unstable molecule and seeks electrons Chl+ is a stron oxidizing agent and takes electrons from water, splitting the water molecule
1133
Microfilaments
Made of protein actin, can be single filaments or networks Needed for cell contraction (as in muscle cells, associated with myosin for muscle contraction), also add structure to plasma membrane and shape to cells Involved in cytoplasmic streaming and formation of pseudopodia Polar, polymerizes to form long helical chains
1134
seminal vesicles
produce about two-thirds of the volume of semen, consisting of mucus, fibrinogen (clotting agent), and fructose as an energy source for the sperm
1135
Pulmonary veins
Bring back oxygenated blood from lungs to left atrium
1136
Flagella
Come in ones and twos, longer than cilia
1137
Flagella
Locomotory structures shaped like corkscrew Some prokaryotes have this
1138
DNA replication
Depends on base pairing, as does transcription Involves entire molecule only small sections of DNA are transcribed into RNA
1139
The female reproductive cycle actually consists of two linked cycles:
an ovarian cycle that produces eggs and hormones and a uterine cycle that prepares the endometrium for the arrival of a blastocyst
1140
Neutrophils
Most abundant phagocytic cells Release: Cytokines- alarming chemicals to alarm other immune cells Vasodilators- increases size of blood cells, Make blood vessel bigger so immune cells can travel Chemotaxins- chemo attractants, attract other immune cells, travel in blood vessels and squeeze out of them, can get anywhere in the body
1141
Steps of fertilization
–  The sperm and egg recognize each other. –  The sperm is activated so that it can gain access to the plasma membrane of the egg. –  The plasma membranes of the sperm and egg fuse. –  The egg blocks entry of additional sperm. –  The egg is stimulated to start development. –  The egg and sperm nuclei fuse
1142
Anions
Negative
1143
Photophosphorylation
Light driven production of ATP H+ transported via electron carriers across the thylakoid membrane from the stroma into the lumen, creating an electrochemical gradient
1144
Secondary structure
Alpha helix- right handed coil, resulting from hydrogen bonding, common in fibrous structural proteins Beta pleated sheet- two or more polypeptide chains are aligned, hydrogen bonded
1145
How do gases cross the lung/bloodmedia?
Process of diffusion. Alveoli made of single layered cells, blood capillaries only have tunica intima and some connective tissue, so very thin, and easy process of diffusion Both the capillaries and the alveoli are lined with simple squamous epithelium
1146
Primary active transport
Requires direct hydrolysis of ATP
1147
Parasite
Any organism that invades and lives by the expense of another body Most are animals, either micro or macroscopic Infects muscles and digestive system takes blood (muscles) and nutrients (liver)
1148
Compartmentalization in eukaryotic cells
Key to eukaryotic cell function Each organelle/ compartment has specific role defined by chemical processes Membranes surrounding these molecules keep away inappropriate molecules and also act as traffic regulators for raw materials into and out of the organelle
1149
Pigments
Molecules that absorb specific wavelengths in the visible range of the spectrum Photons can have a wide range of wavelengths and energy levels
1150
Entropy
Disorder, spontaneous processes always proceed to disorder
1151
Alpha glucose
OH down, H up
1152
Aphasia
Language areas damaged
1153
Receptor mediated endocytosis
Deeds on receptor proteins (integral membrane proteins) to bind to specific substances Sites called coated pits, coated with other proteins such as clathrin
1154
Synthesis of peptides
Hormones are synthesized in the ribosomes and RER as preprohormones- an inactive form that is stored inside the cell that get converted to prohormone by modification Packaged in Golgi as prohormone Large peptide released from cell by exocytosis because lipid insoluble When released into the blood still inactive, become active in circulation
1155
First trimester
embryo becomes a fetus Heart begins to beat by week 4 Limbs form by week 8 The first trimester is the period during which the fetus is most susceptible to damage from radiation, drugs, chemicals, and agents that cause birth defects. The hormone hCG (human chorionic gonadotropin) is released after implantation and is an early indicator of pregnancy
1156
Two systems of electron transport
Non cyclic electron transport- produces NADPH and ATP Cyclic electron transport- produces ATP only * when you need more sugar you need more ATP than NADH, so cyclic transport is needed
1157
AIDS
Acquired immune deficiency syndrome, viruses attack immune cells, vulnerable system open to opportunistic infection
1158
Fertilization
Fertilization is the union of haploid sperm and haploid egg to produce a single diploid cell, the zygote
1159
Phagocytic cell migration
* The cytokines released by macrophages signal the endothelial cells to express selectin * Margination occurs- dock and fuse with membrane, carbohydrate ligands on macrophages bind to selectin in blood vessel, move in blood vessel by rolling * Phagocytic cells produce integrin on their membrane * Stronger attachment occurs- immune cells are allowed to slow down and exit * Phagocytic cells begin to move from the blood to the infected area in a process known as diapedisis * Once in the interstitial fluid, phagocytic cells are attracted to the site of injury by chemotaxins- tell phagocytic cells exactly where to go
1160
Photosystem 2
Light energy oxidizes water to oxygen, H+, and electrons Reaction center has chlorophyll a molecules: P680 absorbs at 680 nm (more energetic than P700) Excited first
1161
Vitamins
Small molecules not synthesized by the body, must be acquired in the diet
1162
How Are Gases Transported?
•  Once in the blood, oxygen is transported in two ways –  1.5% is dissolved in the plasma and cytosol of erythrocytes –  98.5 % Bound to hemoglobin
1163
Chlorophylls a and b
Ring structure with magnesium atom in center Hydrocarbon tail which anchors them to integral proteins in the thylakoids membrane Absorb in red and blue region
1164
Rods when exposed to light
cGMP levels are low Na+ channels are closed Hyperpolarization occurs No NT release, no graded potential Then signal sent to brin, occipital lobe interprets visual information
1165
Specific Recognition Between Sperm and Egg
*   Specific recognition molecules mediate interactions between sperm and eggs. *   This ensures that activities of the sperm are directed toward eggs and not other cells and prevents eggs from being fertilized by sperm of the wrong species. *   This latter function is particularly importantin aquatic species, such as sea urchins, that release sperm and eggs into the surrounding water.
1166
Sterile cotton swab
Collect microorganisms by smearing on surface Put on a culture dish with solution called tryptic soy agar, which has nutrients that make bacteria reproduce so you can see them
1167
Mast cells
* Mast cells are found throughout connective tissues (not found in blood) * They release histamine and other chemicals involved in inflammation
1168
Ovarian cycle steps
1- primary oocytes (2n) are present in the ovary at birth 2- about once a month, between puberty and menopause, 6-12 primary oocytes begin to mature. A primary oocyte and it's surrounding cells is called a follicle 3- the developing oocyte is nourished by follicle cells which also produce estrogen 4- after one week, usually only one primary oocyte begins to develop. A meiotic division just before ovulation creates the secondary oocyte (n). First polar body 5- at ovulation on the 14th day, the follicle ruptures and releases the egg which is caught by the Fallopian t uses 6- remaining follicle cells create the corpus lutenum, which produces progesterone and estrogen 7-if pregnancy does not occur, the corpus lutenum degenerates
1169
Protist
Uni or multicellular, contaminate lakes and drinking water to invade host
1170
Mast cells
* Mast cells are found throughout connective tissues (not found in blood) * They release histamine and other chemicals involved in inflammation
1171
Path of sperm
*   To achieve fertilization, sperm swim up the vagina, assisted by contractions of the female reproductive tract. *   The sperm then pass through the cervix and most of the oviduct to the egg (secondary oocyte) in the upper oviduct. *   Egg and sperm nucleus (both haploid) fuse to produce the diploid zygote.
1172
Calvin cycle stimulated by light
Protons pumped form stroma into thylakoids, increasing the pH which favors the activation of rubisco Electron flow from photosystem one reduces disulfide bonds to activate calvin cycle enzymes
1173
Lipid composition in plasma membranes
Phospholipids vary- fatty acid chain length, degree of saturation, phosphate groups Can be up to 25 percent cholesterol
1174
What causes damage to the brain?
Trauma Stroke- inadequate blood delivery to the brain, deprived of nutrients, tries to do anaerobic respiration due to lack of oxygen but it does not have the enzymes for fermentation so part of the brain dies Seizure- Brian uncontrollably fires, sync of electrical activities lost
1175
Neutrophils
Most abundant phagocytic cells Release: Cytokines- alarming chemicals to alarm other immune cells Vasodilators- increases size of blood cells, Make blood vessel bigger so immune cells can travel Chemotaxins- chemo attractants, attract other immune cells, travel in blood vessels and squeeze out of them, can get anywhere in the body
1176
Air composition
78.1% nitrogen (goes into lungs and leaves), 20.9% oxygen Total atmospheric pressure= 760 mmHg (Pressure= concentration)- Patm = PN2 + PO2 Temperature and altitude changes atmospheric pressure Partial pressure of N2 = 760 mmHg x 0.781 ~ 600 mmHg Partial pressure of O2 = 760 mmHg x 0.21 ~ 160mmHg We breathe very easily, so partial pressure in lungs should be lower, so process of diffusion is easy. 100 mm mercury
1177
Spermatogenesis
Male germ cell (2n) Mitosis Spermatogonium (2n) Mitosis (first DNA synthesis-Chromosomes don't separate, cross over- DNA from two pairs get scrambled) Primary spermatocyte (2n) first meiotic division (no DNA synthesis) Secondary spermatocytes (1n) Secondary meiotic division, independent assortment of chromosomes Spermatids (1n) Differentiation and maturation Sperm cells (1n)
1178
Second trimester
limbs elongate and facial features form
1179
Energy transfer and electron transport
Light energy absorbed by antenna chlorophylls, and passed on to reaction center Molecule goes to excited state Energized electron from chlorophyll molecules passed to electron acceptor to reduce it
1180
Capillaries
Smallest diameter blood vessels Made of endothelial layer only (tunica intima) Have slits- Slits facilitate movement and exhange of materials between cells They are the site of exchange with cells Lowest velocity, delivering nutrients at slow speed
1181
Synthesis of steroids
Smooth ER synthesizes lipids, mitochondria synthesize steroid hormones Released into circulation (blood vessels) moving freely through the membrane by diffusion
1182
Simple diffusion
Smile molecules pass through the lipid bilayer Water and lipid soluble molecules can diffuse across the membrane Electrically charged and polar molecules cannot pass through easily
1183
Tertiary structure
``` Many bonds: Covalent disulfide bridges Hydrophobic side chain interactions Van der waals forces Ionic bonds Hydrogen bonds ```
1184
Tropomyosin
Arranged like ribbon that binds the myosin binding site on actin
1185
Virus
Cause major problems by taking over/infecting cells
1186
Components of the cytoskeleton
Microfilaments Intermediate filaments Microtubules
1187
How is sound transmitted?
Vibration of air molecules goes through the pinnacle passing through the external auditory canal Waves then vibrate the tympanic membrane, causes 3 ossicles to move Ossicles cause oval window to vibrate, moves fluid Leads to stimulation of hair cells inside the cochlea
1188
Somites
separate, segmented blocks of cells on either side of the neural tube. Muscle, cartilage, bone, and lower layer of the skin form from somites. Neural crest cells are guided by somites to develop into peripheral nerves and other structures
1189
Mitochondria
Converts potential energy of fuel molecules into form that cell can use (ATP) Outer lipid bilayer and highly folded inner membrane
1190
Right and left atrium
Receiving chambers
1191
Monocytes/macrophages
Monocytes are inactive form, on patrol, macrophages are active, they attack Engulf and digest Activate T cells Once monocytes enter tissue they become macrophages
1192
When a photon meets a molecule it can be-
Scattered- photon bounces off the molecule Transmitted- photon passed through the molecule Absorbed- molecule squires the energy of the photon. Goes from ground state to excited state, and disappears and energy is absorbed
1193
Absorption spectrum
Plot of wavelengths absorbed by a pigment
1194
When a photon meets a molecule it can be-
Scattered- photon bounces off the molecule Transmitted- photon passed through the molecule Absorbed- molecule squires the energy of the photon. Goes from ground state to excited state, and disappears and energy is absorbed
1195
Blastocoel
a central fluid-filled cavity that forms in the ball of cells The embryo becomes a blastula and its cells are called blastomeres
1196
Stroma
Fluid in which grana are suspended in chloroplasts
1197
Blastomere
*   Blastomeres become determined, or committed toa specific fate, at different times in different animals. *   Roundworm and clam blastomeres are already determined at the 8-cell stage. *   If one cell is removed, a portion of the embryo fails to develop normally. This is called mosaic development. *   Humans have regulative development. If some cells are lost during cleavage, other cells can compensate. For genetic testing in humans, one cell can be removed from a blastula following in vitro fertilization. If there are no mutations in the gene of interest, that blastula can be implanted
1198
RNA bases
Uracil instead of thymine Single stranded but complementary base pairing occurs in the structure of some types of RNA
1199
Phagocytosis
Food molecules enter the cell through a formed phagosome
1200
Childbirth
*   Passage of the baby is assisted by the mother’s bearing down with her abdominal muscles. *   Once the baby is clear of the birth canal it canstart breathing and become independent of the mother’s circulation, so the umbilical cord is clamped and cut. *   Finally, the placenta and fetal membranes are detached from the mother and expelled (several minutes–1 hour)
1201
Air composition
78.1% nitrogen (goes into lungs and leaves), 20.9% oxygen Total atmospheric pressure= 760 mmHg (Pressure= concentration)- Patm = PN2 + PO2 Temperature and altitude changes atmospheric pressure Partial pressure of N2 = 760 mmHg x 0.781 ~ 600 mmHg Partial pressure of O2 = 760 mmHg x 0.21 ~ 160mmHg We breathe very easily, so partial pressure in lungs should be lower, so process of diffusion is easy. 100 mm mercury
1202
Inspiration
Diaphragm- Lungs physically sit on diaphragm, main muscle for respiration, pushes down during inspiration External intercostal muscles- contact and push down
1203
Processes in Calvin Benson cycle
Fixation of CO2 by combination with RuBP (catalyzes by rubisco) Conversion of fixed CO2 into carbohydrate G3P (using ATP and NADPH) Regeneration of CO2 acceptor RuBP by ATP
1204
How is Carbon Dioxide Transported?
5-6% dissolved in plasma 5-8% bind to hemoglobin at a different binding site than oxygen 86-90% converted to hydrogen ions and bicarbonate by enzyme called carbonic anhydrase. When co2 goes up hydrogen ions go up and ph decreases, and vice versa. Want ph of 7.4
1205
Path of the egg
the mature egg is released into the body cavity and is swept into the end of the oviduct (Fallopian tube) by an undulating fringe of tissue (Fertilization takes place in the oviduct and, in humans, the second meiotic division takes place) Cilia lining the oviduct propel the fertilized or unfertilized egg toward the uterus, a muscular, thick-walled cavity The opening at the bottom of the uterus is the cervix,which leads into the vagina
1206
Air composition
78.1% nitrogen (goes into lungs and leaves), 20.9% oxygen Total atmospheric pressure= 760 mmHg (Pressure= concentration)- Patm = PN2 + PO2 Temperature and altitude changes atmospheric pressure Partial pressure of N2 = 760 mmHg x 0.781 ~ 600 mmHg Partial pressure of O2 = 760 mmHg x 0.21 ~ 160mmHg We breathe very easily, so partial pressure in lungs should be lower, so process of diffusion is easy. 100 mm mercury
1207
DA
Dopamine Inhibits prolactin release, so when there is no dopamine prolactin is released
1208
Morula
the embryo as a solid ball ofsmall cells. (from Latin for mulberry)
1209
Hypophysis (pituitary gland)
Located behind your nose, size of pea, need it to survive 9 hormones each with particular function Two separate lobes (anterior and posterior)
1210
Eukaryotes
Membrane enclosed nucleus as well as other membrane enclosed compartments Animals, plants, fungi, protists Contains organelles, membrane enclosed nucleus Protein scaffolding called cytoskeleton
1211
When a photon meets a molecule it can be-
Scattered- photon bounces off the molecule Transmitted- photon passed through the molecule Absorbed- molecule squires the energy of the photon. Goes from ground state to excited state, and disappears and energy is absorbed
1212
Depolarizing potential
Small positive change in voltage (Na+ or Ca+) Excitatory synapse
1213
Path of the egg
the mature egg is released into the body cavity and is swept into the end of the oviduct (Fallopian tube) by an undulating fringe of tissue (Fertilization takes place in the oviduct and, in humans, the second meiotic division takes place) Cilia lining the oviduct propel the fertilized or unfertilized egg toward the uterus, a muscular, thick-walled cavity The opening at the bottom of the uterus is the cervix,which leads into the vagina
1214
Nucleolus
Specialized region inside the nucleus where ribosomes are initially assembled
1215
Cellular respiration
Production of ATP
1216
Primary structure of a protein
The sequence of amino acids Determines secondary and tertiary structure, how the protein is folded
1217
Respiration
Takes air into body, diffusion lets it into circulation Cells need oxygen and food to produce ATP, low level of waste called co2 carbs, lipids all help to produce energy with waste product co2 exhaled
1218
Twinning
*   If blastomeres separate into two groups, each can produce an embryo. *   Monozygotic twins come from the same zygote and are identical. *   Nonidentical twins are from two eggs fertilized by two sperm.
1219
The immune system
Protects against infection and microbes Isolates and removes non microbial foreign substances
1220
The immune system
Protects against infection and microbes Isolates and removes non microbial foreign substances
1221
System of respiration
Constant exchange of air: ventilation (tidal volume) Diffusion- oxygen from lungs to blood Circulation- bulk transport Diffusion of oxygen into cells Cellular respiration
1222
urethra
the common duct for urinary and reproductive systems
1223
Pressure and Volume Change
During inspiration the volume of the lungs increases and the pressure decreases- atmospheric pressure is higher than alveolar pressure, and diffusion can occur During expiration, the volume of the lungs decreases and the pressure increases- alveolar pressure becomes higher than atmospheric pressure- diffusion outwards
1224
Chorionic villus sampling
tissue isremoved from the chorion after the eighth week
1225
Myelin
Type of lipid that Schwann cells produce as sheaths to insulate the axon Helps electrical activity not leak
1226
Pigments
Molecules that absorb specific wavelengths in the visible range of the spectrum Photons can have a wide range of wavelengths and energy levels
1227
Ingredients for photosynthesis
Co2 reduced to sugars that travel throughout the plant body Water up taken by roots Water and oxygen released
1228
Rubisco
Enzyme that catalyzes fixation of CO2 Ribosome bisphosphate carboxylase/ Most abundant protein in the world, 50% of the protein in a leaf
1229
Blastocoel
a central fluid-filled cavity that forms in the ball of cells The embryo becomes a blastula and its cells are called blastomeres
1230
Pigments
Molecules that absorb specific wavelengths in the visible range of the spectrum Photons can have a wide range of wavelengths and energy levels
1231
Glyoxisomes
Structurally similar organelles found in plants that convert lipids to carbs (fats to sugars)
1232
Three classes of hormonal composition
Steriod- lipid soluble, can permeate through the membrane, receptor inside the cell proteins (peptides)- cannot permeate through membrane because it is water soluble, receptor on plasma membrane amines are made of one amino acid- in between
1233
Parasite
Any organism that invades and lives by the expense of another body Most are animals, either micro or macroscopic Infects muscles and digestive system takes blood (muscles) and nutrients (liver)
1234
Chemical barriers
Sebum- oily acidic substance released from sebaceous glands Lacrimal glands- tears protect sclera and cornea, dripping through nasal cavity, washing of the eye Lysozymes- degrading/digestive enzymes secreted from the mucous membranes Defensins- peptides secreted from the mucous membranes Ear wax- things get stuck Sweat- cools body and at same time destroys microorganisms on skin, B.O. Is the degradation of bacteria on skin Macrophages- immune cells Stomach acid- HCl, damaging Saliva
1235
Phagocytosis
Molecules or entire cells are engulfed Some protists feed in this way White blood cells engulf foreign substances A food vacuole (phagosome) forms and fuses with a lysosome
1236
Cross bridge cycle
2 states of myosin- low energy, high energy (muscles relaxed, myosin ready to bind but actin cannot bind) ADP and Pi are initially bound to cross bridge of myosin (energized state) Ca2+ binds to troponin, exposes actin Myosin undergoes change in conformation and binds to actin, so Pi unbinds from myosin head angle < 90 pulls on actin "power stroke", angle = 90 ADP unbinds ATP binds to myosin head on binding site causing detachment to occur ATP is hydrolyzed to ATP and Pi which brings the myosin head to the energized state again
1237
Nonspecific Immune response/inflammation
• Occurs through cut or injury to the skin • Sequence of events ensue to protect the body against infection – Phagocytosis and recruitment – Vasodilation and increase in permeability – Phagocytic cells migration – Tissue repair
1238
During gastrulation, three germ layers form
–  The inner germ layer is the endoderm and gives rise to the digestive tract, circulatory tract, and respiratory tract. –  The outer layer, the ectoderm, gives rise to the epidermis and nervous system. –  The middle layer, the mesoderm, contributes to bone, muscle, liver, heart, and blood vessels
1239
Photosystem
Multiple antenna systems, surround reaction centers Pigments packed together on thylakoids membrane proteins Excitation energy passes from the pigments that absorb short wavelengths to those that absorb longer wavelengths, and ends up in the reaction center pigment
1240
Alveolar type I cells
form the wall of the alveoli
1241
ovarian cycle
*   The ovarian cycle repeats about every 28 days. *   A woman’s fertile years total about 450 ovarian cycles. In each cycle in most cases, one oocyte matures and is released. *   The end of fertility (menopause) occurs at about age 50, and only a few oocytes are left in each ovary.
1242
The Cardiovascular System
A closed system (blood always contained in blood vessels, always circulating) that consists of the heart, blood vessels, and the blood –  The heart pumps blood –  Blood vessels provide the path for the blood to travel (like a freeway) –  Blood carries nutrients and picks up wastes
1243
Rough ER
Has ribosomes attached
1244
Vasodilation & Increased Permeability
• Histamine causes vasodilation – increases diameter, Increase in blood flow to infected area – Redness occurs – Increase delivery of proteins – Edema occurs- swelling, fluid from blood cells into interstitial tissue * increased permeability- proteins gain entry from blood to interstitial fluid * objective- get more immune cells
1245
Non cyclic electron transport
Light energy is used to oxidize water, produces O2, H+, and electrons After excitation by light, Chl+ is an unstable molecule and seeks electrons Chl+ is a stron oxidizing agent and takes electrons from water, splitting the water molecule
1246
bulbourethral glands
produce a mucoid secretion that neutralizes acidity in the urethra and lubricates the tip of the penis
1247
How is Carbon Dioxide Transported?
5-6% dissolved in plasma 5-8% bind to hemoglobin at a different binding site than oxygen 86-90% converted to hydrogen ions and bicarbonate by enzyme called carbonic anhydrase. When co2 goes up hydrogen ions go up and ph decreases, and vice versa. Want ph of 7.4
1248
Energy transfer and electron transport
Light energy absorbed by antenna chlorophylls, and passed on to reaction center Molecule goes to excited state Energized electron from chlorophyll molecules passed to electron acceptor to reduce it
1249
ATP
Adenosine triphosphate, is nucleotide For capture, transfer, and storage of energy Some free energy released by certain emergencies reactions is captured in ATP, which then can release energy to drive endergonic reactions Hydrolysis: ATP+ H2O --> ADP + Pi + free energy Can also be converted into building block for DNA and RNA Formation of ATP is endergonic ADP+ Pi + free energy--> ATP + H2O
1250
Where are these microorganisms?
They like moisture, food particles, want to get in blood vessels (from there they can travel all over the body)
1251
Pathogens
Parasite Bacteria Protist Fungi Virus
1252
Sperm anatomy
Acrosome- tip Nucleus Midpiece- contains mitochondria, Mitochondrial DNA from mother. When sperm goes into egg loses mitochondria Tail- flagellum made of microtubules
1253
DA
Dopamine Inhibits prolactin release, so when there is no dopamine prolactin is released
1254
The endocrine system
*  Major communication system *  Consists of many glands located throughout the body *  Glands secrete hormones that act as chemical messengers *  Uses the blood as a medium to transport the hormones *  Each hormone has specific target cells * Hormonal mechanisms can help us maintain homeostasis
1255
B lymphocytes
Transform into plasma cells and release antibodies into the circulation, which are proteins that tag the pathogens to signal the immune cells to destroy it Form memory cells- every pathogen has specific surface receptors (signature), they can remember for next time how to fight the infection
1256
Soma
Also known as perikaryon or cell body 5-140 micrometer in diameter Abundant protein synthesis organelles
1257
Childbirth
*   Passage of the baby is assisted by the mother’s bearing down with her abdominal muscles. *   Once the baby is clear of the birth canal it canstart breathing and become independent of the mother’s circulation, so the umbilical cord is clamped and cut. *   Finally, the placenta and fetal membranes are detached from the mother and expelled (several minutes–1 hour)
1258
Nucleolus
Specialized region inside the nucleus where ribosomes are initially assembled
1259
Alveolar type II cells
Secrete surfactant which keeps the alveoli from collapsing
1260
Glycerol
3 OH groups (an alcohol)
1261
Valves of the Heart
•  Tricuspid valve –  Between the right atrium and the right ventricle •  Bicuspid valve –  Between the left atrium and the left ventricle •  Pulmonary valve –  Between the right ventricle and the pulmonary trunk •  Aortic valve –  Between the left ventricle and the aorta
1262
Neurohypophysis
Posterior pituitary gland, Made of neurons, can also be called neural hypophysis Cell bodies of neurons house in hypothalamus and only part of the axon and axon terminals are located in the posterior pituitary, hormones made of peptides synthesized in hypothalamus, are made in cells and stored in axon terminals •  Paraventricular nucleus and the supraoptic nucleus of the hypothalamussynthesize hormones that are stored in the terminals for later release –  Oxytocin –  Vasopressin (antidiuretic to prevent water loss and a vasoconstrictor)
1263
urethra
the common duct for urinary and reproductive systems
1264
Electrocardiogram graph
P wave- atrial depolarization(contraction) and electrical activities QRS- Ventricular depolarization/contraction, much higher than atrial contraction because atria only have to pump to ventricle, but ventricle has to pump far T- ventricular repolarization
1265
Specific Recognition Between Sperm and Egg
*   Specific recognition molecules mediate interactions between sperm and eggs. *   This ensures that activities of the sperm are directed toward eggs and not other cells and prevents eggs from being fertilized by sperm of the wrong species. *   This latter function is particularly importantin aquatic species, such as sea urchins, that release sperm and eggs into the surrounding water.
1266
Anencephaly
failure of the neural tube to close at the anterior end and no forebrain develops
1267
Layers of arteries vs layers of veins
Veins have bigger lumen, thinner tunica media, thinner tunica external, have valves
1268
Chemoreceptors
Homeostatic mechanism: Chemoreceptors constantly measuring level of oxygen and co2, send signal through sensory nerve fibers Need increased inspiration during exercise, or if holding breath (decrease oxygen availability and increase co2 availability) •  Peripheral –  Carotid bodies –  Aortic bodies •  Central- within nervous system, medulla oblongata
1269
Cells of the nervous system
Neurons- excitable cells Glial cells- support nervous cell function
1270
Functions of the Respiratory System
*   Provides oxygen *   Eliminates carbon dioxide *   Regulates pH level- More co2 you get rid of the more hydrogen ions you get rid of *   Speech production *   Defense against foreign bodies- non specific immunity
1271
Cytotoxic T Cell
Release perform and granzymes Induce apoptosis (Fas) Attack cancer cells which stop mitosis regulation and keep dividing- they bond to these and release perforins that poke h ones in the membrane, eater can go in, releases granzymes in the hole or proteins that activate apoptosis
1272
Leydig cells
Male sex hormones are produced by clusters of Leydig cells lying between the seminiferous tubules.
1273
Dendrites
Many extensions from cell bodies Receptive sites for electrical signal
1274
How does photosynthesis convert light energy to chemical energy?
Reaction center converts light energy to chemical energy Excited chlorophyll a molecule (Chl*) is a reducing agent (electron donor) A is an acceptor molecule (oxidizing agent) Chl* + A --> Chl+ + A- A is the first in a chain of electron carriers on the thylakoid membrane (electron transport) a series of redox reactions Final electron acceptor is NADP+ NADP+ + e- --> NADPH + H+
1275
Bacteria
Unicellular prokaryotes
1276
What causes muscle fatigue?
Local increase of inorganic phosphate from ATP synthesis Build up of lactic acid and (hydrogen ions) from fermentation due to no oxygen Depletion of energy (ATP)
1277
Lymphoid tissues
Adenoids, tonsils, thymus, lymph noes, spleen, bone marrow, lymphatic vessels Immune cells originate here, majorly from bone marrow immune cells are scattered all over, but they are clustered in certain areas in case of infection
1278
Myeloid progenitor cells
Blood/platelets or immune cells produced Types of immune cells: Granular cells- neutrophils, mast cells agranular cells- monocytes, macrophages,
1279
Digestive system
breaks down food you eat and delivers it to your cells, breaks down large molecules into smaller units, need to bring food into our cells, absorption takes food into circulation so it is accessible to our cells
1280
Calvin and benson
Used 14C radioisotope to determine the sequence of reactions in CO2 fixation Exposed chlorella to 14CO2 then extracted the organic compounds and separated them by paper chromatography 3 second exposure of chlorella to 14CO2 revealed that the first compound to be formed is 3PG, a 3 carbon sugar phosphate
1281
Waxes
Highly nonpolar and impermeable to water Ester linkage between saturated long chain fatty acid and a saturated long chain alcohol
1282
Function of the DigestiveSystem
*  Breaks down the food we eat, breaking the covalent bonds that make up large molecules *   Absorbs the food to transfer it to cells - Food can be used with oxygen to produce energy - travels from digestive system into blood, so it can be accessible to our cells
1283
Allosteric regulation
Effector molecule binds to a regulatory subunit inducing the enzyme to change its shape, can inhibit or activate the enzyme Within a certain range, reaction rates of allosteric enzymes are sensitive to small changes in substrate concentration (s shaped curve), more active sites
1284
Compliance
Ability to change volume and pressure Balloon is like the lungs- highly compliant Paper bag- not compliant
1285
Glyoxisomes
Structurally similar organelles found in plants that convert lipids to carbs (fats to sugars)
1286
Muscles of Expiration
•  Passive expiration –  Elastic recoil of the lungs •  Active expiration –  Contraction of internal intercostals –  Contraction of abdominal muscles (causesdiaphragm to be pushed up)
1287
Phagocytosis & Recruitment
* Macrophages in the nearby tissue detect bacteria using receptor proteins to engulf them * Macrophages release cytokines- chemicals for recruitment * Mast cells release histamine- causes vasodilation * Injured cells release chemotaxins- chemo attractants to attract immune cells
1288
Bacteria
Unicellular prokaryotes
1289
Photo system 1
Light energy reduces NADP+ to NADPH Reaction center has chlorophyll a molecules: P700 absorbs in the 700nm range
1290
Catabolic reactions
Complex molecules are broken down into simpler ones and energy is released, delta G is negative, delta S is positive Ex: hydrolysis of protein to its amino acids
1291
Dunedin
Microtubules cross linked by the spokes of this motor protein Changes shape when energy is released from ATP, move vesicles toward minus end
1292
Second trimester
limbs elongate and facial features form
1293
Lymphoid tissues
Adenoids, tonsils, thymus, lymph noes, spleen, bone marrow, lymphatic vessels Immune cells originate here, majorly from bone marrow immune cells are scattered all over, but they are clustered in certain areas in case of infection
1294
Gametes
*   The gonads (testes and ovaries) are the sites of gametogenesis. *   Male gametes (sperm) move by beating flagella; female gametes (eggs or ova) arenonmotile.
1295
Immunization
Series of shots MMR- immunization shot against meals, mumps, rubella Small quantity of pathogens to build immune response, memory cells to speed up recovery next time
1296
Pathogens
Parasite Bacteria Protist Fungi Virus
1297
Polysaccharides
Polymers of monosaccharides | Starch, glycogen, cellulose
1298
Entry of Sperm into the Egg
*   In animals with internal fertilization, egg–sperm recognition mechanisms also exist. *   In the female reproductive tract, mammalian sperm are metabolically activated and attracted to the egg in the oviduct, but also aided in their movement by muscular contractions. *   The mammalian egg is surrounded by a thick layer called the cumulus. Beneath that is a protein envelope called the zona pellucida. *   A species-specific glycoprotein in the zona pellucida binds to the head of the sperm. *   The acrosomal reaction is triggered, releasing acrosomal enzymes that digest a path through the zona pellucida
1299
Immunization
Series of shots MMR- immunization shot against meals, mumps, rubella Small quantity of pathogens to build immune response, memory cells to speed up recovery next time
1300
DNA bases
Adenine/guanine = purines Cytocine/thymine = pyrimidines A-T and C-G, bond by hydrogen bonding
1301
Stoma
Mouth of plant Co2 enters and O2/water exit through these pores
1302
Fluorescence
When a pigment returns to ground state some of the energy may be given off as heat and some as fluorescence Fluorescence has longer wavelengths and less energy than the absorbed light energy No chemical work done If pigment can pass the energy to another molecule, there's no fluorescence, the energy can be passed to a reaction center where it is converted to chemical energy
1303
Pressure and Volume Change
During inspiration the volume of the lungs increases and the pressure decreases- atmospheric pressure is higher than alveolar pressure, and diffusion can occur During expiration, the volume of the lungs decreases and the pressure increases- alveolar pressure becomes higher than atmospheric pressure- diffusion outwards
1304
Different contributions to the zygote:
*   Sperm: DNA and a centriole, in somespecies. | *   Egg: DNA, organelles, nutrients, transcription factors, mRNAs.
1305
Vein
Carry blood back to the heart Have thinner walls than arteries Small branches are called venules Not elastic, have low pressure Thin and collapsed
1306
Immunization
Series of shots MMR- immunization shot against meals, mumps, rubella Small quantity of pathogens to build immune response, memory cells to speed up recovery next time
1307
Ruben and kamen
Used radioisotope tracers (O18 and O16) to determine that water was the source of O2 released during photosynthesis rather than CO2
1308
Chemical bond
Attractive force that links atoms together to form molecules All chemical bonds involve changes in the relationships of electrons one with the other
1309
Phagocytic cell migration
* The cytokines released by macrophages signal the endothelial cells to express selectin * Margination occurs- dock and fuse with membrane, carbohydrate ligands on macrophages bind to selectin in blood vessel, move in blood vessel by rolling * Phagocytic cells produce integrin on their membrane * Stronger attachment occurs- immune cells are allowed to slow down and exit * Phagocytic cells begin to move from the blood to the infected area in a process known as diapedisis * Once in the interstitial fluid, phagocytic cells are attracted to the site of injury by chemotaxins- tell phagocytic cells exactly where to go
1310
Branching of the airways
Conducting zone: trachea, primary bronchi, secondary bronchi, tertiary bronchi, bronchioles Respiratory zone: respiratory bronchioles, alveoli (each alveolus is covered with many capillaries to facilitate the exchange of materials)
1311
Fluorescence
When a pigment returns to ground state some of the energy may be given off as heat and some as fluorescence Fluorescence has longer wavelengths and less energy than the absorbed light energy No chemical work done If pigment can pass the energy to another molecule, there's no fluorescence, the energy can be passed to a reaction center where it is converted to chemical energy
1312
Rods
Sensitive to light Respond to low illumination, any low amount of light will trigger them to have electrical activity Can't see colors or features
1313
Chemoreceptors
Homeostatic mechanism: Chemoreceptors constantly measuring level of oxygen and co2, send signal through sensory nerve fibers Need increased inspiration during exercise, or if holding breath (decrease oxygen availability and increase co2 availability) •  Peripheral –  Carotid bodies –  Aortic bodies •  Central- within nervous system, medulla oblongata
1314
Path of sperm
*   To achieve fertilization, sperm swim up the vagina, assisted by contractions of the female reproductive tract. *   The sperm then pass through the cervix and most of the oviduct to the egg (secondary oocyte) in the upper oviduct. *   Egg and sperm nucleus (both haploid) fuse to produce the diploid zygote.
1315
Flagella
Locomotory structures shaped like corkscrew Some prokaryotes have this
1316
Two systems of electron transport
Non cyclic electron transport- produces NADPH and ATP Cyclic electron transport- produces ATP only * when you need more sugar you need more ATP than NADH, so cyclic transport is needed
1317
Carrier proteins
Membrane proteins that bind some substances and speed their diffusion through the bilayer Polar molecules such a glucose- glucose binds to protein which causes it to change shape and release glucose on the other side, but as transporters become saturated, the rate of diffusion into the cells slows down
1318
Nuclear lamina
Meshwork of proteins which maintains the shape of the nuclear envelope and the nucleus
1319
Electron microscope
Use electromagnets to focus an electron beam, wavelength is much shorter than light so much higher resolution .5 nm
1320
When a photon meets a molecule it can be-
Scattered- photon bounces off the molecule Transmitted- photon passed through the molecule Absorbed- molecule squires the energy of the photon. Goes from ground state to excited state, and disappears and energy is absorbed
1321
Intermediate filaments
Fund in multicellular organisms, form rope like structures in cells Stabilize cell strucuture and resist tension Can maintain the positions of organelles Lamins provide structural support to the nuclear membrane
1322
Supraoptic nucleus
Makes vasopressin Anti diuretic hormone,prevents water loss. Target organ is kidneys where we have water control
1323
Resolution
Limiting factor in all microscopes, need high resolution to see detail
1324
Stroma
Fluid in which grana are suspended in chloroplasts
1325
Erythrocytes
*   Transport gases in the body *   Biconcave discs *   Flat size to increase diffusion- huge surface area *   Produced in the bone marrow *   Regulated by erythropoitin * no organelles, like a cargo van for nutrients *   Short life span- 120 days *   Packed with hemoglobin (type of protein bound to iron), each has 250 million hemoglobin with 4 oxygen molecules *   Its formation depends on folic acid and B12
1326
Smooth ER
Ribosome free region
1327
Anencephaly
failure of the neural tube to close at the anterior end and no forebrain develops
1328
Blastocyst
When blastula reaches 16 to 32 cells, it divides into two groups: *   Inner cell mass: becomes the embryo *   Trophoblast: a sac that forms from the outer cells. Its cells secrete fluid and create the blastocoel, with the inner cell mass at one end. Embryo is now called a blastocyst.
1329
How do we study organelles?
First studied using light microscopy Cell fractionation separates organelles for study by chemical methods (spin tubes of cells with rotor)
1330
Photosystem 2
Light energy oxidizes water to oxygen, H+, and electrons Reaction center has chlorophyll a molecules: P680 absorbs at 680 nm (more energetic than P700) Excited first
1331
Irreversible inhibition
Inhibitor covalently bonds to side chains in the active site and permanently inactivates the enzyme Ex: DIPF or nerve gas
1332
Genes
Sequences of DNA that encode specific proteins
1333
Genes
Sequences of DNA that encode specific proteins
1334
Simple diffusion
Smile molecules pass through the lipid bilayer Water and lipid soluble molecules can diffuse across the membrane Electrically charged and polar molecules cannot pass through easily
1335
Lipids
Non polar hydrocarbons | Van der waals forces- not polymers in strict sense because they are not covalently bonded
1336
Thick filaments
Each filament made of arranged myosin molecules Myosin molecules each have two heads and two tails, each head has actin and ATP binding site Bind to thin filaments at actin binding site, ATP binding site breaks down ATP, gets energy Activity occurs at cross bridge Titan connects thick filaments to z line
1337
Cellulose
Very stable, good for structural components | Linear
1338
Cristae
Folds of the inner membrane give rise to these Contains large protein molecules used in cellular respiration
1339
Photosynthetic prokaryotes
Some bacteria, including Cyanobacteria can do carry on photosynthesis Plasma membrane is unfolded and has chlorophyll
1340
What stops the cycle
Two major steps: remove acetylcholine- esterase breaks down acetylcholine, but it's not gone forever, action potential can release more it just needs to be temporarily deactivated remove calcium- Ca2+ pumped back to SR by active transport by pump on SR
1341
Lumen
Cavity within blood vessel
1342
Lungs and the mechanisms of the chest
Easy, effortless to breath because of the mechanics of the lungs- always slightly inflated to make inspiration easier Lungs attached to chest wall and inner layer of your rib cage by very thin set of membranes called a pleural sac Ribs protect your lungs and work in synchrony with them, chest expands and increase in volume along with your lungs
1343
Two systems of electron transport
Non cyclic electron transport- produces NADPH and ATP Cyclic electron transport- produces ATP only * when you need more sugar you need more ATP than NADH, so cyclic transport is needed
1344
Photosystem
Multiple antenna systems, surround reaction centers Pigments packed together on thylakoids membrane proteins Excitation energy passes from the pigments that absorb short wavelengths to those that absorb longer wavelengths, and ends up in the reaction center pigment
1345
System of respiration
Constant exchange of air: ventilation (tidal volume) Diffusion- oxygen from lungs to blood Circulation- bulk transport Diffusion of oxygen into cells Cellular respiration
1346
Complement system
Pore formation: First complement protein (inactive), cascade of protein activation in bacterial cell Swelling: fluid rushes into cells Lysis
1347
Steps of fertilization
–  The sperm and egg recognize each other. –  The sperm is activated so that it can gain access to the plasma membrane of the egg. –  The plasma membranes of the sperm and egg fuse. –  The egg blocks entry of additional sperm. –  The egg is stimulated to start development. –  The egg and sperm nuclei fuse
1348
epididymis
*   From the lumen of the seminiferous tubules, sperm move to the epididymis, a storage sac, where theymature. *   The epididymis connects to the urethra via the vas deferens
1349
Blastomere
*   Blastomeres become determined, or committed toa specific fate, at different times in different animals. *   Roundworm and clam blastomeres are already determined at the 8-cell stage. *   If one cell is removed, a portion of the embryo fails to develop normally. This is called mosaic development. *   Humans have regulative development. If some cells are lost during cleavage, other cells can compensate. For genetic testing in humans, one cell can be removed from a blastula following in vitro fertilization. If there are no mutations in the gene of interest, that blastula can be implanted
1350
Path of sperm
*   To achieve fertilization, sperm swim up the vagina, assisted by contractions of the female reproductive tract. *   The sperm then pass through the cervix and most of the oviduct to the egg (secondary oocyte) in the upper oviduct. *   Egg and sperm nucleus (both haploid) fuse to produce the diploid zygote.
1351
Physical barriers
Skin- brick layers of cells, most pathogens can't get through it, also produces a hard and fibrous protein called keratin. The closest layer to the surface has the highest amount of keratin- the outermost layer of skin is dead, it produced too much keratin to function Fibrous layer of the eyes Mucous membrane of the respiratory, digestive, urinary, and reproductive systems, and ear- thick membrane that prevents pathogens from getting into the circulation Cilia
1352
Golgi apparatus
Has flattened membrane sacs and small membrane enclosed vesicles
1353
trophoblast
*   In mammals, the first extraembryonic membrane to form is the trophoblast. *   When the blastocyst hatches from the zona pellucida, the trophoblast cells attach to the uterine wall, This is the beginning of implantation. *   The trophoblast becomes part of the uterine wall, and sends out villi to increase surface area and contact with maternal blood.
1354
Action spectrum
Plot of biological activity as a function of exposure to varied wavelengths of light
1355
Ionic bonds
Formed by the electrical attraction of positive and negative ions
1356
Metabolism
Sum of all chemical reactions in an organism
1357
Humoral mechanism
way of triggering, gland measuring concentration of certain things in your blood Calcium in blood must be maintained at a constant level in blood, important for neurotransmitters and muscle contraction, heart, messenger, etc. so need constant level. Get ca from diet and store it in our blood. If goes below the normal level we must bring it back up. Behind thyroid gland there is are 4 tiny glands called parathyroid glands (acts as control center), main function is to maintain calcium homeostasis, monitor calcium level in blood and releases parathyroid hormone if too low, is peptide hormone. Target organ is bones (where we store calcium) , bone cells respond to it and release calcium into the circulation, active until ca back to normal, negative feedback mechanism
1358
Different contributions to the zygote:
*   Sperm: DNA and a centriole, in somespecies. | *   Egg: DNA, organelles, nutrients, transcription factors, mRNAs.
1359
Z scheme
Model of noncyclic electron transport Extracts electrons from water and transfers them to NADPH, using energy from photosynthesis one and two and resulting in ATP synthesis Yields ATP, NADPH, and O2
1360
Primary active transport
Requires direct hydrolysis of ATP
1361
Gas transport through membranes
Oxygen has to cross alveoli and membrane of the capillaries to get into the plasma, and then another membrane to get inside the red blood cells Loading phase- hemoglobin picks up oxygen Unloading phase- release oxygen into your tissues to use, takes into mitochondria to produce ATP
1362
Synapse
Two neurons form a junction called synapse Per synaptic neurons sends the signal, post synaptic neuron receives the signal Neuron can send or receive many signals
1363
Non cyclic electron transport
Light energy is used to oxidize water, produces O2, H+, and electrons After excitation by light, Chl+ is an unstable molecule and seeks electrons Chl+ is a stron oxidizing agent and takes electrons from water, splitting the water molecule
1364
Branching of the airways
Conducting zone: trachea, primary bronchi, secondary bronchi, tertiary bronchi, bronchioles Respiratory zone: respiratory bronchioles, alveoli (each alveolus is covered with many capillaries to facilitate the exchange of materials)
1365
Nucleolus
Specialized region inside the nucleus where ribosomes are initially assembled
1366
Diffusion
Process of random movement toward equilibrium Net movement from regions of greater concentration to regions of lesser concentration Works well over short distances affected by membrane properties- permeable to salutes that move easily across it, impermeable to those that can't
1367
Non cyclic electron transport
Light energy is used to oxidize water, produces O2, H+, and electrons After excitation by light, Chl+ is an unstable molecule and seeks electrons Chl+ is a stron oxidizing agent and takes electrons from water, splitting the water molecule
1368
Heart as a muscle
Needs to contract and relax When heart contracts, blood comes out, relaxing is when heart is filling up with blood (output and input)
1369
Path of the egg
the mature egg is released into the body cavity and is swept into the end of the oviduct (Fallopian tube) by an undulating fringe of tissue (Fertilization takes place in the oviduct and, in humans, the second meiotic division takes place) Cilia lining the oviduct propel the fertilized or unfertilized egg toward the uterus, a muscular, thick-walled cavity The opening at the bottom of the uterus is the cervix,which leads into the vagina
1370
How is Carbon Dioxide Transported?
5-6% dissolved in plasma 5-8% bind to hemoglobin at a different binding site than oxygen 86-90% converted to hydrogen ions and bicarbonate by enzyme called carbonic anhydrase. When co2 goes up hydrogen ions go up and ph decreases, and vice versa. Want ph of 7.4
1371
Alveolar type I cells
form the wall of the alveoli
1372
Physical barriers
Skin- brick layers of cells, most pathogens can't get through it, also produces a hard and fibrous protein called keratin. The closest layer to the surface has the highest amount of keratin- the outermost layer of skin is dead, it produced too much keratin to function Fibrous layer of the eyes Mucous membrane of the respiratory, digestive, urinary, and reproductive systems, and ear- thick membrane that prevents pathogens from getting into the circulation Cilia
1373
GHRH
Growth hormone releasing hormone Stimulates release of GH
1374
Integral membrane proteins
Hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions Sme extend across the lipid bilayer and others are partially embedded
1375
Lungs and the mechanisms of the chest
Easy, effortless to breath because of the mechanics of the lungs- always slightly inflated to make inspiration easier Lungs attached to chest wall and inner layer of your rib cage by very thin set of membranes called a pleural sac Ribs protect your lungs and work in synchrony with them, chest expands and increase in volume along with your lungs
1376
Hypertonic solution
Higher solute concentration
1377
AIDS
Acquired immune deficiency syndrome, viruses attack immune cells, vulnerable system open to opportunistic infection
1378
Plasma membrane
Outer surface of every cell, more or less same structure in every cell Phospholipid bilayer with proteins and other molecules imbedded Oily fluid in which proteins and lipids are in constant motion
1379
Chloroplasts
Sites where photosynthesis occurs, one type of plastid Surrounded by two layers and have interal membrane system
1380
Phagocytic cell migration
* The cytokines released by macrophages signal the endothelial cells to express selectin * Margination occurs- dock and fuse with membrane, carbohydrate ligands on macrophages bind to selectin in blood vessel, move in blood vessel by rolling * Phagocytic cells produce integrin on their membrane * Stronger attachment occurs- immune cells are allowed to slow down and exit * Phagocytic cells begin to move from the blood to the infected area in a process known as diapedisis * Once in the interstitial fluid, phagocytic cells are attracted to the site of injury by chemotaxins- tell phagocytic cells exactly where to go
1381
Action spectrum
Plot of biological activity as a function of exposure to varied wavelengths of light
1382
Bone marrow
Produces mulitpotent hematopoietic cell, which in return can be a myeloid or a lymphoid progenitor cel Stem cells- have not differentiated yet, blood stem cells can become blood cells
1383
Hemoglobin
Hemoglobin is a metal (iron) that is positively charged, and oxygen negatively charged, so they bind
1384
Hypothalamus
Below thalamus Homeostasis, such as temperature control, thirst, urine output, food intake Endocrine role- has glands secretes hormones on bloodstream to control body Regulation of sleep wake cycle Formation of memory Communicates with kidney, drives thirst
1385
The esophagus
•  Muscular tube •  Upper esophageal sphincter is located proximally •  Lower esophageal sphincter is distal (Food needs to unidirectionally, so has sphincters which are rings of smooth muscles ) •  Peristaltic waves pushfood down
1386
Alveolar type II cells
Secrete surfactant which keeps the alveoli from collapsing
1387
Phosphodiester linkages
Bonds sugar and phosphate to form backbone of DNA and RNA Like carbon 3 and carbon 5 Two strands of DNA run in opposite directions
1388
Circulatory system
blood vessels and heart, circulation ensures cells are constantly getting the oxygen that they need
1389
Energy
Capacity to do work
1390
Temperature control
Receptor will sense this temperature with temp monitoring nerve cells (thermoreceptors, reporting cells, all over our skin, in core body to sense internal temp) send this to control center (hypothalamus, has set point that compares info to, standard set point for temp is 98.6), makes decision that it does not match the set point Effectors- skeletal muscles move and use ATP and produces heat, so you shiver to heat up body, also blood vessels constrict (vasoconstriction) lowers flow of blood to surface, which carries heat, and you minimize heat loss through skin Negative feedback mechanism- started with a temperature decrease and counteracting the environment
1391
Diversity in sexual reproduction
*   Despite the time, energy, and risk required, sexual (compared to asexual- Asexual, cells divide. Hard to get genetic university except for mutations) reproduction confers an overwhelming advantage: the production of genetic diversity. *   Sexual reproduction requires the joining of two haploid (1n) cells into one, which becomes a diploid (2n) individual. *   These haploid cells, or gametes, are produced by gametogenesis, involving 2 meiotic cell divisions.
1392
Denaturation
Loss of a protein's normal 3D structure
1393
Thin filaments
Actin is contractile protein, while troponin and tropomyosin regulate the cycle, when the muscle is at rest they block the actin so that the myosin cannot bind to it
1394
Monocytes/macrophages
Monocytes are inactive form, on patrol, macrophages are active, they attack Engulf and digest Activate T cells Once monocytes enter tissue they become macrophages
1395
Secondary active transport
Energy comes from an ion concentration gradient that is established by primary active transport Energy can be "regained" by letting ions move across a membrane with the concentration gradient Aids in uptake of amino acids and sugars Uses symporters and antiporters
1396
Lungs and the mechanisms of the chest
Easy, effortless to breath because of the mechanics of the lungs- always slightly inflated to make inspiration easier Lungs attached to chest wall and inner layer of your rib cage by very thin set of membranes called a pleural sac Ribs protect your lungs and work in synchrony with them, chest expands and increase in volume along with your lungs
1397
Path of sperm
*   To achieve fertilization, sperm swim up the vagina, assisted by contractions of the female reproductive tract. *   The sperm then pass through the cervix and most of the oviduct to the egg (secondary oocyte) in the upper oviduct. *   Egg and sperm nucleus (both haploid) fuse to produce the diploid zygote.
1398
Air composition
78.1% nitrogen (goes into lungs and leaves), 20.9% oxygen Total atmospheric pressure= 760 mmHg (Pressure= concentration)- Patm = PN2 + PO2 Temperature and altitude changes atmospheric pressure Partial pressure of N2 = 760 mmHg x 0.781 ~ 600 mmHg Partial pressure of O2 = 760 mmHg x 0.21 ~ 160mmHg We breathe very easily, so partial pressure in lungs should be lower, so process of diffusion is easy. 100 mm mercury
1399
Light independent reactions
"dark reactions" Use ATP and NADH from light reactions plus CO2 to produce carbohydrates (because coenzymes ATP and NADH are not stored, need light for light reaction first)
1400
Fungi
Yeast is a unicellular form Ex: athlete's foot
1401
What Affects Hb-OxygenBinding?
Demands for oxygen changing depending on your state. (if sitting, cells in legs not picking up that much oxygen) so ATP production chants, and more ATP produced the more oxygen you get delivered. Waste products signify how much ATP you are making so your red blood cells know. *   BPG (2,3 Bisphosphoglyceric acid)- BPG by product of glycolysis- when increases, unload more oxygen. *   Temperature *   Acidity- lactic acid is byproduct of fermentation
1402
Steps in neurulation
*   The ectoderm over the notochord thickens and forms the neural plate. *   Edges of the neural plate fold and a deep groove forms. *   The folds fuse, forming the neural tube and a layer of ectoderm, The anterior end of the neural tube becomes the brain, the rest becomes the spinal cord
1403
G3P
Gylceraldehyde 3 phosphate 5/6 recycled into RuBP 1/6 converted to starch and sucrose to make glucose and fructose
1404
bulbourethral glands
produce a mucoid secretion that neutralizes acidity in the urethra and lubricates the tip of the penis
1405
prostate gland
produces the thin, milky fluid thatmakes up the rest of the volume of semen Prostate fluid makes the uterine environment morehospitable to sperm and converts the semen, by enzyme action on the fibrinogen, into a gelatinous mass
1406
Anencephaly
failure of the neural tube to close at the anterior end and no forebrain develops
1407
Physical barriers
Skin- brick layers of cells, most pathogens can't get through it, also produces a hard and fibrous protein called keratin. The closest layer to the surface has the highest amount of keratin- the outermost layer of skin is dead, it produced too much keratin to function Fibrous layer of the eyes Mucous membrane of the respiratory, digestive, urinary, and reproductive systems, and ear- thick membrane that prevents pathogens from getting into the circulation Cilia
1408
third trimester
internal organs mature and organ systems begin to function The last organs to mature before birthare the lungs
1409
Steps of fertilization
–  The sperm and egg recognize each other. –  The sperm is activated so that it can gain access to the plasma membrane of the egg. –  The plasma membranes of the sperm and egg fuse. –  The egg blocks entry of additional sperm. –  The egg is stimulated to start development. –  The egg and sperm nuclei fuse
1410
Glycerol
3 OH groups (an alcohol)
1411
Diffusion rate depends on
Diameter of molecules or ions Temperature of solution Concentration gradient
1412
Muscles of Expiration
•  Passive expiration –  Elastic recoil of the lungs •  Active expiration –  Contraction of internal intercostals –  Contraction of abdominal muscles (causesdiaphragm to be pushed up)
1413
What happens at rest?
Na+ and K+ leak channels open Na+ K+ pump always pumping in order to maintain concentration gradient Some leakage but no net activity in any direction Greater permeability for potassium than sodium
1414
Nonspecific immunity
Prevention Attack- if it gets in the circulatory system
1415
Gas transport through membranes
Oxygen has to cross alveoli and membrane of the capillaries to get into the plasma, and then another membrane to get inside the red blood cells Loading phase- hemoglobin picks up oxygen Unloading phase- release oxygen into your tissues to use, takes into mitochondria to produce ATP
1416
Hemoglobin
Hemoglobin is a metal (iron) that is positively charged, and oxygen negatively charged, so they bind
1417
Extracellular matrix
Composed of fibrous proteins (like collagen) and glycoproteins Epithelial cells (lining human body cavities) have basement membrane of extracellular material called the basal lamina
1418
Steps in neurulation
*   The ectoderm over the notochord thickens and forms the neural plate. *   Edges of the neural plate fold and a deep groove forms. *   The folds fuse, forming the neural tube and a layer of ectoderm, The anterior end of the neural tube becomes the brain, the rest becomes the spinal cord
1419
Hormonal mechanism
Endocrine organs are put into action by other hormones
1420
What triggers the pancreas to increase its contents?
Duodenum senses specific molecules in the diet and cells are triggered to start the process of release, two hormones released from the duodenum - secretin acts on duct cells, stomach acid can be neutralized by the bicarbonate released - Cholecystokinin (CCK) travels in the circulation to activate acinar cells to release pancreatic juice and enzymes in vesicles that break down protein and fat
1421
Ventricular diastole
heart is in relaxed state and ventricles are filling up its blood coming from the left and right atrium Blood aided by gravity (80%) before atria even contracts Aortic and pulmonary valves are closed Bicuspid and tricuspid valves are open
1422
Organization of the immune system
Nonspecific immune response- protects against foreign substances without having to recognize their identity Specific immune response- highly specific, usually a major problem that your body is really trying to fight
1423
Diffusion
Chemical driving force Electricity in our body: movement of ions from high to low concentration
1424
Calvin and benson
Used 14C radioisotope to determine the sequence of reactions in CO2 fixation Exposed chlorella to 14CO2 then extracted the organic compounds and separated them by paper chromatography 3 second exposure of chlorella to 14CO2 revealed that the first compound to be formed is 3PG, a 3 carbon sugar phosphate
1425
trophoblast
*   In mammals, the first extraembryonic membrane to form is the trophoblast. *   When the blastocyst hatches from the zona pellucida, the trophoblast cells attach to the uterine wall, This is the beginning of implantation. *   The trophoblast becomes part of the uterine wall, and sends out villi to increase surface area and contact with maternal blood.
1426
Paraventricular nucleus
Para ventricular nucleus makes mostly oxytocin. Oxytocin acts on smooth muscles of uterus and smooth muscles in mammary glands. Labor and lactation
1427
Diversity in sexual reproduction
*   Despite the time, energy, and risk required, sexual (compared to asexual- Asexual, cells divide. Hard to get genetic university except for mutations) reproduction confers an overwhelming advantage: the production of genetic diversity. *   Sexual reproduction requires the joining of two haploid (1n) cells into one, which becomes a diploid (2n) individual. *   These haploid cells, or gametes, are produced by gametogenesis, involving 2 meiotic cell divisions.
1428
Stomach lumen
Inner layer of stomach, in contact with food Rugae- Folds that increase surface areas to increase the rate of diffusion Mucosa is outer layer that contains gastric pits, submucosa layer underneath
1429
Contralateral
Left side of body controlled by right side of brain | speech, speaking and comprehending, is only from left side, everything else is bilateral
1430
Light independent reactions
"dark reactions" Use ATP and NADH from light reactions plus CO2 to produce carbohydrates (because coenzymes ATP and NADH are not stored, need light for light reaction first)
1431
Parts of the respiratory system
Nasal/oral cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, primary/secondary/tertiary bronchus, bronchioles (if you don't need a lot of oxygen bronchioles are slightly constricted), alveoli (site of exchange) All made of cartilage up to the trachea
1432
Saturation of animal fats and plant oils
Animal fats: saturated | Plant oils: unsaturated
1433
B lymphocytes
Transform into plasma cells and release antibodies into the circulation, which are proteins that tag the pathogens to signal the immune cells to destroy it Form memory cells- every pathogen has specific surface receptors (signature), they can remember for next time how to fight the infection
1434
DNA and evolution
DNA carries hereditary information between generations Determining sequence of bases helps reveal evolutionary relationships Closest living relatives of humans are chimps and bonobo
1435
The esophagus
•  Muscular tube •  Upper esophageal sphincter is located proximally •  Lower esophageal sphincter is distal (Food needs to unidirectionally, so has sphincters which are rings of smooth muscles ) •  Peristaltic waves pushfood down
1436
Chloroplasts
Sites where photosynthesis occurs, one type of plastid Surrounded by two layers and have interal membrane system
1437
Enzymes as catalysts
Lower the energy barrer by bringing the reactants together Final equilibrium doesn't change and G doesn't change 3D shape of the enzyme determines the specificity, depends on precise interlock ("lock and key"- Emil Fischer) Most enzymes are much larger than their substrate David Phillips observed pocket in the enzyme lysozyme that fit its substrate using X-ray crystallography
1438
Blastocoel
a central fluid-filled cavity that forms in the ball of cells The embryo becomes a blastula and its cells are called blastomeres
1439
Hemoglobin
Hemoglobin is a metal (iron) that is positively charged, and oxygen negatively charged, so they bind
1440
Layers of the eyes
Neural- neurons, synapses, electrical activity Vascular- blood vessels to nourish eye Fibrous- thick fibers for protection, muscle attachment, eye movement
1441
Gas transport through membranes
Oxygen has to cross alveoli and membrane of the capillaries to get into the plasma, and then another membrane to get inside the red blood cells Loading phase- hemoglobin picks up oxygen Unloading phase- release oxygen into your tissues to use, takes into mitochondria to produce ATP
1442
Brush Border Enzymes
Not released into cavity of small intestine, found on surface of microvilli •  Enterokinase –  Activates trypsinogen, (proteolitic enzyme coming from the pancreas) then trypsin activates everything else •  Disaccharidases –  breaks down disaccharides- Maltase, sucrase, lactase •  Aminopeptidases –  Hydrolyzes peptide fragments (dipeptides or very small peptides) to aminoacids
1443
Microfilaments
Made of protein actin, can be single filaments or networks Needed for cell contraction (as in muscle cells, associated with myosin for muscle contraction), also add structure to plasma membrane and shape to cells Involved in cytoplasmic streaming and formation of pseudopodia Polar, polymerizes to form long helical chains
1444
Photosynthesis in noncyclic electron electron transport
Each photosystem consists of several chlorophyll and accessory pigment molecules Complement each other, must be constantly absorbing light energy to power noncyclic electron transport
1445
Aquaporins
Special water channels for water to cross a membrane with Also can cross by hitch hiking with other molecules
1446
Secondary lysosome
Phagosomes fuse with primary lysosomes to form secondary lysosomes Enzymes hydrolyze the food molecules
1447
Cilia
Shorter, present in great numbers
1448
Lymphoid progenitor cells
Form into B lymphocytes, T lymphocytes
1449
Flagella
Locomotory structures shaped like corkscrew Some prokaryotes have this
1450
Unsaturated fatty acids
Some double bonds in carbon chain Double bonds prevent tight packing, lipid monlayer more fluid, liquid at room temperature Monounsaturated: one double bond Polyunsaturated: more than one
1451
Cyclic electron transport
Electron from excited P700 chlorophyll molecule n photosystem one cycles back to the same chlorophyll molecule Involves a series of exergonic redox reactions, the released energy creates a proton gradient that is used to synthesize ATP
1452
Twinning
*   If blastomeres separate into two groups, each can produce an embryo. *   Monozygotic twins come from the same zygote and are identical. *   Nonidentical twins are from two eggs fertilized by two sperm.
1453
Sterile cotton swab
Collect microorganisms by smearing on surface Put on a culture dish with solution called tryptic soy agar, which has nutrients that make bacteria reproduce so you can see them
1454
How Are Gases Transported?
•  Once in the blood, oxygen is transported in two ways –  1.5% is dissolved in the plasma and cytosol of erythrocytes –  98.5 % Bound to hemoglobin
1455
Childbirth
*   Passage of the baby is assisted by the mother’s bearing down with her abdominal muscles. *   Once the baby is clear of the birth canal it canstart breathing and become independent of the mother’s circulation, so the umbilical cord is clamped and cut. *   Finally, the placenta and fetal membranes are detached from the mother and expelled (several minutes–1 hour)
1456
Nuclear pores
In the nuclear envelope, connect the interior of the nucleus with the rest of the cytoplasm Pore complex- 8 large protein granules surround each pore RNA and proteins must pass through these pores to enter or leave the nucleus
1457
Fungi
Yeast is a unicellular form Ex: athlete's foot
1458
Pressure change
Breathing associated with skeletal muscles that are constantly contracting and relaxing, gases are quantified by pressur Atmospheric pressure (Patm)- pressure on the outside in the environment Alveolar pressure (Palv)-pressure inside your lungs Intrapleural pressure (Pip)- pressure in pleural sac, fills up with fluid that exerts pressure Alveolar and interpleural pressure are constantly fluctuating because they depend on your state
1459
Classification of muscles
Muscles are contractile tissue, 700 in body 3 types: Skeletal (voluntary) Smooth(involuntary)- located around organs/viscera/vessels Cardiac(involuntary)- heart muscles
1460
What Affects Hb-OxygenBinding?
Demands for oxygen changing depending on your state. (if sitting, cells in legs not picking up that much oxygen) so ATP production chants, and more ATP produced the more oxygen you get delivered. Waste products signify how much ATP you are making so your red blood cells know. *   BPG (2,3 Bisphosphoglyceric acid)- BPG by product of glycolysis- when increases, unload more oxygen. *   Temperature *   Acidity- lactic acid is byproduct of fermentation
1461
PRL
Prolactin Hormone responsible for milk production Target cell: mammary glands
1462
Z scheme
Model of noncyclic electron transport Extracts electrons from water and transfers them to NADPH, using energy from photosynthesis one and two and resulting in ATP synthesis Yields ATP, NADPH, and O2
1463
Action spectrum
Plot of biological activity as a function of exposure to varied wavelengths of light
1464
Microfilaments
Made of protein actin, can be single filaments or networks Needed for cell contraction (as in muscle cells, associated with myosin for muscle contraction), also add structure to plasma membrane and shape to cells Involved in cytoplasmic streaming and formation of pseudopodia Polar, polymerizes to form long helical chains
1465
Microbes
Harmful substances, living or dead
1466
Lungs and the mechanisms of the chest
Easy, effortless to breath because of the mechanics of the lungs- always slightly inflated to make inspiration easier Lungs attached to chest wall and inner layer of your rib cage by very thin set of membranes called a pleural sac Ribs protect your lungs and work in synchrony with them, chest expands and increase in volume along with your lungs
1467
Selective permeability
Membranes allow some substances to pass through but not others
1468
Facilitated diffusion of polar molecules
Passive transport of polar molecules
1469
How is Carbon Dioxide Transported?
5-6% dissolved in plasma 5-8% bind to hemoglobin at a different binding site than oxygen 86-90% converted to hydrogen ions and bicarbonate by enzyme called carbonic anhydrase. When co2 goes up hydrogen ions go up and ph decreases, and vice versa. Want ph of 7.4
1470
Potassium channel
Allows K+ but not Na+ through even though Na+ is smaller N the channel O atoms are located at a constriction where the K+ ion just fits and loses its H2O shell, while Na+ is too small for the O atoms to attract to the H2O
1471
Extensive ER membrane system
Cells specialized for synthesizing proteins have these
1472
Fungi
Yeast is a unicellular form Ex: athlete's foot
1473
Fatty acid
Non polar hydrocarbon with a polar carboxyl group Ampipathic- opposing chemical properties, when carboxyl group ionizes it forms COO- and H+ and is hydrophilic while the other end is hydrophobic
1474
Cytotoxic T Cell
Release perform and granzymes Induce apoptosis (Fas) Attack cancer cells which stop mitosis regulation and keep dividing- they bond to these and release perforins that poke h ones in the membrane, eater can go in, releases granzymes in the hole or proteins that activate apoptosis
1475
Inner cell mass
•  The inner cell mass of the blastocyst splits into an epiblast and hypoblast with a fluid-filled cavity in between (just like the reptilian and avian gastrula). *   The embryo forms from the epiblast. *   The epiblast also splits off a layer of cells that form the amnion. The amnion grows around the developing embryo. *   The hypoblast cells extend to form the chorion. Thechorion and other tissues produce the placenta. *   The epiblast produces the amnion. Allantoic tissues form the umbilical cord.
1476
Cones
Less sensitive to light Respond to high illumination, can see colors
1477
Path of zygote
*   Still in the oviduct, the zygote divides to become a blastocyst and continues down the oviduct. *   In the uterus, the blastocyst attaches to the wall lining called the endometrium.
1478
Photo system 1
Light energy reduces NADP+ to NADPH Reaction center has chlorophyll a molecules: P700 absorbs in the 700nm range
1479
Glycolipids
Carbohydrate and lipid
1480
Macrophages in alveoli
Ward against foreign bodies, get rid of debris
1481
How does photosynthesis convert light energy to chemical energy?
Reaction center converts light energy to chemical energy Excited chlorophyll a molecule (Chl*) is a reducing agent (electron donor) A is an acceptor molecule (oxidizing agent) Chl* + A --> Chl+ + A- A is the first in a chain of electron carriers on the thylakoid membrane (electron transport) a series of redox reactions Final electron acceptor is NADP+ NADP+ + e- --> NADPH + H+
1482
Plasma membrane
Outer surface of every cell, more or less same structure in every cell Phospholipid bilayer with proteins and other molecules imbedded Oily fluid in which proteins and lipids are in constant motion
1483
Myeloid progenitor cells
Blood/platelets or immune cells produced Types of immune cells: Granular cells- neutrophils, mast cells agranular cells- monocytes, macrophages,
1484
Polysaccharides
Polymers of monosaccharides | Starch, glycogen, cellulose
1485
Chemoreceptors
Homeostatic mechanism: Chemoreceptors constantly measuring level of oxygen and co2, send signal through sensory nerve fibers Need increased inspiration during exercise, or if holding breath (decrease oxygen availability and increase co2 availability) •  Peripheral –  Carotid bodies –  Aortic bodies •  Central- within nervous system, medulla oblongata
1486
3 ways that enzymes work
Orient substrate molecules and bring together random substrates to bond Stretch the bonds in substrate molecules making them unstable and more reactive Temporarily add chemical groups to substrates to make them more reactive
1487
The eyes
Composed of an optical portion Focus the image on sensory cells- photoreceptors, that are sensitive to light, they have the ability to process electrical activity and release neurotransmitters Transform the image to the brain through a series of action potentials- 70% of brain processing is visual info
1488
Nonspecific immunity
Prevention Attack- if it gets in the circulatory system
1489
Where Does Fertilization Take Place?
*   Fertilization in mammals occurs in the upper oviduct; cleavage occurs as the zygote travels down the oviduct. *   When the blastocyst arrives in the uterus, the trophoblast adheres to the uterine wall (the endometrium), which begins the process of implantation. *   Early implantation in the oviduct wall is prevented by the zona pellucida. Inadvertent implantationcauses a tubal pregnancy, which is very dangerous. *   In the uterus, the blastocyst hatches out of the zona pellucida, and implantation can occur. *   Stimulated by estrogen, the endometrium develops new blood vessels to cradle the blastocyst. *   The blastocyst burrows in (implantation), interacting with the wall to form the placenta.
1490
Photophosphorylation
Light driven production of ATP H+ transported via electron carriers across the thylakoid membrane from the stroma into the lumen, creating an electrochemical gradient
1491
Extracellular destruction: complement
• Membrane Attack Complex (MAC) – Embeds itself in the microbe membrane, forming pores – Water and salt enter the microbe Proteins released by liver to do the job: complement system
1492
Phospholipids
Fatty acids bound to glycerol a phosphate group replaces one fatty acid Phosphate group is hydrophilic "head" "tails" are hydrophobic fatty acid chains (ampipathic)
1493
How does photosynthesis convert light energy to chemical energy?
Reaction center converts light energy to chemical energy Excited chlorophyll a molecule (Chl*) is a reducing agent (electron donor) A is an acceptor molecule (oxidizing agent) Chl* + A --> Chl+ + A- A is the first in a chain of electron carriers on the thylakoid membrane (electron transport) a series of redox reactions Final electron acceptor is NADP+ NADP+ + e- --> NADPH + H+
1494
G3P
Gylceraldehyde 3 phosphate 5/6 recycled into RuBP 1/6 converted to starch and sucrose to make glucose and fructose
1495
Chlorophylls a and b
Ring structure with magnesium atom in center Hydrocarbon tail which anchors them to integral proteins in the thylakoids membrane Absorb in red and blue region
1496
Accessory pigments
Transfer energy absorbed to chorophylls Carotenoids and phycobilins Absorb intermediate between red and blue
1497
Active transport involves 3 kinds of proteins
Uniporters- one ion, one direction Symporters- 2 ions, same direction Antiporters- 2 ions, different directions
1498
Spina bifida
failure of the neural tube to fuse in a posterior region dueto vitamin B deficiency
1499
Roles of Golgi apparatus
Receive proteins from ER and modify them Concentrate/package/sort proteins before they are sent to their destinations Sme polysaccharides for plant cell walls are synthesized
1500
Phagocytosis & Recruitment
* Macrophages in the nearby tissue detect bacteria using receptor proteins to engulf them * Macrophages release cytokines- chemicals for recruitment * Mast cells release histamine- causes vasodilation * Injured cells release chemotaxins- chemo attractants to attract immune cells
1501
Function of Cortisol
*   Increases the fuel availability to the brain *   Gluconeogenesis- Synthesis of glucose, started to make glucose from amino acids which is bad because you're breaking down your proteins which you need for muscles, enzymes, micro tubules, etc. but cortisol breaks it down to make glucose with causes negative effect *   Lypolytic hormone- Breaks down fats to make sure fatty acids are available for the brain. Can end up localizing fat *   Anti-inflammatory effects- Someone's immune system, histamine is released as an alert for immune system but that starts to decrease with cortisol (immunosuppressive) *   Affects memory function- Permanent brain damage, kills neurons permanently * proteolytic hormone- promotes protein breakdown, prevents growth, birth of premature babies
1502
Stoma
Mouth of plant Co2 enters and O2/water exit through these pores
1503
Premature Contractions and Delivery
*   A positive feedback loop develops (mechanical stimuli increase the release of oxytocin, and vice versa), and this converts Braxton-Hicks contractions into stronger labor contractions. *   In the early stage of labor, contractions gradually become more frequent and intense until they haveopened the cervix. *   In the delivery stage, the baby’s head moves into the vagina and becomes visible from the outside. *   The usual head-down position of the baby comes about during the seventh month of pregnancy.
1504
Accessory pigments
Transfer energy absorbed to chorophylls Carotenoids and phycobilins Absorb intermediate between red and blue
1505
Gametes
*   The gonads (testes and ovaries) are the sites of gametogenesis. *   Male gametes (sperm) move by beating flagella; female gametes (eggs or ova) arenonmotile.
1506
Bone marrow
Produces mulitpotent hematopoietic cell, which in return can be a myeloid or a lymphoid progenitor cel Stem cells- have not differentiated yet, blood stem cells can become blood cells
1507
Where are these microorganisms?
They like moisture, food particles, want to get in blood vessels (from there they can travel all over the body)
1508
Chemoreceptors
Homeostatic mechanism: Chemoreceptors constantly measuring level of oxygen and co2, send signal through sensory nerve fibers Need increased inspiration during exercise, or if holding breath (decrease oxygen availability and increase co2 availability) •  Peripheral –  Carotid bodies –  Aortic bodies •  Central- within nervous system, medulla oblongata
1509
Cleavage
a rapid series of celldivision, but no cell growth In mammals cleavage is rotational: First cell division is parallel to the animal–vegetal axis; yields two blastomeres. In second division two blastomeres divide at right angles to each other;one is parallel to the axis and the other is perpendicular to it. This pattern of division is unique to mammals with placentas.
1510
Neutrophils
Most abundant phagocytic cells Release: Cytokines- alarming chemicals to alarm other immune cells Vasodilators- increases size of blood cells, Make blood vessel bigger so immune cells can travel Chemotaxins- chemo attractants, attract other immune cells, travel in blood vessels and squeeze out of them, can get anywhere in the body
1511
Extracellular destruction: complement
• Membrane Attack Complex (MAC) – Embeds itself in the microbe membrane, forming pores – Water and salt enter the microbe Proteins released by liver to do the job: complement system
1512
During gastrulation, three germ layers form
–  The inner germ layer is the endoderm and gives rise to the digestive tract, circulatory tract, and respiratory tract. –  The outer layer, the ectoderm, gives rise to the epidermis and nervous system. –  The middle layer, the mesoderm, contributes to bone, muscle, liver, heart, and blood vessels
1513
Ruben and kamen
Used radioisotope tracers (O18 and O16) to determine that water was the source of O2 released during photosynthesis rather than CO2
1514
Metabolic pathways
Thousands of chemical reactions occurring simultaneously organized he Each reaction catalyzed by a specific enzyme, and if one enzyme is inactive all subsequent steps may be shut down Pathways are interconnected Regulation of enzymes and therefore reaction rates helps maintain homeostasis (activation and inactivation of enzymes)
1515
Light independent reactions
"dark reactions" Use ATP and NADH from light reactions plus CO2 to produce carbohydrates (because coenzymes ATP and NADH are not stored, need light for light reaction first)
1516
Blood Vessels
*   Form closed circuit tubes that carry blood from the heart to cells and back to the heart *   Arteries, arterioles (Tiny arteries, still can be seen by the naked eye) , capillaries, venules (merge to form veins), and veins
1517
CO2 fixation
CO2 is reduced to carbohydrates Enzymes in the stroma use the energy in ATP and NADPH to reduce CO2 Because the ATP and NADPH are not "stockpiled," these light independent reactions must also take place in light
1518
Digestive (main) organs
•  Mouth •  Pharynx •  Esophagus (upper 1/3 skeletal muscles) •  Stomach •  Small intestine (final digestion/aborption) –  Duodenum, jejunum, ileum •  Large intestine (Minimal processes, but mostly waste) –  Cecum, colon, rectum •  Anus
1519
Synaptic neurotransmitter release
Action potential arrives at axon terminals Depolarization of the action potential stimulates the voltage gated calcium channels to open Calcium influx causes the mobilization of vesicles containing neurotransmitters Neurotransmitter release by exocytosis Neurotransmitters bind to receptors (ligand voltage channel)on postsynaptic neuron, or get broken down by enzymes, or can be released back to the CNS, or reuptaken by the ore synaptic neuron Depolarization occurs, series of events that lead to action potential in postsynaptic neuron
1520
Phagocytosis & Recruitment
* Macrophages in the nearby tissue detect bacteria using receptor proteins to engulf them * Macrophages release cytokines- chemicals for recruitment * Mast cells release histamine- causes vasodilation * Injured cells release chemotaxins- chemo attractants to attract immune cells
1521
Photosystem
Multiple antenna systems, surround reaction centers Pigments packed together on thylakoids membrane proteins Excitation energy passes from the pigments that absorb short wavelengths to those that absorb longer wavelengths, and ends up in the reaction center pigment
1522
Bone marrow
Produces mulitpotent hematopoietic cell, which in return can be a myeloid or a lymphoid progenitor cel Stem cells- have not differentiated yet, blood stem cells can become blood cells
1523
B lymphocytes
Transform into plasma cells and release antibodies into the circulation, which are proteins that tag the pathogens to signal the immune cells to destroy it Form memory cells- every pathogen has specific surface receptors (signature), they can remember for next time how to fight the infection
1524
Cytotoxic T Cell
Release perform and granzymes Induce apoptosis (Fas) Attack cancer cells which stop mitosis regulation and keep dividing- they bond to these and release perforins that poke h ones in the membrane, eater can go in, releases granzymes in the hole or proteins that activate apoptosis
1525
Phagocytosis & Recruitment
* Macrophages in the nearby tissue detect bacteria using receptor proteins to engulf them * Macrophages release cytokines- chemicals for recruitment * Mast cells release histamine- causes vasodilation * Injured cells release chemotaxins- chemo attractants to attract immune cells
1526
How do gases cross the lung/bloodmedia?
Process of diffusion. Alveoli made of single layered cells, blood capillaries only have tunica intima and some connective tissue, so very thin, and easy process of diffusion Both the capillaries and the alveoli are lined with simple squamous epithelium
1527
Erections
sexually aroused male’s autonomic nervous system causes penis blood vessel dilation. The nerve endings release nitric oxide, (NO, a gas) a neurotransmitter that stimulates the production of cGMP a second messenger that acts on the blood vessels This swells the spongy, erectile tissue and compresses the blood flow from the penis
1528
Microbes
Harmful substances, living or dead
1529
third trimester
internal organs mature and organ systems begin to function The last organs to mature before birthare the lungs
1530
Processes in Calvin Benson cycle
Fixation of CO2 by combination with RuBP (catalyzes by rubisco) Conversion of fixed CO2 into carbohydrate G3P (using ATP and NADPH) Regeneration of CO2 acceptor RuBP by ATP
1531
How is Carbon Dioxide Transported?
5-6% dissolved in plasma 5-8% bind to hemoglobin at a different binding site than oxygen 86-90% converted to hydrogen ions and bicarbonate by enzyme called carbonic anhydrase. When co2 goes up hydrogen ions go up and ph decreases, and vice versa. Want ph of 7.4
1532
Cerebrospinal fluid path
Circulates from the lateral ventricles through interventicular foramen to the third ventricle Then to the cerebral aqueduct and to the 4th ventricle (can go to the CNS from here) Then central canal to the spinal cord
1533
Radioisotopes after world war II
Became readily available to cell biologists to study cell metabolism Ex: tritium(3H) emits beta particle when one extra neutron changes into a proton Autoradiography- radioisotopes can trace the fate of molecules in cells
1534
Pupils in bright light
Circular smooth muscles (inner) contract, pupil constricts
1535
How Are Gases Transported?
•  Once in the blood, oxygen is transported in two ways –  1.5% is dissolved in the plasma and cytosol of erythrocytes –  98.5 % Bound to hemoglobin
1536
Clostridium botulinum
Wrinkles are overstimulation of motor neurons onto muscles Botox decreases wrinkles by minimizing activity, interferes with muscle response from neurons by using a toxin to interact with the neurotransmitter vesicles preventing exocytosis, neurotransmitters are not able to be released
1537
Monocytes/macrophages
Monocytes are inactive form, on patrol, macrophages are active, they attack Engulf and digest Activate T cells Once monocytes enter tissue they become macrophages
1538
Steps of fertilization
–  The sperm and egg recognize each other. –  The sperm is activated so that it can gain access to the plasma membrane of the egg. –  The plasma membranes of the sperm and egg fuse. –  The egg blocks entry of additional sperm. –  The egg is stimulated to start development. –  The egg and sperm nuclei fuse
1539
Antenna systems
Pigments arranged in these Also called light harvesting complexes
1540
Path of sperm
*   To achieve fertilization, sperm swim up the vagina, assisted by contractions of the female reproductive tract. *   The sperm then pass through the cervix and most of the oviduct to the egg (secondary oocyte) in the upper oviduct. *   Egg and sperm nucleus (both haploid) fuse to produce the diploid zygote.
1541
Activation energy
Amount of energy required to start the reaction Biological reactions are slow because of this energy barrier Can come from heating the system because it has more kinetic energy
1542
Synthesis of steroids
Smooth ER synthesizes lipids, mitochondria synthesize steroid hormones Released into circulation (blood vessels) moving freely through the membrane by diffusion
1543
Mechanoreceptors
Responds to mechanical pressure or distortion
1544
Gastric Mucosa
•  Mucosa cells –  Release mucus, watery solution with salt ions, basic chemicals to neutralize acid and make it less harmful to stomach •  Chief cells –  Release pepsinogen, enzyme that can break down proteins but it's not activated, needs highly acidic environment •  Parietal cells –  Release HCl, and Intrinsic factor (absorption of vitamins, B12)
1545
Ruben and kamen
Used radioisotope tracers (O18 and O16) to determine that water was the source of O2 released during photosynthesis rather than CO2
1546
Photosynthesis
"synthesis from light" Plants take in CO2, produce carbohydrates, and release O2 and water Light is required 6CO2 + 12H2O--> C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O
1547
Sharp object penetrating skin
Easiest way to get infected by a pathogen Some cells are already in the vicinity, they destroy and then call for back up
1548
Monocytes/macrophages
Monocytes are inactive form, on patrol, macrophages are active, they attack Engulf and digest Activate T cells Once monocytes enter tissue they become macrophages
1549
Synaptic transmission
Acetylcholinerase destroys acetyl choline molecules so nerve stimulation does not get put of control. Inhibitor
1550
Steps of fertilization
–  The sperm and egg recognize each other. –  The sperm is activated so that it can gain access to the plasma membrane of the egg. –  The plasma membranes of the sperm and egg fuse. –  The egg blocks entry of additional sperm. –  The egg is stimulated to start development. –  The egg and sperm nuclei fuse
1551
Rough ER
Has ribosomes attached
1552
Chemoreceptors
Homeostatic mechanism: Chemoreceptors constantly measuring level of oxygen and co2, send signal through sensory nerve fibers Need increased inspiration during exercise, or if holding breath (decrease oxygen availability and increase co2 availability) •  Peripheral –  Carotid bodies –  Aortic bodies •  Central- within nervous system, medulla oblongata
1553
Organ of corti
In center of cochlea, consists of tectorial membrane, basilar membrane, hair cells, and connected to axons leading to the auditory nerve The basilar membrane is more flexible than the tectorial membrane, bends upward when perilymph vibrates and then the hair cells are squeezed agains the tectorial membrane generating electrical activity, sending a signal to the brain
1554
Childbirth
*   Passage of the baby is assisted by the mother’s bearing down with her abdominal muscles. *   Once the baby is clear of the birth canal it canstart breathing and become independent of the mother’s circulation, so the umbilical cord is clamped and cut. *   Finally, the placenta and fetal membranes are detached from the mother and expelled (several minutes–1 hour)
1555
Amino acids
Have carbonyl and amino groups with a hydrogen and an R group function as an acid and base R group make differences in amino acids
1556
How do we study organelles?
First studied using light microscopy Cell fractionation separates organelles for study by chemical methods (spin tubes of cells with rotor)
1557
Types of glial cells
Schwann-PNS Microglia- protect from harmful chemicals that attack the brain Oligodendrocytes-CNS Astrocytes- most abundant type support neurons and join capillaries to neurons Ependamyl- produce csf
1558
Golgi apparatus
Has flattened membrane sacs and small membrane enclosed vesicles
1559
Ectotherm (poikilotherm)
Depend on external heat sources to maintain body temperature (On a hot day they are going to be hot and on a cold day thy are going to be cold)
1560
Limit of resolution
.61 x wavelength / NA NA= refractive index x sine of angle of most oblique ray
1561
Calvin and benson
Used 14C radioisotope to determine the sequence of reactions in CO2 fixation Exposed chlorella to 14CO2 then extracted the organic compounds and separated them by paper chromatography 3 second exposure of chlorella to 14CO2 revealed that the first compound to be formed is 3PG, a 3 carbon sugar phosphate
1562
Compliance
Ability to change volume and pressure Balloon is like the lungs- highly compliant Paper bag- not compliant
1563
How does photosynthesis convert light energy to chemical energy?
Reaction center converts light energy to chemical energy Excited chlorophyll a molecule (Chl*) is a reducing agent (electron donor) A is an acceptor molecule (oxidizing agent) Chl* + A --> Chl+ + A- A is the first in a chain of electron carriers on the thylakoid membrane (electron transport) a series of redox reactions Final electron acceptor is NADP+ NADP+ + e- --> NADPH + H+
1564
Control of breathing
Voluntary until it becomes physiologically dangerous, your brain will force you to breathe. •  Inspiration is initiated by stimulating the respiratory muscles –  Diaphragm and external intercostals •  The stimulation is initiated in the medullary centers and the pons Medulla oblongata sends signal to spinal cord, phrenic nerve sends action potential to diaphragm. 100% controlled by brain unless you voluntarily change it, stimulation always occurring. Neurons called central patter generator, send action potentials then they stop, perfectly synced on/off mechanism
1565
Photophosphorylation
Light driven production of ATP H+ transported via electron carriers across the thylakoid membrane from the stroma into the lumen, creating an electrochemical gradient
1566
Superior vena cava
Brings deoxygenated blood from all structures above diaphragm
1567
Saccharides
Simple sugars, monomers of carbohydrates Di- 2 Oligo- 3-20 Poly- hundreds of thousands
1568
Potassium channel
Allows K+ but not Na+ through even though Na+ is smaller N the channel O atoms are located at a constriction where the K+ ion just fits and loses its H2O shell, while Na+ is too small for the O atoms to attract to the H2O
1569
Brain/heart relation?
Heart does not need brain to function, brain can regulate heart activities but does not initiate activity- has special cells called pacemaker cells scattered all over the heart
1570
Light independent reactions
"dark reactions" Use ATP and NADH from light reactions plus CO2 to produce carbohydrates (because coenzymes ATP and NADH are not stored, need light for light reaction first)
1571
Microcirculation
Traveling of arterioles to capillaries to venules Cells are taking the oxygen and glucose and dumping co2 by process of diffusion
1572
Synthesis of peptides
Hormones are synthesized in the ribosomes and RER as preprohormones- an inactive form that is stored inside the cell that get converted to prohormone by modification Packaged in Golgi as prohormone Large peptide released from cell by exocytosis because lipid insoluble When released into the blood still inactive, become active in circulation
1573
Ingredients for photosynthesis
Co2 reduced to sugars that travel throughout the plant body Water up taken by roots Water and oxygen released
1574
Steps of fertilization
–  The sperm and egg recognize each other. –  The sperm is activated so that it can gain access to the plasma membrane of the egg. –  The plasma membranes of the sperm and egg fuse. –  The egg blocks entry of additional sperm. –  The egg is stimulated to start development. –  The egg and sperm nuclei fuse
1575
When a photon meets a molecule it can be-
Scattered- photon bounces off the molecule Transmitted- photon passed through the molecule Absorbed- molecule squires the energy of the photon. Goes from ground state to excited state, and disappears and energy is absorbed
1576
Prokaryotes
No nucleus or other membrane enclosed compartments Lack distinct organelles
1577
Non cyclic electron transport
Light energy is used to oxidize water, produces O2, H+, and electrons After excitation by light, Chl+ is an unstable molecule and seeks electrons Chl+ is a stron oxidizing agent and takes electrons from water, splitting the water molecule
1578
Premature Contractions and Delivery
*   A positive feedback loop develops (mechanical stimuli increase the release of oxytocin, and vice versa), and this converts Braxton-Hicks contractions into stronger labor contractions. *   In the early stage of labor, contractions gradually become more frequent and intense until they haveopened the cervix. *   In the delivery stage, the baby’s head moves into the vagina and becomes visible from the outside. *   The usual head-down position of the baby comes about during the seventh month of pregnancy.
1579
CRH
Corticotropin releasing hormone Stimulate release of ACTH
1580
Amniocentesis
extraction of amnioticfluid with a needle, after the fourteenth week of pregnancy
1581
Plastids
Organelles found only in plants and some protists
1582
Endocytosis
Processes that bring molecules and cells into a eukaryotic cell Plasma membrane folds in (invaginates) around the material, forming a vesicle
1583
Sertoli cells
•  The germ cells are protected from noxioussubstances in the blood by Sertoli cells, which also provide nutrients for the developing sperm and are involved in the hormonal control of spermatogenesis.
1584
Chemical barriers
Sebum- oily acidic substance released from sebaceous glands Lacrimal glands- tears protect sclera and cornea, dripping through nasal cavity, washing of the eye Lysozymes- degrading/digestive enzymes secreted from the mucous membranes Defensins- peptides secreted from the mucous membranes Ear wax- things get stuck Sweat- cools body and at same time destroys microorganisms on skin, B.O. Is the degradation of bacteria on skin Macrophages- immune cells Stomach acid- HCl, damaging Saliva
1585
What Affects Hb-OxygenBinding?
Demands for oxygen changing depending on your state. (if sitting, cells in legs not picking up that much oxygen) so ATP production chants, and more ATP produced the more oxygen you get delivered. Waste products signify how much ATP you are making so your red blood cells know. *   BPG (2,3 Bisphosphoglyceric acid)- BPG by product of glycolysis- when increases, unload more oxygen. *   Temperature *   Acidity- lactic acid is byproduct of fermentation
1586
Lymphoid progenitor cells
Form into B lymphocytes, T lymphocytes
1587
Steps in neurulation
*   The ectoderm over the notochord thickens and forms the neural plate. *   Edges of the neural plate fold and a deep groove forms. *   The folds fuse, forming the neural tube and a layer of ectoderm, The anterior end of the neural tube becomes the brain, the rest becomes the spinal cord
1588
Mast cells
* Mast cells are found throughout connective tissues (not found in blood) * They release histamine and other chemicals involved in inflammation
1589
Cell theory
Cells are the fundamental units of life All organisms are composed of cells All cells come from preexisting cells
1590
Components of the cytoskeleton
Microfilaments Intermediate filaments Microtubules
1591
G3P
Gylceraldehyde 3 phosphate 5/6 recycled into RuBP 1/6 converted to starch and sucrose to make glucose and fructose
1592
Penis
The penis is a tubular shaft, the tip of which has sensitive skin called the glans penis that is very responsive to sexual stimulation
1593
Path of the egg
the mature egg is released into the body cavity and is swept into the end of the oviduct (Fallopian tube) by an undulating fringe of tissue (Fertilization takes place in the oviduct and, in humans, the second meiotic division takes place) Cilia lining the oviduct propel the fertilized or unfertilized egg toward the uterus, a muscular, thick-walled cavity The opening at the bottom of the uterus is the cervix,which leads into the vagina
1594
Bacteria
Unicellular prokaryotes
1595
Plastids
Organelles found only in plants and some protists
1596
Oligosaccharides
May include other functional groups Covalently bonded to proteins and lipids on cell surfaces and act as recognition signals Human blood groups get specificity from oligosaccharide chains
1597
Chorionic villus sampling
tissue isremoved from the chorion after the eighth week
1598
Carbohydrates Digestion
Dietary carbohydrates: starch, glycogen (usually found in meats, but already broken down), sucrose (fruit), lactose (milk) Salivary glands: salivary amylase breaks down carbs into smaller polysaccharides Pancreas: pancreatic amylase breaks down to disaccharides such as maltose, sucrose, and galactose Small intestine: disaccharidases breaks down to monosaccharides such as fructose, galactose, glucose
1599
The three fundamental steps of sexual reproduction are:
–  Gametogenesis (producing sperm and eggs, requires meiosis) –  Mating (getting sperm and egg together) –  Fertilization (fusion of sperm and egg) *   Gametogenesis and fertilization are fairly similar in different groups of animals. *   Mating behaviors, however, show incredible diversity.
1600
Fibrous layers
Used for protection and muscle attachment (fine muscles can move eyes) Cornea- thick transparent membrane, covers colored part of eye, convex shape, first thing to perceive light rays, helps image not appear distorted Sclera- posterior, white part of eye, main muscle attachment where you can move your eye without having to move your entire head
1601
emission
contractions of smooth muscles in the vasa deferentia and accessory glands move semen into the urethra
1602
When a photon meets a molecule it can be-
Scattered- photon bounces off the molecule Transmitted- photon passed through the molecule Absorbed- molecule squires the energy of the photon. Goes from ground state to excited state, and disappears and energy is absorbed
1603
Calvin and benson
Used 14C radioisotope to determine the sequence of reactions in CO2 fixation Exposed chlorella to 14CO2 then extracted the organic compounds and separated them by paper chromatography 3 second exposure of chlorella to 14CO2 revealed that the first compound to be formed is 3PG, a 3 carbon sugar phosphate
1604
B lymphocytes
Transform into plasma cells and release antibodies into the circulation, which are proteins that tag the pathogens to signal the immune cells to destroy it Form memory cells- every pathogen has specific surface receptors (signature), they can remember for next time how to fight the infection
1605
Macrophages in alveoli
Ward against foreign bodies, get rid of debris
1606
Entry of Sperm into the Egg
*   In animals with internal fertilization, egg–sperm recognition mechanisms also exist. *   In the female reproductive tract, mammalian sperm are metabolically activated and attracted to the egg in the oviduct, but also aided in their movement by muscular contractions. *   The mammalian egg is surrounded by a thick layer called the cumulus. Beneath that is a protein envelope called the zona pellucida. *   A species-specific glycoprotein in the zona pellucida binds to the head of the sperm. *   The acrosomal reaction is triggered, releasing acrosomal enzymes that digest a path through the zona pellucida
1607
ejaculation
(orgasm), contractions of the muscles at the base of the penis force semen throughthe urethra and out of the penis After ejaculation, the autonomic nervous system causes constriction of the vessels in the penis and thus a decrease in blood pressure in the erectile tissue; the compression of blood vessels leaving the penis is relieved and the erection declines
1608
B lymphocytes
Transform into plasma cells and release antibodies into the circulation, which are proteins that tag the pathogens to signal the immune cells to destroy it Form memory cells- every pathogen has specific surface receptors (signature), they can remember for next time how to fight the infection
1609
Stoma
Mouth of plant Co2 enters and O2/water exit through these pores
1610
B lymphocytes
Transform into plasma cells and release antibodies into the circulation, which are proteins that tag the pathogens to signal the immune cells to destroy it Form memory cells- every pathogen has specific surface receptors (signature), they can remember for next time how to fight the infection
1611
Ruben and kamen
Used radioisotope tracers (O18 and O16) to determine that water was the source of O2 released during photosynthesis rather than CO2
1612
Gastrulation
Gastrulation is the process in which a blastulais transformed into an embryo with three tissue layers and body axes
1613
Peroxisomes
Also called microbodies Small organelles specialized to compartmentalize toxic peroxides and break them down Break down of hydrogen peroxide through catalase
1614
Lymphoid tissues
Adenoids, tonsils, thymus, lymph noes, spleen, bone marrow, lymphatic vessels Immune cells originate here, majorly from bone marrow immune cells are scattered all over, but they are clustered in certain areas in case of infection
1615
Heart as a muscle
Needs to contract and relax When heart contracts, blood comes out, relaxing is when heart is filling up with blood (output and input)
1616
Bone marrow
Produces mulitpotent hematopoietic cell, which in return can be a myeloid or a lymphoid progenitor cel Stem cells- have not differentiated yet, blood stem cells can become blood cells
1617
Nucleoplasm
Surrounds the chromatin
1618
Photosystem
Multiple antenna systems, surround reaction centers Pigments packed together on thylakoids membrane proteins Excitation energy passes from the pigments that absorb short wavelengths to those that absorb longer wavelengths, and ends up in the reaction center pigment
1619
Wernicke's aphasia
Speech understanding affected but not instructions, say nonsensical things
1620
Mechanisms of peptide action
Peptide- hydrophillic, so receptor in membrane because it cannot permeate inside the cell When receptor bound to hormone become activated, associates with/activates membrane communication protein called g protein made of multiple subunits alpha subunit moves along membrane and activates adenylyl cyclase and coverts a molecule in into cyclic AMP triggers a cascade of activation in proteins (protein kinase A activated, particular protein phosphorylates and changes shape protein shape and function altered, brings about cellular reponse) A lot quicker but local changes
1621
Ventricular systole
Physical contraction of muscle Ventricles are squeezing out blood and decreasing in size. Pulmonary and aortic valves are open unidirectional blood flow, don't want blood to return to the atrium so bicuspid and tricuspid valves are closed
1622
Z scheme
Model of noncyclic electron transport Extracts electrons from water and transfers them to NADPH, using energy from photosynthesis one and two and resulting in ATP synthesis Yields ATP, NADPH, and O2
1623
When a pigment molecule absorbs a photon (excited state) the energy can be-
Released as heat and/or light Transferred to another molecule Used for a chemical reaction
1624
Inspiration
Diaphragm- Lungs physically sit on diaphragm, main muscle for respiration, pushes down during inspiration External intercostal muscles- contact and push down
1625
Vitamins
Small molecules not synthesized by the body, must be acquired in the diet
1626
Carbohydrates
Have carbon and water Source and transport of stored energy Carbon skeletons for many other molecules
1627
Viagra
first introduced for heart problems, sexual excitation, want blood to flow to the penis faster than it flows out, need dilation of blood vessels which requires neurotransmitter nitrous oxide, produces a dilation of the blood vessels. If excessive production of phosphodiesterase, it breaks down nitrous oxide. But Viagra inhibits phosphodiesterase, that can cause problems with vision and the breakdown of cyclic gmp
1628
First trimester
embryo becomes a fetus Heart begins to beat by week 4 Limbs form by week 8 The first trimester is the period during which the fetus is most susceptible to damage from radiation, drugs, chemicals, and agents that cause birth defects. The hormone hCG (human chorionic gonadotropin) is released after implantation and is an early indicator of pregnancy
1629
Macromolecules
Giant polymers, molecular weight usually greater than 1000 daltons All form through condensation reactions where water is removed during bond formation
1630
What happens during muscle contraction?
Sarcomere contracts and shortens in length, forced production is due to interaction between myosin and actin
1631
Calvin and benson
Used 14C radioisotope to determine the sequence of reactions in CO2 fixation Exposed chlorella to 14CO2 then extracted the organic compounds and separated them by paper chromatography 3 second exposure of chlorella to 14CO2 revealed that the first compound to be formed is 3PG, a 3 carbon sugar phosphate
1632
Erythrocytes
*   Transport gases in the body *   Biconcave discs *   Flat size to increase diffusion- huge surface area *   Produced in the bone marrow *   Regulated by erythropoitin * no organelles, like a cargo van for nutrients *   Short life span- 120 days *   Packed with hemoglobin (type of protein bound to iron), each has 250 million hemoglobin with 4 oxygen molecules *   Its formation depends on folic acid and B12
1633
Cellulose
Very stable, good for structural components | Linear
1634
During gastrulation, three germ layers form
–  The inner germ layer is the endoderm and gives rise to the digestive tract, circulatory tract, and respiratory tract. –  The outer layer, the ectoderm, gives rise to the epidermis and nervous system. –  The middle layer, the mesoderm, contributes to bone, muscle, liver, heart, and blood vessels
1635
Inner cell mass
•  The inner cell mass of the blastocyst splits into an epiblast and hypoblast with a fluid-filled cavity in between (just like the reptilian and avian gastrula). *   The embryo forms from the epiblast. *   The epiblast also splits off a layer of cells that form the amnion. The amnion grows around the developing embryo. *   The hypoblast cells extend to form the chorion. Thechorion and other tissues produce the placenta. *   The epiblast produces the amnion. Allantoic tissues form the umbilical cord.
1636
Glycosidic linkages
Monosaccharides bind together in these condensation reactions Can be alpha or beta
1637
Texture of phospholipid bilayer
Flexible, the interior is fluid and allows lateral movement of molecules Fluidity depends on temperature and composition Region with cholesterol is stiffened
1638
Autoimmune disease
Immune system turned against you, attacks a particular tissue - diabetes type 1: attacks beta cells that produce insulin - multiple sclerosis: attacks myelin, slows electrical activities - rheumatoid arthritis: attacks joints
1639
Resolution
Limiting factor in all microscopes, need high resolution to see detail
1640
Two systems of electron transport
Non cyclic electron transport- produces NADPH and ATP Cyclic electron transport- produces ATP only * when you need more sugar you need more ATP than NADH, so cyclic transport is needed
1641
Inhibitors
Molecule that binds to the enzyme and slows reaction rates Regulates enzymes Naturally occurring inhibitors regulate metabolism
1642
Carbohydrates Digestion
Dietary carbohydrates: starch, glycogen (usually found in meats, but already broken down), sucrose (fruit), lactose (milk) Salivary glands: salivary amylase breaks down carbs into smaller polysaccharides Pancreas: pancreatic amylase breaks down to disaccharides such as maltose, sucrose, and galactose Small intestine: disaccharidases breaks down to monosaccharides such as fructose, galactose, glucose
1643
Path of zygote
*   Still in the oviduct, the zygote divides to become a blastocyst and continues down the oviduct. *   In the uterus, the blastocyst attaches to the wall lining called the endometrium.
1644
Processes of the Digestive
*   Motility- mixing of food *   Secretion- enzymes being released, produced in digestive system cells, ingredient sometimes produced in blood. *   Digestion- chemical breakdown of covalent bonds *   Absorption- Broken down into individual units, can be absorbed, accessible to cells
1645
Control of breathing
Voluntary until it becomes physiologically dangerous, your brain will force you to breathe. •  Inspiration is initiated by stimulating the respiratory muscles –  Diaphragm and external intercostals •  The stimulation is initiated in the medullary centers and the pons Medulla oblongata sends signal to spinal cord, phrenic nerve sends action potential to diaphragm. 100% controlled by brain unless you voluntarily change it, stimulation always occurring. Neurons called central patter generator, send action potentials then they stop, perfectly synced on/off mechanism
1646
Receptor mediated endocytosis in mammalian cells
Take in cholesterol I liver, cholesterol packaged into low density lipoprotein (LDL) and secreted into the bloodstream Cells that need cholesterol have receptors for the LDLs in clathrin coated pits
1647
Artery
Strong elastic vessels that carry blood away from the heart Branch into smaller arterioles Elastic- when heart ejects blood they have to accommodate a large amount of blood, very high pressure, contraction of heart, arteries accommodating this force Uniform shape
1648
Transition state species
Activation energy changes the reactants into unstable forms with higher free energy
1649
Calvin and benson
Used 14C radioisotope to determine the sequence of reactions in CO2 fixation Exposed chlorella to 14CO2 then extracted the organic compounds and separated them by paper chromatography 3 second exposure of chlorella to 14CO2 revealed that the first compound to be formed is 3PG, a 3 carbon sugar phosphate
1650
Stroma
Fluid in which grana are suspended in chloroplasts
1651
Where are these microorganisms?
They like moisture, food particles, want to get in blood vessels (from there they can travel all over the body)
1652
System of respiration
Constant exchange of air: ventilation (tidal volume) Diffusion- oxygen from lungs to blood Circulation- bulk transport Diffusion of oxygen into cells Cellular respiration
1653
How do gases cross the lung/bloodmedia?
Process of diffusion. Alveoli made of single layered cells, blood capillaries only have tunica intima and some connective tissue, so very thin, and easy process of diffusion Both the capillaries and the alveoli are lined with simple squamous epithelium
1654
Monosaccharide absorption
*   Glucose and galactose are absorbed by secondary active transport, takes glucose independent of concentration from the lumen to the inside of the epithelial cells *   They leave the cells into the plasma (blood vessels)via carrier proteins passively by facilitated diffusion, majority stored in liver and muscles
1655
Roles of the plasma membrane
Selectively permeable barrier Interface for cells where info is received from adjacent cells and extracellular signals Allows cells to maintain a constant internal environment Molecules responsible for binding to adjacent cells
1656
Skeletal muscles
Each muscle in the body classified as an organ A muscle is made of many fascicles Fascicles are made of bundles of muscle fibers Muscles fibers (individual cell, contracts and produces force) made of myofibrils Myofibrils are contractile proteins, arranged in sections called sarcomere
1657
ACTH
Adrenocorticotropic hormone Helps body cope with stress Target organ: adrenal cortex
1658
Chlorophylls a and b
Ring structure with magnesium atom in center Hydrocarbon tail which anchors them to integral proteins in the thylakoids membrane Absorb in red and blue region
1659
Fungi
Yeast is a unicellular form Ex: athlete's foot
1660
Accessory pigments
Transfer energy absorbed to chorophylls Carotenoids and phycobilins Absorb intermediate between red and blue
1661
Microtubules
Hollow cylinders made from tubulin protein subunits Provid rigid intracellular skeleton for some cells, function as tracks for motor proteins Form and disassemble as the needs of the cell change Form cilia and flagella
1662
Ribosomes
Sites of protein synthesis found free in cytoplasm, in mitochondria, bound to the endoplasmic reticulum, and in chloroplasts Consist of ribosomal RNA and more than 50 other proteins
1663
TRH
Thyrotropin releasing hormone Stimulates release of TSH
1664
Valves of the Heart
•  Tricuspid valve –  Between the right atrium and the right ventricle •  Bicuspid valve –  Between the left atrium and the left ventricle •  Pulmonary valve –  Between the right ventricle and the pulmonary trunk •  Aortic valve –  Between the left ventricle and the aorta
1665
Electrical Activity of the Heart
*   The heart is a cardiac muscle tissue that is constantly contracting (heart beat) *   Q: how does the heart contract? *   A: specialized cells called pacemaker cells that generate their own electrical activities
1666
ovarian cycle
*   The ovarian cycle repeats about every 28 days. *   A woman’s fertile years total about 450 ovarian cycles. In each cycle in most cases, one oocyte matures and is released. *   The end of fertility (menopause) occurs at about age 50, and only a few oocytes are left in each ovary.
1667
Active transport
Moves substances against a concentration or electrical gradient, it requires energy (often ATP)
1668
Alveolar type II cells
Secrete surfactant which keeps the alveoli from collapsing
1669
Different contributions to the zygote:
*   Sperm: DNA and a centriole, in somespecies. | *   Egg: DNA, organelles, nutrients, transcription factors, mRNAs.
1670
Processes in Calvin Benson cycle
Fixation of CO2 by combination with RuBP (catalyzes by rubisco) Conversion of fixed CO2 into carbohydrate G3P (using ATP and NADPH) Regeneration of CO2 acceptor RuBP by ATP
1671
Thickness of endometrium
About 5 days after ovulation it is at its maximal thickness and ready to accept Highly proliferated and vasularized
1672
Hemoglobin
Hemoglobin is a metal (iron) that is positively charged, and oxygen negatively charged, so they bind
1673
Ion channels
Specific channel proteins with hydrophilic pores
1674
Non cyclic electron transport
Light energy is used to oxidize water, produces O2, H+, and electrons After excitation by light, Chl+ is an unstable molecule and seeks electrons Chl+ is a stron oxidizing agent and takes electrons from water, splitting the water molecule
1675
Turnover number
Number of substrate molecules converted to product over time Ranges from 1- 40 million per second
1676
Autoimmune disease
Immune system turned against you, attacks a particular tissue - diabetes type 1: attacks beta cells that produce insulin - multiple sclerosis: attacks myelin, slows electrical activities - rheumatoid arthritis: attacks joints
1677
seminal vesicles
produce about two-thirds of the volume of semen, consisting of mucus, fibrinogen (clotting agent), and fructose as an energy source for the sperm
1678
Climax of copulation
semen is propelled through the vasa deferentia and urethra in two steps
1679
Light
A form of electromagnetic radiation Propagated as waves, energy of light is inversely proportional to wavelength (must be appropriate wavelength to be absorbed by receptive molecules Light also behaves as particles called photons, plants absorb these
1680
Light reactions
Convert light energy to chemical energy as ATP and NADH
1681
Calvin cycle stimulated by light
Protons pumped form stroma into thylakoids, increasing the pH which favors the activation of rubisco Electron flow from photosystem one reduces disulfide bonds to activate calvin cycle enzymes
1682
Roles of Golgi apparatus
Receive proteins from ER and modify them Concentrate/package/sort proteins before they are sent to their destinations Sme polysaccharides for plant cell walls are synthesized
1683
Chemical barriers
Sebum- oily acidic substance released from sebaceous glands Lacrimal glands- tears protect sclera and cornea, dripping through nasal cavity, washing of the eye Lysozymes- degrading/digestive enzymes secreted from the mucous membranes Defensins- peptides secreted from the mucous membranes Ear wax- things get stuck Sweat- cools body and at same time destroys microorganisms on skin, B.O. Is the degradation of bacteria on skin Macrophages- immune cells Stomach acid- HCl, damaging Saliva
1684
Transmural pressure
The pressure difference between two membranes
1685
Multipolar neurons
Many dendrites, and one axon 99% of all neurons Motor neurons and interneurons Found in brain and spinal cord
1686
Nuclear envelope
Formed by two lipid bilayers
1687
Chemical barriers
Sebum- oily acidic substance released from sebaceous glands Lacrimal glands- tears protect sclera and cornea, dripping through nasal cavity, washing of the eye Lysozymes- degrading/digestive enzymes secreted from the mucous membranes Defensins- peptides secreted from the mucous membranes Ear wax- things get stuck Sweat- cools body and at same time destroys microorganisms on skin, B.O. Is the degradation of bacteria on skin Macrophages- immune cells Stomach acid- HCl, damaging Saliva
1688
Virus
Cause major problems by taking over/infecting cells
1689
Somites
separate, segmented blocks of cells on either side of the neural tube. Muscle, cartilage, bone, and lower layer of the skin form from somites. Neural crest cells are guided by somites to develop into peripheral nerves and other structures
1690
Light reactions
Convert light energy to chemical energy as ATP and NADH
1691
Hair cells depolarized
Movement of stereocilia towards kinocilium activates stretch activated channels When they are stimulate, K+ influx occurs Depolarization leads to activation of voltage gated Ca channels Ca2+ influx causes release of neurotransmitters
1692
SS
Somatostatin Inhibits release of GH
1693
Path of zygote
*   Still in the oviduct, the zygote divides to become a blastocyst and continues down the oviduct. *   In the uterus, the blastocyst attaches to the wall lining called the endometrium.
1694
When a pigment molecule absorbs a photon (excited state) the energy can be-
Released as heat and/or light Transferred to another molecule Used for a chemical reaction
1695
Spina bifida
failure of the neural tube to fuse in a posterior region dueto vitamin B deficiency
1696
Prokaryotes
No nucleus or other membrane enclosed compartments Lack distinct organelles
1697
Phagocytic cell migration
* The cytokines released by macrophages signal the endothelial cells to express selectin * Margination occurs- dock and fuse with membrane, carbohydrate ligands on macrophages bind to selectin in blood vessel, move in blood vessel by rolling * Phagocytic cells produce integrin on their membrane * Stronger attachment occurs- immune cells are allowed to slow down and exit * Phagocytic cells begin to move from the blood to the infected area in a process known as diapedisis * Once in the interstitial fluid, phagocytic cells are attracted to the site of injury by chemotaxins- tell phagocytic cells exactly where to go
1698
Fluorescence
When a pigment returns to ground state some of the energy may be given off as heat and some as fluorescence Fluorescence has longer wavelengths and less energy than the absorbed light energy No chemical work done If pigment can pass the energy to another molecule, there's no fluorescence, the energy can be passed to a reaction center where it is converted to chemical energy
1699
Saturation of animal fats and plant oils
Animal fats: saturated | Plant oils: unsaturated
1700
Myeloid progenitor cells
Blood/platelets or immune cells produced Types of immune cells: Granular cells- neutrophils, mast cells agranular cells- monocytes, macrophages,
1701
Ingredients for photosynthesis
Co2 reduced to sugars that travel throughout the plant body Water up taken by roots Water and oxygen released
1702
Blastocyst
When blastula reaches 16 to 32 cells, it divides into two groups: *   Inner cell mass: becomes the embryo *   Trophoblast: a sac that forms from the outer cells. Its cells secrete fluid and create the blastocoel, with the inner cell mass at one end. Embryo is now called a blastocyst.
1703
Extracellular destruction: complement
• Membrane Attack Complex (MAC) – Embeds itself in the microbe membrane, forming pores – Water and salt enter the microbe Proteins released by liver to do the job: complement system
1704
Parasite
Any organism that invades and lives by the expense of another body Most are animals, either micro or macroscopic Infects muscles and digestive system takes blood (muscles) and nutrients (liver)
1705
What Affects Hb-OxygenBinding?
Demands for oxygen changing depending on your state. (if sitting, cells in legs not picking up that much oxygen) so ATP production chants, and more ATP produced the more oxygen you get delivered. Waste products signify how much ATP you are making so your red blood cells know. *   BPG (2,3 Bisphosphoglyceric acid)- BPG by product of glycolysis- when increases, unload more oxygen. *   Temperature *   Acidity- lactic acid is byproduct of fermentation
1706
Parasite
Any organism that invades and lives by the expense of another body Most are animals, either micro or macroscopic Infects muscles and digestive system takes blood (muscles) and nutrients (liver)
1707
Phagocytic cell migration
* The cytokines released by macrophages signal the endothelial cells to express selectin * Margination occurs- dock and fuse with membrane, carbohydrate ligands on macrophages bind to selectin in blood vessel, move in blood vessel by rolling * Phagocytic cells produce integrin on their membrane * Stronger attachment occurs- immune cells are allowed to slow down and exit * Phagocytic cells begin to move from the blood to the infected area in a process known as diapedisis * Once in the interstitial fluid, phagocytic cells are attracted to the site of injury by chemotaxins- tell phagocytic cells exactly where to go
1708
Sperm anatomy
Acrosome- tip Nucleus Midpiece- contains mitochondria, Mitochondrial DNA from mother. When sperm goes into egg loses mitochondria Tail- flagellum made of microtubules
1709
Light
A form of electromagnetic radiation Propagated as waves, energy of light is inversely proportional to wavelength (must be appropriate wavelength to be absorbed by receptive molecules Light also behaves as particles called photons, plants absorb these
1710
Virus
Cause major problems by taking over/infecting cells
1711
Microbes
Harmful substances, living or dead
1712
Base
Releases hydroxide ions, accept H+, ph greater than 7
1713
Brush Border Enzymes
Not released into cavity of small intestine, found on surface of microvilli •  Enterokinase –  Activates trypsinogen, (proteolitic enzyme coming from the pancreas) then trypsin activates everything else •  Disaccharidases –  breaks down disaccharides- Maltase, sucrase, lactase •  Aminopeptidases –  Hydrolyzes peptide fragments (dipeptides or very small peptides) to aminoacids
1714
Passive transport
No outside energy required (diffusion)
1715
Kinesin
Motor protein, moves toward plus end
1716
Neural layer
Retina- neurons and synapses
1717
Photophosphorylation
Light driven production of ATP H+ transported via electron carriers across the thylakoid membrane from the stroma into the lumen, creating an electrochemical gradient
1718
Mitochondria
Converts potential energy of fuel molecules into form that cell can use (ATP) Outer lipid bilayer and highly folded inner membrane
1719
Organization of the NS
Two major parts: the brain and the spinal cord Brain receives somatic information and visceral information Brain sends efferent commands that could be somatic or autonomic
1720
Male genitalia
Penis and scrotum
1721
Mast cells
* Mast cells are found throughout connective tissues (not found in blood) * They release histamine and other chemicals involved in inflammation
1722
Immunization
Series of shots MMR- immunization shot against meals, mumps, rubella Small quantity of pathogens to build immune response, memory cells to speed up recovery next time
1723
third trimester
internal organs mature and organ systems begin to function The last organs to mature before birthare the lungs
1724
Pinna
Outer ear, like a funnel, it directs the vibrations of sound
1725
Where are these microorganisms?
They like moisture, food particles, want to get in blood vessels (from there they can travel all over the body)
1726
AIDS
Acquired immune deficiency syndrome, viruses attack immune cells, vulnerable system open to opportunistic infection
1727
Extracellular destruction: complement
• Membrane Attack Complex (MAC) – Embeds itself in the microbe membrane, forming pores – Water and salt enter the microbe Proteins released by liver to do the job: complement system
1728
B lymphocytes
Transform into plasma cells and release antibodies into the circulation, which are proteins that tag the pathogens to signal the immune cells to destroy it Form memory cells- every pathogen has specific surface receptors (signature), they can remember for next time how to fight the infection
1729
Phagocytosis
Attatchment (opsonization)- Physically bind to pathogen Internalization, turns into phagosome Degradation- Fuses with lysosome and becomes phagolysosome, and after the digestive enzymes can be reused Exocytosis- elimination of debris
1730
What stimulates the hypothalamus to release its hormones?
It controls level of hormones by humoral mechanism, measures levels of other hormones and decides whether to release its hormones or not
1731
Premature Contractions and Delivery
*   A positive feedback loop develops (mechanical stimuli increase the release of oxytocin, and vice versa), and this converts Braxton-Hicks contractions into stronger labor contractions. *   In the early stage of labor, contractions gradually become more frequent and intense until they haveopened the cervix. *   In the delivery stage, the baby’s head moves into the vagina and becomes visible from the outside. *   The usual head-down position of the baby comes about during the seventh month of pregnancy.
1732
First trimester
embryo becomes a fetus Heart begins to beat by week 4 Limbs form by week 8 The first trimester is the period during which the fetus is most susceptible to damage from radiation, drugs, chemicals, and agents that cause birth defects. The hormone hCG (human chorionic gonadotropin) is released after implantation and is an early indicator of pregnancy
1733
Pigments
Molecules that absorb specific wavelengths in the visible range of the spectrum Photons can have a wide range of wavelengths and energy levels
1734
Dilation/contraction of pupils
Protection mechanism, neural layer getting adequate amount of light
1735
Light reactions
Convert light energy to chemical energy as ATP and NADH
1736
Extracellular matrix
Composed of fibrous proteins (like collagen) and glycoproteins Epithelial cells (lining human body cavities) have basement membrane of extracellular material called the basal lamina
1737
Cyclic electron transport
Electron from excited P700 chlorophyll molecule n photosystem one cycles back to the same chlorophyll molecule Involves a series of exergonic redox reactions, the released energy creates a proton gradient that is used to synthesize ATP
1738
Endocytosis
Processes that bring molecules and cells into a eukaryotic cell Plasma membrane folds in (invaginates) around the material, forming a vesicle
1739
Brain stem
Origin of majority of peripheral cranial nerves Control centers for digestive, respiratory, and cardiovascular centers Equilibrium and posture Integration of input from spinal cord Vital functions regulated (heart, respiration) Lower half of the brain stem called medula oblongata
1740
Extensive ER membrane system
Cells specialized for synthesizing proteins have these
1741
Parasite
Any organism that invades and lives by the expense of another body Most are animals, either micro or macroscopic Infects muscles and digestive system takes blood (muscles) and nutrients (liver)
1742
Where does Ca go?
Calcium ions released bind to troponin which has a calcium binding site Troponin, which is bound to tropomyosin, slides away from the actin exposing the binding site of myosin (sliding filament theory) Myosin binds to actin
1743
Pressure change
Breathing associated with skeletal muscles that are constantly contracting and relaxing, gases are quantified by pressur Atmospheric pressure (Patm)- pressure on the outside in the environment Alveolar pressure (Palv)-pressure inside your lungs Intrapleural pressure (Pip)- pressure in pleural sac, fills up with fluid that exerts pressure Alveolar and interpleural pressure are constantly fluctuating because they depend on your state
1744
Digestive (main) organs
•  Mouth •  Pharynx •  Esophagus (upper 1/3 skeletal muscles) •  Stomach •  Small intestine (final digestion/aborption) –  Duodenum, jejunum, ileum •  Large intestine (Minimal processes, but mostly waste) –  Cecum, colon, rectum •  Anus
1745
Gametes
*   The gonads (testes and ovaries) are the sites of gametogenesis. *   Male gametes (sperm) move by beating flagella; female gametes (eggs or ova) arenonmotile.
1746
Plasma membrane
Outer surface of every cell, more or less same structure in every cell Phospholipid bilayer with proteins and other molecules imbedded Oily fluid in which proteins and lipids are in constant motion
1747
Plastids
Organelles found only in plants and some protists
1748
Passive transport
No outside energy required (diffusion)
1749
When a pigment molecule absorbs a photon (excited state) the energy can be-
Released as heat and/or light Transferred to another molecule Used for a chemical reaction
1750
Second trimester
limbs elongate and facial features form
1751
Control of breathing
Voluntary until it becomes physiologically dangerous, your brain will force you to breathe. •  Inspiration is initiated by stimulating the respiratory muscles –  Diaphragm and external intercostals •  The stimulation is initiated in the medullary centers and the pons Medulla oblongata sends signal to spinal cord, phrenic nerve sends action potential to diaphragm. 100% controlled by brain unless you voluntarily change it, stimulation always occurring. Neurons called central patter generator, send action potentials then they stop, perfectly synced on/off mechanism
1752
Tunica interna
Made of simple squamous epithelium (endothelium) Provide smooth surface for blood to pass through
1753
Specific Recognition Between Sperm and Egg
*   Specific recognition molecules mediate interactions between sperm and eggs. *   This ensures that activities of the sperm are directed toward eggs and not other cells and prevents eggs from being fertilized by sperm of the wrong species. *   This latter function is particularly importantin aquatic species, such as sea urchins, that release sperm and eggs into the surrounding water.
1754
Boyle's law
Pressure and volume are inversely proportiona Gases in a container, when volume decreased, pressure increases due to collision of gas molecules and now these gas molecules are confined to a smaller place, so more bombardment Lungs are always changing in volume so the pressure changes as well with inspiration and expiration
1755
Childbirth
*   Passage of the baby is assisted by the mother’s bearing down with her abdominal muscles. *   Once the baby is clear of the birth canal it canstart breathing and become independent of the mother’s circulation, so the umbilical cord is clamped and cut. *   Finally, the placenta and fetal membranes are detached from the mother and expelled (several minutes–1 hour)
1756
The pancreas
*   Mixed gland that contain both endocrine and exocrine tissue *   The exocrine tissue contains two types of cells - Duct cells secrete NaHCO3 and Bicarbonate release to neutralize acid - Acina cells secrete pancreatic juice- Mixture of enzymes that are produced from pancreas
1757
FSH/LH
Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) & luteinizing hormone (LH) Produces gametes and sex hormones Target organs: testes or ovaries
1758
Alpha glucose
OH down, H up
1759
Penis
The penis is a tubular shaft, the tip of which has sensitive skin called the glans penis that is very responsive to sexual stimulation
1760
Accessory pigments
Transfer energy absorbed to chorophylls Carotenoids and phycobilins Absorb intermediate between red and blue
1761
Anabolic reactions
Complex molecules are made from simple molecules, requires energy input, positive delta G, negative delta S Ex: proteins made of amino acids, free energy is required
1762
Macrophages in alveoli
Ward against foreign bodies, get rid of debris
1763
Pressure and Volume Change
During inspiration the volume of the lungs increases and the pressure decreases- atmospheric pressure is higher than alveolar pressure, and diffusion can occur During expiration, the volume of the lungs decreases and the pressure increases- alveolar pressure becomes higher than atmospheric pressure- diffusion outwards
1764
Light
A form of electromagnetic radiation Propagated as waves, energy of light is inversely proportional to wavelength (must be appropriate wavelength to be absorbed by receptive molecules Light also behaves as particles called photons, plants absorb these
1765
Efferent neurons
Sends information from CNS
1766
Sterile cotton swab
Collect microorganisms by smearing on surface Put on a culture dish with solution called tryptic soy agar, which has nutrients that make bacteria reproduce so you can see them
1767
Photosynthesis in noncyclic electron electron transport
Each photosystem consists of several chlorophyll and accessory pigment molecules Complement each other, must be constantly absorbing light energy to power noncyclic electron transport
1768
Control of breathing
Voluntary until it becomes physiologically dangerous, your brain will force you to breathe. •  Inspiration is initiated by stimulating the respiratory muscles –  Diaphragm and external intercostals •  The stimulation is initiated in the medullary centers and the pons Medulla oblongata sends signal to spinal cord, phrenic nerve sends action potential to diaphragm. 100% controlled by brain unless you voluntarily change it, stimulation always occurring. Neurons called central patter generator, send action potentials then they stop, perfectly synced on/off mechanism
1769
How do atoms bond to form molecules
Reactive atoms have unpaired electrons in their outermost shell, atoms share, gain, or lose electrons
1770
Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis
Hypothalamus- releases CRH, is always in control by measuring the amount of cortisol, if levels are below the set point, mechanism is turned on to increase cortisol Anterior pituitary- acted on by hypothalamus, stimulates release of ACTH, travels in circulation Adrenal cortex- stimulated to release another hormone called cortisol which helps our body deal with long term stress (external factor that causes major changes in your body) body thinks starvation is happening and there is not enough energy, so cortisols major function is to make sure your brain is well protected and that it had adequate amount of energy available Increases plasma concentration of glucose (for the use of the brain, muscles can't use it) fatty acids, and amino acids (for the muscles as an energy replacement for glucose)
1771
Voltage gated potassium channel
Protein channel specific to potassium Triggered to open at threshold potential, delayed opening Two states: closed at resting potential (-70mV to 30 mV), open (+30 mV to -80 mV)
1772
Extracellular matrix
Composed of fibrous proteins (like collagen) and glycoproteins Epithelial cells (lining human body cavities) have basement membrane of extracellular material called the basal lamina
1773
Pulmonary veins
Bring back oxygenated blood from lungs to left atrium
1774
Photosynthesis
"synthesis from light" Plants take in CO2, produce carbohydrates, and release O2 and water Light is required 6CO2 + 12H2O--> C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O
1775
clitoris
the anatomical analog of the male penis that is capable of erection and is highly sensitive to sexual stimulation Both the labia minora and clitoris become engorgedwith blood during sexual stimulation
1776
Cleavage
a rapid series of celldivision, but no cell growth In mammals cleavage is rotational: First cell division is parallel to the animal–vegetal axis; yields two blastomeres. In second division two blastomeres divide at right angles to each other;one is parallel to the axis and the other is perpendicular to it. This pattern of division is unique to mammals with placentas.
1777
Allergy
Overactive or disproportionate immune system Chemicals released Anti histamine can be used (because histamine is the alarm)
1778
Cristae
Folds of the inner membrane give rise to these Contains large protein molecules used in cellular respiration
1779
trophoblast
*   In mammals, the first extraembryonic membrane to form is the trophoblast. *   When the blastocyst hatches from the zona pellucida, the trophoblast cells attach to the uterine wall, This is the beginning of implantation. *   The trophoblast becomes part of the uterine wall, and sends out villi to increase surface area and contact with maternal blood.
1780
Ventricular systole
Physical contraction of muscle Ventricles are squeezing out blood and decreasing in size. Pulmonary and aortic valves are open unidirectional blood flow, don't want blood to return to the atrium so bicuspid and tricuspid valves are closed
1781
Specific Recognition Between Sperm and Egg
*   Specific recognition molecules mediate interactions between sperm and eggs. *   This ensures that activities of the sperm are directed toward eggs and not other cells and prevents eggs from being fertilized by sperm of the wrong species. *   This latter function is particularly importantin aquatic species, such as sea urchins, that release sperm and eggs into the surrounding water.
1782
How Are Gases Transported?
•  Once in the blood, oxygen is transported in two ways –  1.5% is dissolved in the plasma and cytosol of erythrocytes –  98.5 % Bound to hemoglobin
1783
Light microscopes
Glass lenses focus visible light, max resolution of .2 um
1784
Afferent neurons
Sends information to the central nervous system
1785
Diameter of blood vessels
Blood vessels decrease in diameter when a part of your body is not in use, happens because of the tunica media. Arteries- more tunica media because more regulation Rest (tone), vasoconstriction, vasodilation
1786
Light independent reactions
"dark reactions" Use ATP and NADH from light reactions plus CO2 to produce carbohydrates (because coenzymes ATP and NADH are not stored, need light for light reaction first)
1787
third trimester
internal organs mature and organ systems begin to function The last organs to mature before birthare the lungs
1788
Second law of thermodynamics
When energy is converted from one form to another, some of that energy becomes unavailable to do work, entropy (disorder) increases No energy transformation is 100 percent efficient free energy decreases and entropy increases
1789
System of respiration
Constant exchange of air: ventilation (tidal volume) Diffusion- oxygen from lungs to blood Circulation- bulk transport Diffusion of oxygen into cells Cellular respiration
1790
Alveolar type I cells
form the wall of the alveoli
1791
Troponin
Three spherical subunits, three binding sites: actin, tropomyosin, calcium (calcium needed for contraction)
1792
Pigments
Molecules that absorb specific wavelengths in the visible range of the spectrum Photons can have a wide range of wavelengths and energy levels
1793
labia majora and labia minora
The external opening of the vagina has two sets of folded skin, the labia majora and labia minora, which also surround the urethra Labia majora equivalent of scrotum Lania minora becomes engorged with blood
1794
Exocytosis
Material in vesicles expelled from a cell Indigestible materials and other materials such as digestive enzymes and neurotransmitters are expelled
1795
Peroxisomes
Also called microbodies Small organelles specialized to compartmentalize toxic peroxides and break them down Break down of hydrogen peroxide through catalase
1796
When a photon meets a molecule it can be-
Scattered- photon bounces off the molecule Transmitted- photon passed through the molecule Absorbed- molecule squires the energy of the photon. Goes from ground state to excited state, and disappears and energy is absorbed
1797
Vasodilation & Increased Permeability
• Histamine causes vasodilation – increases diameter, Increase in blood flow to infected area – Redness occurs – Increase delivery of proteins – Edema occurs- swelling, fluid from blood cells into interstitial tissue * increased permeability- proteins gain entry from blood to interstitial fluid * objective- get more immune cells
1798
How does photosynthesis convert light energy to chemical energy?
Reaction center converts light energy to chemical energy Excited chlorophyll a molecule (Chl*) is a reducing agent (electron donor) A is an acceptor molecule (oxidizing agent) Chl* + A --> Chl+ + A- A is the first in a chain of electron carriers on the thylakoid membrane (electron transport) a series of redox reactions Final electron acceptor is NADP+ NADP+ + e- --> NADPH + H+
1799
Hypotonic solution
Lower solute concentration Animal cells may burst when placed in this solution
1800
Ribosomes
Sites of protein synthesis found free in cytoplasm, in mitochondria, bound to the endoplasmic reticulum, and in chloroplasts Consist of ribosomal RNA and more than 50 other proteins
1801
Path of the egg
the mature egg is released into the body cavity and is swept into the end of the oviduct (Fallopian tube) by an undulating fringe of tissue (Fertilization takes place in the oviduct and, in humans, the second meiotic division takes place) Cilia lining the oviduct propel the fertilized or unfertilized egg toward the uterus, a muscular, thick-walled cavity The opening at the bottom of the uterus is the cervix,which leads into the vagina
1802
Fluorescence
When a pigment returns to ground state some of the energy may be given off as heat and some as fluorescence Fluorescence has longer wavelengths and less energy than the absorbed light energy No chemical work done If pigment can pass the energy to another molecule, there's no fluorescence, the energy can be passed to a reaction center where it is converted to chemical energy
1803
Cell junctions
Tight junctions, desmosomes, gap junctions
1804
Premature Contractions and Delivery
*   A positive feedback loop develops (mechanical stimuli increase the release of oxytocin, and vice versa), and this converts Braxton-Hicks contractions into stronger labor contractions. *   In the early stage of labor, contractions gradually become more frequent and intense until they haveopened the cervix. *   In the delivery stage, the baby’s head moves into the vagina and becomes visible from the outside. *   The usual head-down position of the baby comes about during the seventh month of pregnancy.
1805
Fertilization
Fertilization is the union of haploid sperm and haploid egg to produce a single diploid cell, the zygote
1806
Hypotonic solution
Lower solute concentration Animal cells may burst when placed in this solution
1807
Rubisco
Enzyme that catalyzes fixation of CO2 Ribosome bisphosphate carboxylase/ Most abundant protein in the world, 50% of the protein in a leaf
1808
Immunization
Series of shots MMR- immunization shot against meals, mumps, rubella Small quantity of pathogens to build immune response, memory cells to speed up recovery next time
1809
AIDS
Acquired immune deficiency syndrome, viruses attack immune cells, vulnerable system open to opportunistic infection
1810
Spina bifida
failure of the neural tube to fuse in a posterior region dueto vitamin B deficiency
1811
Denaturation
Loss of a protein's normal 3D structure
1812
AIDS
Acquired immune deficiency syndrome, viruses attack immune cells, vulnerable system open to opportunistic infection
1813
Diversity in sexual reproduction
*   Despite the time, energy, and risk required, sexual (compared to asexual- Asexual, cells divide. Hard to get genetic university except for mutations) reproduction confers an overwhelming advantage: the production of genetic diversity. *   Sexual reproduction requires the joining of two haploid (1n) cells into one, which becomes a diploid (2n) individual. *   These haploid cells, or gametes, are produced by gametogenesis, involving 2 meiotic cell divisions.
1814
Z scheme
Model of noncyclic electron transport Extracts electrons from water and transfers them to NADPH, using energy from photosynthesis one and two and resulting in ATP synthesis Yields ATP, NADPH, and O2
1815
Connection between lungs and circulatory system
Closed connection between heart and lungs because lungs are the site for oxygen intake, circulatory picks up oxygen from lungs and delivers it to cells with heart as intermediate
1816
Nonspecific immunity
Prevention Attack- if it gets in the circulatory system
1817
Axon hillock
Major area in the axon where the electrical signal is generated
1818
Nonspecific Immune response/inflammation
• Occurs through cut or injury to the skin • Sequence of events ensue to protect the body against infection – Phagocytosis and recruitment – Vasodilation and increase in permeability – Phagocytic cells migration – Tissue repair
1819
Steps in neurulation
*   The ectoderm over the notochord thickens and forms the neural plate. *   Edges of the neural plate fold and a deep groove forms. *   The folds fuse, forming the neural tube and a layer of ectoderm, The anterior end of the neural tube becomes the brain, the rest becomes the spinal cord
1820
Phrenology
Francis Joseph gall, died 1918 Thought there were 27 brain organs each with different functions If you touch someone's head you can determine what their strengths are by the bumps on their head
1821
Neutrophils
Most abundant phagocytic cells Release: Cytokines- alarming chemicals to alarm other immune cells Vasodilators- increases size of blood cells, Make blood vessel bigger so immune cells can travel Chemotaxins- chemo attractants, attract other immune cells, travel in blood vessels and squeeze out of them, can get anywhere in the body
1822
Tunica media
Made of smooth muscles Mediate vasoconstriction and vasodilation (controls diameter of blood vessels)
1823
bulbourethral glands
produce a mucoid secretion that neutralizes acidity in the urethra and lubricates the tip of the penis
1824
Split brain patient
The corpus callosum connects the lobes of the brain and allows them to communicate(if one has a seizure cutting of this stops spread of seizure impulses) If a split brain patient picks something up with right hand they can figure it out, but if they touch it with the left hand they can not transfer information to left hemisphere where the speech function is
1825
Phosphogens
Creatine phosphate Arginine phosphate These are molecules found in muscles with an attatched phosphate group, need an enzyme (creatine and arginine kinase) when added to ADP to make ATP
1826
Vascular layer
Iris- colored part of eye, smooth muscle Pupil- opening in smooth muscle, ensures light gets in Ciliary muscles are smooth muscle, along with iris ensure light reaches neural layer, accommodation Zonular fibers- attached to ciliary muscles, holds the lens in place (lens transmits light onto retina) choroid- dark pigmented layer that contains blood vessels, traps light
1827
Peripheral nervous system
Afferent division- sensations, environment, senses -sensory stimuli (external) and visceral stimuli(organs) Efferent division -somatic(voluntary, skeletal muscles), autonomic (sympathetic (fight or flight) and parasympathetic (rest and digest) both lead to cardiac and smooth muscles)
1828
Stoma
Mouth of plant Co2 enters and O2/water exit through these pores
1829
Protist
Uni or multicellular, contaminate lakes and drinking water to invade host
1830
Microtubules
Hollow cylinders made from tubulin protein subunits Provid rigid intracellular skeleton for some cells, function as tracks for motor proteins Form and disassemble as the needs of the cell change Form cilia and flagella
1831
Photosynthesis in noncyclic electron electron transport
Each photosystem consists of several chlorophyll and accessory pigment molecules Complement each other, must be constantly absorbing light energy to power noncyclic electron transport
1832
Thalamus
Relay station for all synaptic input with exception of olfaction Crude awareness of sensation Motor control- communication with frontal lobe Where sensations reached before being routed to the correct direction
1833
Twinning
*   If blastomeres separate into two groups, each can produce an embryo. *   Monozygotic twins come from the same zygote and are identical. *   Nonidentical twins are from two eggs fertilized by two sperm.
1834
Oligosaccharides
May include other functional groups Covalently bonded to proteins and lipids on cell surfaces and act as recognition signals Human blood groups get specificity from oligosaccharide chains
1835
Acid
Releases hydrogen ions through ionization, ph less than 7
1836
Nonspecific Immune response/inflammation
• Occurs through cut or injury to the skin • Sequence of events ensue to protect the body against infection – Phagocytosis and recruitment – Vasodilation and increase in permeability – Phagocytic cells migration – Tissue repair
1837
Functional group
Groups of atoms with specific chemical properties and consistent behavior Each macromolecule has at least one
1838
How is myelin made?
Schwann cells make it in PNS Oligodendrocites make it in CNS
1839
Non cyclic electron transport
Light energy is used to oxidize water, produces O2, H+, and electrons After excitation by light, Chl+ is an unstable molecule and seeks electrons Chl+ is a stron oxidizing agent and takes electrons from water, splitting the water molecule
1840
How does photosynthesis convert light energy to chemical energy?
Reaction center converts light energy to chemical energy Excited chlorophyll a molecule (Chl*) is a reducing agent (electron donor) A is an acceptor molecule (oxidizing agent) Chl* + A --> Chl+ + A- A is the first in a chain of electron carriers on the thylakoid membrane (electron transport) a series of redox reactions Final electron acceptor is NADP+ NADP+ + e- --> NADPH + H+
1841
Photosystem 2
Light energy oxidizes water to oxygen, H+, and electrons Reaction center has chlorophyll a molecules: P680 absorbs at 680 nm (more energetic than P700) Excited first
1842
Pressure change
Breathing associated with skeletal muscles that are constantly contracting and relaxing, gases are quantified by pressur Atmospheric pressure (Patm)- pressure on the outside in the environment Alveolar pressure (Palv)-pressure inside your lungs Intrapleural pressure (Pip)- pressure in pleural sac, fills up with fluid that exerts pressure Alveolar and interpleural pressure are constantly fluctuating because they depend on your state
1843
Premature Contractions and Delivery
*   A positive feedback loop develops (mechanical stimuli increase the release of oxytocin, and vice versa), and this converts Braxton-Hicks contractions into stronger labor contractions. *   In the early stage of labor, contractions gradually become more frequent and intense until they haveopened the cervix. *   In the delivery stage, the baby’s head moves into the vagina and becomes visible from the outside. *   The usual head-down position of the baby comes about during the seventh month of pregnancy.
1844
Focusing on near objects
Ciliary muscles contracted, zonular fibers are loose Lens is thick and rounded to focus near objects
1845
Phagocytosis
Molecules or entire cells are engulfed Some protists feed in this way White blood cells engulf foreign substances A food vacuole (phagosome) forms and fuses with a lysosome
1846
Osmosis
Diffusion of water Depends on number of solute particles present, not the type of particles If two solutions are separated by a membrane that allows water but not solutes to pass through the water will diffuse of the region of higher water concentration to the region of lower water concentration (water will go from hypotonic to hypertonic)
1847
Two systems of electron transport
Non cyclic electron transport- produces NADPH and ATP Cyclic electron transport- produces ATP only * when you need more sugar you need more ATP than NADH, so cyclic transport is needed
1848
Gap junctions
Allow communication, transmit current through channels Regulated and controlled by ions
1849
Electronegativity
Depends on number of + charges in the nucleus and the distances of the electron from the nucleus
1850
What Affects Hb-OxygenBinding?
Demands for oxygen changing depending on your state. (if sitting, cells in legs not picking up that much oxygen) so ATP production chants, and more ATP produced the more oxygen you get delivered. Waste products signify how much ATP you are making so your red blood cells know. *   BPG (2,3 Bisphosphoglyceric acid)- BPG by product of glycolysis- when increases, unload more oxygen. *   Temperature *   Acidity- lactic acid is byproduct of fermentation
1851
Branching of the airways
Conducting zone: trachea, primary bronchi, secondary bronchi, tertiary bronchi, bronchioles Respiratory zone: respiratory bronchioles, alveoli (each alveolus is covered with many capillaries to facilitate the exchange of materials)
1852
Some enzymes require other molecules in order to function
Prosthetic groups- non amino acid groups bound permanently to enzymes Cofactors- inorganic ions Coenzymes- small carbon containing molecule that moves from enzyme to enzyme adding and subtracting chemical groups
1853
Light reactions
Convert light energy to chemical energy as ATP and NADH
1854
Limit of resolution
.61 x wavelength / NA NA= refractive index x sine of angle of most oblique ray
1855
seminiferous tubules
*   Spermatogenesis takes place in the seminiferous tubules of the testis. *   Each tubule is lined with a stratified epithelium, within which spermatogoniareside and mature into sperm cells Production of sperm is temperature dependent- if cold scrotum will cuddle against body Stem cells can divide and divide and divide make sperm
1856
Lysosomes
Vesicles containing digestive enzymes that come in part from the Golgi Sites for breakdown of food and foreign material brought into the cell by phagocytosis Detection of spent cellular components- autophagy- cell components are frequently destroyed and replaced with new ones
1857
Glycogen
Storage of glucose in animals | Highly branched
1858
Parts of the respiratory system
Nasal/oral cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, primary/secondary/tertiary bronchus, bronchioles (if you don't need a lot of oxygen bronchioles are slightly constricted), alveoli (site of exchange) All made of cartilage up to the trachea
1859
Pulmonary trunk
Takes deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle to the lungs Very big, can see with naked eye. Splits, and goes to two lungs
1860
What Affects Hb-OxygenBinding?
Demands for oxygen changing depending on your state. (if sitting, cells in legs not picking up that much oxygen) so ATP production chants, and more ATP produced the more oxygen you get delivered. Waste products signify how much ATP you are making so your red blood cells know. *   BPG (2,3 Bisphosphoglyceric acid)- BPG by product of glycolysis- when increases, unload more oxygen. *   Temperature *   Acidity- lactic acid is byproduct of fermentation
1861
Photo system 1
Light energy reduces NADP+ to NADPH Reaction center has chlorophyll a molecules: P700 absorbs in the 700nm range
1862
First law of thermodynamics
Energy is neither created or destroyed When energy is convertd from one form to another, the total energy before and after the conversion is the same
1863
Layers of arteries vs layers of veins
Veins have bigger lumen, thinner tunica media, thinner tunica external, have valves
1864
Main factors for molecular movement through a membrane
Driving force (in what direction) Permeability (through what)
1865
Unsaturated fatty acids
Some double bonds in carbon chain Double bonds prevent tight packing, lipid monlayer more fluid, liquid at room temperature Monounsaturated: one double bond Polyunsaturated: more than one
1866
Rough ER
Has ribosomes attached
1867
Desmosomes
"spot welds," link adjacent cells tightly nit permit materials to move around them in the intercellular space
1868
How does photosynthesis convert light energy to chemical energy?
Reaction center converts light energy to chemical energy Excited chlorophyll a molecule (Chl*) is a reducing agent (electron donor) A is an acceptor molecule (oxidizing agent) Chl* + A --> Chl+ + A- A is the first in a chain of electron carriers on the thylakoid membrane (electron transport) a series of redox reactions Final electron acceptor is NADP+ NADP+ + e- --> NADPH + H+
1869
CO2 fixation
CO2 is reduced to carbohydrates Enzymes in the stroma use the energy in ATP and NADPH to reduce CO2 Because the ATP and NADPH are not "stockpiled," these light independent reactions must also take place in light
1870
Entry of Sperm into the Egg
*   In animals with internal fertilization, egg–sperm recognition mechanisms also exist. *   In the female reproductive tract, mammalian sperm are metabolically activated and attracted to the egg in the oviduct, but also aided in their movement by muscular contractions. *   The mammalian egg is surrounded by a thick layer called the cumulus. Beneath that is a protein envelope called the zona pellucida. *   A species-specific glycoprotein in the zona pellucida binds to the head of the sperm. *   The acrosomal reaction is triggered, releasing acrosomal enzymes that digest a path through the zona pellucida
1871
Inner cell mass
•  The inner cell mass of the blastocyst splits into an epiblast and hypoblast with a fluid-filled cavity in between (just like the reptilian and avian gastrula). *   The embryo forms from the epiblast. *   The epiblast also splits off a layer of cells that form the amnion. The amnion grows around the developing embryo. *   The hypoblast cells extend to form the chorion. Thechorion and other tissues produce the placenta. *   The epiblast produces the amnion. Allantoic tissues form the umbilical cord.
1872
Two systems of electron transport
Non cyclic electron transport- produces NADPH and ATP Cyclic electron transport- produces ATP only * when you need more sugar you need more ATP than NADH, so cyclic transport is needed
1873
Primary lysosomes
Originate from Golgi apparatus Contain digestive enzymes- macromolecules are hydrolyzed into monomers
1874
Primary lysosomes
Originate from Golgi apparatus Contain digestive enzymes- macromolecules are hydrolyzed into monomers
1875
Arrangement of microtubules in flagella and cilia
9+2 array- 9 pairs and 2 individual microtubules in center At the base of flagella and cilia is the nasal body, the 9 rings extend there
1876
Extracellular destruction: complement
• Membrane Attack Complex (MAC) – Embeds itself in the microbe membrane, forming pores – Water and salt enter the microbe Proteins released by liver to do the job: complement system
1877
Autoimmune disease
Immune system turned against you, attacks a particular tissue - diabetes type 1: attacks beta cells that produce insulin - multiple sclerosis: attacks myelin, slows electrical activities - rheumatoid arthritis: attacks joints
1878
First trimester
embryo becomes a fetus Heart begins to beat by week 4 Limbs form by week 8 The first trimester is the period during which the fetus is most susceptible to damage from radiation, drugs, chemicals, and agents that cause birth defects. The hormone hCG (human chorionic gonadotropin) is released after implantation and is an early indicator of pregnancy
1879
Exocytosis
Material in vesicles expelled from a cell Indigestible materials and other materials such as digestive enzymes and neurotransmitters are expelled
1880
Three classes of hormonal composition
Steriod- lipid soluble, can permeate through the membrane, receptor inside the cell proteins (peptides)- cannot permeate through membrane because it is water soluble, receptor on plasma membrane amines are made of one amino acid- in between
1881
During gastrulation, three germ layers form
–  The inner germ layer is the endoderm and gives rise to the digestive tract, circulatory tract, and respiratory tract. –  The outer layer, the ectoderm, gives rise to the epidermis and nervous system. –  The middle layer, the mesoderm, contributes to bone, muscle, liver, heart, and blood vessels
1882
Myeloid progenitor cells
Blood/platelets or immune cells produced Types of immune cells: Granular cells- neutrophils, mast cells agranular cells- monocytes, macrophages,
1883
Phospholipid belayer
Hydrophobic tails line up and the hydrophilic heads face outward
1884
Steps in neurulation
*   The ectoderm over the notochord thickens and forms the neural plate. *   Edges of the neural plate fold and a deep groove forms. *   The folds fuse, forming the neural tube and a layer of ectoderm, The anterior end of the neural tube becomes the brain, the rest becomes the spinal cord
1885
Systemic circulation
Delivers oxygenated blood from the heart to the body long distance circuit
1886
Light
A form of electromagnetic radiation Propagated as waves, energy of light is inversely proportional to wavelength (must be appropriate wavelength to be absorbed by receptive molecules Light also behaves as particles called photons, plants absorb these
1887
Channel proteins
Central pore lined with amino acids
1888
Branching of the airways
Conducting zone: trachea, primary bronchi, secondary bronchi, tertiary bronchi, bronchioles Respiratory zone: respiratory bronchioles, alveoli (each alveolus is covered with many capillaries to facilitate the exchange of materials)
1889
Cilia
Shorter, present in great numbers
1890
Ovarian cycle steps
1- primary oocytes (2n) are present in the ovary at birth 2- about once a month, between puberty and menopause, 6-12 primary oocytes begin to mature. A primary oocyte and it's surrounding cells is called a follicle 3- the developing oocyte is nourished by follicle cells which also produce estrogen 4- after one week, usually only one primary oocyte begins to develop. A meiotic division just before ovulation creates the secondary oocyte (n). First polar body 5- at ovulation on the 14th day, the follicle ruptures and releases the egg which is caught by the Fallopian t uses 6- remaining follicle cells create the corpus lutenum, which produces progesterone and estrogen 7-if pregnancy does not occur, the corpus lutenum degenerates
1891
Pili
Threadlike structures, help bacteria adhere to one another during mating or to other cells for food and protection Some prokaryotes have these
1892
Boyle's law
Pressure and volume are inversely proportiona Gases in a container, when volume decreased, pressure increases due to collision of gas molecules and now these gas molecules are confined to a smaller place, so more bombardment Lungs are always changing in volume so the pressure changes as well with inspiration and expiration
1893
Blastocoel
a central fluid-filled cavity that forms in the ball of cells The embryo becomes a blastula and its cells are called blastomeres
1894
Desmosomes
"spot welds," link adjacent cells tightly nit permit materials to move around them in the intercellular space
1895
System of respiration
Constant exchange of air: ventilation (tidal volume) Diffusion- oxygen from lungs to blood Circulation- bulk transport Diffusion of oxygen into cells Cellular respiration
1896
Blastomere
*   Blastomeres become determined, or committed toa specific fate, at different times in different animals. *   Roundworm and clam blastomeres are already determined at the 8-cell stage. *   If one cell is removed, a portion of the embryo fails to develop normally. This is called mosaic development. *   Humans have regulative development. If some cells are lost during cleavage, other cells can compensate. For genetic testing in humans, one cell can be removed from a blastula following in vitro fertilization. If there are no mutations in the gene of interest, that blastula can be implanted
1897
Facilitated diffusion of polar molecules
Passive transport of polar molecules
1898
AIDS
Acquired immune deficiency syndrome, viruses attack immune cells, vulnerable system open to opportunistic infection
1899
Absorption spectrum
Plot of wavelengths absorbed by a pigment
1900
trophoblast
*   In mammals, the first extraembryonic membrane to form is the trophoblast. *   When the blastocyst hatches from the zona pellucida, the trophoblast cells attach to the uterine wall, This is the beginning of implantation. *   The trophoblast becomes part of the uterine wall, and sends out villi to increase surface area and contact with maternal blood.
1901
Sharp object penetrating skin
Easiest way to get infected by a pathogen Some cells are already in the vicinity, they destroy and then call for back up
1902
Phagocytosis & Recruitment
* Macrophages in the nearby tissue detect bacteria using receptor proteins to engulf them * Macrophages release cytokines- chemicals for recruitment * Mast cells release histamine- causes vasodilation * Injured cells release chemotaxins- chemo attractants to attract immune cells
1903
Other roles for nucleotides
ATP- energy transducer in biochemical reactions GTP- energy source in protein synthesis cAMP- essential to the action of hormones and transmission of information in the nervous system
1904
Plastids
Organelles found only in plants and some protists
1905
Bone marrow
Produces mulitpotent hematopoietic cell, which in return can be a myeloid or a lymphoid progenitor cel Stem cells- have not differentiated yet, blood stem cells can become blood cells
1906
Polymers
Formed by covalent linkages of smaller units called monomers
1907
Rubisco
Enzyme that catalyzes fixation of CO2 Ribosome bisphosphate carboxylase/ Most abundant protein in the world, 50% of the protein in a leaf
1908
AIDS
Acquired immune deficiency syndrome, viruses attack immune cells, vulnerable system open to opportunistic infection
1909
Alveolar type I cells
form the wall of the alveoli
1910
uterine cycle
*   The uterine cycle parallels the ovarian cycle and involves the buildup, then breakdown, of the endometrium. *   About five days into the ovarian cycle, the endometrium builds in preparation for the blastocyst. *   About five days after ovulation, the uterus is maximally prepared and stays that way for another nine days. *   If the blastocyst does not arrive by then, the endometrium breaks down and sloughs off during menstruation.
1911
Covalent bonds
Atoms share one or more electrons so that the outer shells are filled
1912
Neutrophils
Most abundant phagocytic cells Release: Cytokines- alarming chemicals to alarm other immune cells Vasodilators- increases size of blood cells, Make blood vessel bigger so immune cells can travel Chemotaxins- chemo attractants, attract other immune cells, travel in blood vessels and squeeze out of them, can get anywhere in the body
1913
Light independent reactions
"dark reactions" Use ATP and NADH from light reactions plus CO2 to produce carbohydrates (because coenzymes ATP and NADH are not stored, need light for light reaction first)
1914
Boyle's law
Pressure and volume are inversely proportiona Gases in a container, when volume decreased, pressure increases due to collision of gas molecules and now these gas molecules are confined to a smaller place, so more bombardment Lungs are always changing in volume so the pressure changes as well with inspiration and expiration
1915
Nucleus
Contains most of the cells DNA and is the site of DNA duplication to support cell reproduction Plays role in DNA control of cell activities
1916
Light microscopes
Glass lenses focus visible light, max resolution of .2 um
1917
GHRH
Growth hormone releasing hormone Stimulates release of GH
1918
Nonspecific immunity
Prevention Attack- if it gets in the circulatory system
1919
The immune system
Protects against infection and microbes Isolates and removes non microbial foreign substances
1920
CO2 fixation
CO2 is reduced to carbohydrates Enzymes in the stroma use the energy in ATP and NADPH to reduce CO2 Because the ATP and NADPH are not "stockpiled," these light independent reactions must also take place in light
1921
CO2 fixation
CO2 is reduced to carbohydrates Enzymes in the stroma use the energy in ATP and NADPH to reduce CO2 Because the ATP and NADPH are not "stockpiled," these light independent reactions must also take place in light
1922
Barriers to infection
Physical barriers Chemical barriers Reflexes
1923
Alveolar type II cells
Secrete surfactant which keeps the alveoli from collapsing
1924
Chemical barriers
Sebum- oily acidic substance released from sebaceous glands Lacrimal glands- tears protect sclera and cornea, dripping through nasal cavity, washing of the eye Lysozymes- degrading/digestive enzymes secreted from the mucous membranes Defensins- peptides secreted from the mucous membranes Ear wax- things get stuck Sweat- cools body and at same time destroys microorganisms on skin, B.O. Is the degradation of bacteria on skin Macrophages- immune cells Stomach acid- HCl, damaging Saliva
1925
Sterile cotton swab
Collect microorganisms by smearing on surface Put on a culture dish with solution called tryptic soy agar, which has nutrients that make bacteria reproduce so you can see them
1926
Acinar cells
•  Acinar cells release three classes of enzymes into the duodenal lumen –  Proteolytic enzymes: trypsinogen, chymotrypsinogen, and procarboxypeptidase (All enzymes that digest proteins are released in inactive form, so they can be activated when you need them and specifically digest dietary proteins instead of proteins found on the membranes of cells) –  Pancreatic amylase (digest polysaccharides into disaccharides), Completes digestion of carbohydrates –  Pancreatic lipase (digest triglycerides into glycerol and fatty acids), Needs bile from the liver to perform its function
1927
Neural pathway of vision
Nasal or temporal retina, Optic nerve, Optic chiasm, Optic tract, Lateral geniculate nucleus (in thalamus), Visual cortex Two optic nerves (bundle of axons) meet to form the optic chiasm Seem axons cross to the opposite side of the brain forming optic tracts Fibers pass to the thalamus Signals sent from thalamus to the visual cortex
1928
Cytotoxic T Cell
Release perform and granzymes Induce apoptosis (Fas) Attack cancer cells which stop mitosis regulation and keep dividing- they bond to these and release perforins that poke h ones in the membrane, eater can go in, releases granzymes in the hole or proteins that activate apoptosis
1929
Inspiration
Diaphragm- Lungs physically sit on diaphragm, main muscle for respiration, pushes down during inspiration External intercostal muscles- contact and push down
1930
Cell theory
Cells are the fundamental units of life All organisms are composed of cells All cells come from preexisting cells
1931
How is Carbon Dioxide Transported?
5-6% dissolved in plasma 5-8% bind to hemoglobin at a different binding site than oxygen 86-90% converted to hydrogen ions and bicarbonate by enzyme called carbonic anhydrase. When co2 goes up hydrogen ions go up and ph decreases, and vice versa. Want ph of 7.4
1932
Brain/heart relation?
Heart does not need brain to function, brain can regulate heart activities but does not initiate activity- has special cells called pacemaker cells scattered all over the heart
1933
What makes organ systems?
Organs, tissues, and cells 75 trillion cells in body, 200 types of cells, grouped together and called tissues (group of cells with common functions) 4 major types of tissue
1934
Photosystem 2
Light energy oxidizes water to oxygen, H+, and electrons Reaction center has chlorophyll a molecules: P680 absorbs at 680 nm (more energetic than P700) Excited first
1935
Cilia
Shorter, present in great numbers
1936
Nucleotides
Monomers of nucleic acid Pentoses sugar, phosphate group, nitrogen containing base (without phosphate group called nucleosides)
1937
Metal ion catalysis
Metals on side chains lose or gain electrons without detaching from the enzymes
1938
Microtubules
Hollow cylinders made from tubulin protein subunits Provid rigid intracellular skeleton for some cells, function as tracks for motor proteins Form and disassemble as the needs of the cell change Form cilia and flagella
1939
Fungi
Yeast is a unicellular form Ex: athlete's foot
1940
Measuring G, H, and S
Change in ach at constant temp can be measured in calories or joules If delta G is positive, free energy is needed, anabolic. Free energy stored Delta G negative, free energy is released, catabolic
1941
Physical barriers
Skin- brick layers of cells, most pathogens can't get through it, also produces a hard and fibrous protein called keratin. The closest layer to the surface has the highest amount of keratin- the outermost layer of skin is dead, it produced too much keratin to function Fibrous layer of the eyes Mucous membrane of the respiratory, digestive, urinary, and reproductive systems, and ear- thick membrane that prevents pathogens from getting into the circulation Cilia
1942
Non cyclic electron transport
Light energy is used to oxidize water, produces O2, H+, and electrons After excitation by light, Chl+ is an unstable molecule and seeks electrons Chl+ is a stron oxidizing agent and takes electrons from water, splitting the water molecule
1943
Light
A form of electromagnetic radiation Propagated as waves, energy of light is inversely proportional to wavelength (must be appropriate wavelength to be absorbed by receptive molecules Light also behaves as particles called photons, plants absorb these
1944
Equilibrium
Particles continue to move but there is no net change in distribution Net movement is directional until equilibrium is reached
1945
Ingredients for photosynthesis
Co2 reduced to sugars that travel throughout the plant body Water up taken by roots Water and oxygen released
1946
Erections
sexually aroused male’s autonomic nervous system causes penis blood vessel dilation. The nerve endings release nitric oxide, (NO, a gas) a neurotransmitter that stimulates the production of cGMP a second messenger that acts on the blood vessels This swells the spongy, erectile tissue and compresses the blood flow from the penis
1947
Tissues
Epithelial tissue-Skin, lining of organs, lining of stomach, lining of heart, all epithelial Connective tissue Muscle tissue Nervous tissue
1948
Complement system
Pore formation: First complement protein (inactive), cascade of protein activation in bacterial cell Swelling: fluid rushes into cells Lysis
1949
Roles of Golgi apparatus
Receive proteins from ER and modify them Concentrate/package/sort proteins before they are sent to their destinations Sme polysaccharides for plant cell walls are synthesized
1950
Path of zygote
*   Still in the oviduct, the zygote divides to become a blastocyst and continues down the oviduct. *   In the uterus, the blastocyst attaches to the wall lining called the endometrium.
1951
Digestion: Polymers Vs Monomers
Body only cares about three major molecules, you are consuming them in the polymer, want to break down into individual units that we can absorb *   Proteins are broken down to amino acids *   Carbohydrates are broken down to glucose, fructose, galactose *   Lipids are broken down to fatty acids
1952
Transmural pressure
The pressure difference between two membranes
1953
ejaculation
(orgasm), contractions of the muscles at the base of the penis force semen throughthe urethra and out of the penis After ejaculation, the autonomic nervous system causes constriction of the vessels in the penis and thus a decrease in blood pressure in the erectile tissue; the compression of blood vessels leaving the penis is relieved and the erection declines
1954
Where Does Fertilization Take Place?
*   Fertilization in mammals occurs in the upper oviduct; cleavage occurs as the zygote travels down the oviduct. *   When the blastocyst arrives in the uterus, the trophoblast adheres to the uterine wall (the endometrium), which begins the process of implantation. *   Early implantation in the oviduct wall is prevented by the zona pellucida. Inadvertent implantationcauses a tubal pregnancy, which is very dangerous. *   In the uterus, the blastocyst hatches out of the zona pellucida, and implantation can occur. *   Stimulated by estrogen, the endometrium develops new blood vessels to cradle the blastocyst. *   The blastocyst burrows in (implantation), interacting with the wall to form the placenta.
1955
labia majora and labia minora
The external opening of the vagina has two sets of folded skin, the labia majora and labia minora, which also surround the urethra Labia majora equivalent of scrotum Lania minora becomes engorged with blood
1956
ACTH
Adrenocorticotropic hormone Helps body cope with stress Target organ: adrenal cortex
1957
Entry of Sperm into the Egg
*   In animals with internal fertilization, egg–sperm recognition mechanisms also exist. *   In the female reproductive tract, mammalian sperm are metabolically activated and attracted to the egg in the oviduct, but also aided in their movement by muscular contractions. *   The mammalian egg is surrounded by a thick layer called the cumulus. Beneath that is a protein envelope called the zona pellucida. *   A species-specific glycoprotein in the zona pellucida binds to the head of the sperm. *   The acrosomal reaction is triggered, releasing acrosomal enzymes that digest a path through the zona pellucida
1958
Mast cells
* Mast cells are found throughout connective tissues (not found in blood) * They release histamine and other chemicals involved in inflammation
1959
TSH
Thyroid stimulating hormone Increases rate of metabolism Target cell: thyroid gland
1960
Hemoglobin
Hemoglobin is a metal (iron) that is positively charged, and oxygen negatively charged, so they bind
1961
Carbohydrates
Have carbon and water Source and transport of stored energy Carbon skeletons for many other molecules
1962
Transmural pressure
The pressure difference between two membranes
1963
Z scheme
Model of noncyclic electron transport Extracts electrons from water and transfers them to NADPH, using energy from photosynthesis one and two and resulting in ATP synthesis Yields ATP, NADPH, and O2
1964
Roles of the plasma membrane
Selectively permeable barrier Interface for cells where info is received from adjacent cells and extracellular signals Allows cells to maintain a constant internal environment Molecules responsible for binding to adjacent cells
1965
Bone marrow
Produces mulitpotent hematopoietic cell, which in return can be a myeloid or a lymphoid progenitor cel Stem cells- have not differentiated yet, blood stem cells can become blood cells
1966
Second trimester
limbs elongate and facial features form
1967
Voltage gated sodium channel
Protein channel specific to sodium Triggered to open at threshold potential, needs change in electrical activity to open, opens very quickly and Na+ rushes through 3states- closed at resting potential, open (-55 to +30 mV), and inactivated (+30mV to -70mV)- undergoes conformational change and a protein blocks the mouth of the channel, needs to close after inactivation to open again
1968
Oogenesis steps
Female germ cell (2n) Mitosis Oogonium (2n) Mitosis Primary oocyte (2n) First meiotic division Secondary oocyte (n) and first polar body Second meiotic division, independent assortment of chromosomes Ootid (n) and second polar body Ovum (egg) (n), polar bodies degrade
1969
Specific Recognition Between Sperm and Egg
*   Specific recognition molecules mediate interactions between sperm and eggs. *   This ensures that activities of the sperm are directed toward eggs and not other cells and prevents eggs from being fertilized by sperm of the wrong species. *   This latter function is particularly importantin aquatic species, such as sea urchins, that release sperm and eggs into the surrounding water.
1970
Humoral mechanism
way of triggering, gland measuring concentration of certain things in your blood Calcium in blood must be maintained at a constant level in blood, important for neurotransmitters and muscle contraction, heart, messenger, etc. so need constant level. Get ca from diet and store it in our blood. If goes below the normal level we must bring it back up. Behind thyroid gland there is are 4 tiny glands called parathyroid glands (acts as control center), main function is to maintain calcium homeostasis, monitor calcium level in blood and releases parathyroid hormone if too low, is peptide hormone. Target organ is bones (where we store calcium) , bone cells respond to it and release calcium into the circulation, active until ca back to normal, negative feedback mechanism
1971
Two systems related to muscles in heart
Within a heartbeat, it pumps both ways simultaneously, pulmonary circuit doesn't require as much work as systemic, so left side has more muscle thickness because that is where it pumps the blood to the rest of the body
1972
What triggers the pancreas to increase its contents?
Duodenum senses specific molecules in the diet and cells are triggered to start the process of release, two hormones released from the duodenum - secretin acts on duct cells, stomach acid can be neutralized by the bicarbonate released - Cholecystokinin (CCK) travels in the circulation to activate acinar cells to release pancreatic juice and enzymes in vesicles that break down protein and fat
1973
Photosystem
Multiple antenna systems, surround reaction centers Pigments packed together on thylakoids membrane proteins Excitation energy passes from the pigments that absorb short wavelengths to those that absorb longer wavelengths, and ends up in the reaction center pigment
1974
Salts
Ionically bonded compounds
1975
Alveolar type I cells
form the wall of the alveoli
1976
Pupils in dim light
Radial smooth muscles(outer) contract, pupil dilates
1977
Monosaccharides with different numbers of carbons
Hexoses: six carbons, has structural isomers (mannose, galactose, fructose) Pentoses: five carbons (ribose has OH, deoxyribose is more stable, has H)
1978
Diffusion
Process of random movement toward equilibrium Net movement from regions of greater concentration to regions of lesser concentration Works well over short distances affected by membrane properties- permeable to salutes that move easily across it, impermeable to those that can't
1979
System of respiration
Constant exchange of air: ventilation (tidal volume) Diffusion- oxygen from lungs to blood Circulation- bulk transport Diffusion of oxygen into cells Cellular respiration
1980
Levels of organization in skeletal muscles
Each myofibrils made of functional units of contraction called sarcomeres Each sarcomere is bound by a network of interconnecting proteins called Z lines Thick filaments are composed of a contractile protein (myosin) Thin filaments contain a contractile protein (actin) and two regulatory proteins (troponin and tropomyosin)
1981
Ruben and kamen
Used radioisotope tracers (O18 and O16) to determine that water was the source of O2 released during photosynthesis rather than CO2
1982
Light independent reactions
"dark reactions" Use ATP and NADH from light reactions plus CO2 to produce carbohydrates (because coenzymes ATP and NADH are not stored, need light for light reaction first)
1983
Cations
Positive
1984
Compliance
Ability to change volume and pressure Balloon is like the lungs- highly compliant Paper bag- not compliant
1985
Parts of the respiratory system
Nasal/oral cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, primary/secondary/tertiary bronchus, bronchioles (if you don't need a lot of oxygen bronchioles are slightly constricted), alveoli (site of exchange) All made of cartilage up to the trachea
1986
Macrophages in alveoli
Ward against foreign bodies, get rid of debris
1987
Transmural pressure
The pressure difference between two membranes
1988
Limit of resolution for light microscopy
.61 x .4u / 1.4 = .17u
1989
Accessory pigments
Transfer energy absorbed to chorophylls Carotenoids and phycobilins Absorb intermediate between red and blue
1990
Saltatory conductance part 2
Previous active node returned to resting potential, and now adjacent node is at peak of action potential Eventually goes from axon hillock to axon terminal
1991
Blastocyst
When blastula reaches 16 to 32 cells, it divides into two groups: *   Inner cell mass: becomes the embryo *   Trophoblast: a sac that forms from the outer cells. Its cells secrete fluid and create the blastocoel, with the inner cell mass at one end. Embryo is now called a blastocyst.
1992
Enzyme-substrate complex
Held together by hydrogen bonds, electrical attraction, or covalent bonds Enzyme might change shape when bound to the substrate, but returns to its original form
1993
Electrocardiogram
Recording the electrical activities of the heart 3 sets of electrodes on two wrists, one on ankle, surface electrodes on skin pick up electrical activities from the heart, electrical activity comes from action potentials Extracellular recording- recording sum of action potential and a high response is expected, but you get one kilovolt because of how far your surface skin is from your heart
1994
Control of breathing
Voluntary until it becomes physiologically dangerous, your brain will force you to breathe. •  Inspiration is initiated by stimulating the respiratory muscles –  Diaphragm and external intercostals •  The stimulation is initiated in the medullary centers and the pons Medulla oblongata sends signal to spinal cord, phrenic nerve sends action potential to diaphragm. 100% controlled by brain unless you voluntarily change it, stimulation always occurring. Neurons called central patter generator, send action potentials then they stop, perfectly synced on/off mechanism
1995
Alveolar type II cells
Secrete surfactant which keeps the alveoli from collapsing
1996
Photo system 1
Light energy reduces NADP+ to NADPH Reaction center has chlorophyll a molecules: P700 absorbs in the 700nm range
1997
Processes in Calvin Benson cycle
Fixation of CO2 by combination with RuBP (catalyzes by rubisco) Conversion of fixed CO2 into carbohydrate G3P (using ATP and NADPH) Regeneration of CO2 acceptor RuBP by ATP
1998
Microbes
Harmful substances, living or dead
1999
Saturated fatty acids
No double bonds between carbons, saturated with H+ atoms Close packing of phospholipids into a monolayer, solid at room temperature
2000
What stimulates the hypothalamus to release its hormones?
It controls level of hormones by humoral mechanism, measures levels of other hormones and decides whether to release its hormones or not
2001
Neural mechanism
Neurons stimulate glands to release hormones Tiny gland that sits on top of kidneys called adrenal gland- Inner layer called adrenal medulla, releases hormone called epinephrine, which helps you deal with stress, part of sympathetic nervous system, increases heart rate etc
2002
When a pigment molecule absorbs a photon (excited state) the energy can be-
Released as heat and/or light Transferred to another molecule Used for a chemical reaction
2003
Cerebral spinal fluid
Produced by group of ependamyl (glial) cells and blood vessels called choroid plexus Flows through and around the brain in a perfect circuit We synthesize 500ml a day
2004
Calvin cycle stimulated by light
Protons pumped form stroma into thylakoids, increasing the pH which favors the activation of rubisco Electron flow from photosystem one reduces disulfide bonds to activate calvin cycle enzymes
2005
Anions
Negative
2006
third trimester
internal organs mature and organ systems begin to function The last organs to mature before birthare the lungs
2007
Phagocytic cell migration
* The cytokines released by macrophages signal the endothelial cells to express selectin * Margination occurs- dock and fuse with membrane, carbohydrate ligands on macrophages bind to selectin in blood vessel, move in blood vessel by rolling * Phagocytic cells produce integrin on their membrane * Stronger attachment occurs- immune cells are allowed to slow down and exit * Phagocytic cells begin to move from the blood to the infected area in a process known as diapedisis * Once in the interstitial fluid, phagocytic cells are attracted to the site of injury by chemotaxins- tell phagocytic cells exactly where to go
2008
Climax of copulation
semen is propelled through the vasa deferentia and urethra in two steps
2009
Protist
Uni or multicellular, contaminate lakes and drinking water to invade host
2010
Anencephaly
failure of the neural tube to close at the anterior end and no forebrain develops
2011
Extracellular destruction: complement
• Membrane Attack Complex (MAC) – Embeds itself in the microbe membrane, forming pores – Water and salt enter the microbe Proteins released by liver to do the job: complement system
2012
Functions of the Respiratory System
*   Provides oxygen *   Eliminates carbon dioxide *   Regulates pH level- More co2 you get rid of the more hydrogen ions you get rid of *   Speech production *   Defense against foreign bodies- non specific immunity
2013
Accessory pigments
Transfer energy absorbed to chorophylls Carotenoids and phycobilins Absorb intermediate between red and blue
2014
Vacuoles
In plant and protist cells Store waste products and toxic compounds; some may deter herbivores Provides structure for plant cells, water enters by osmosis and creates turbot pressure Stores anthocyanins(pigment) in flowers/fruit to attract pollinators Digestive enzymes to hydrolyze stored food for early growth
2015
Macromolecules crossing membranes
Too large to cross the membrane, so they can be taken in or secreted by membrane vesicles
2016
Flagella
Come in ones and twos, longer than cilia
2017
Systemic circulation
Delivers oxygenated blood from the heart to the body long distance circuit
2018
Cell junctions
Tight junctions, desmosomes, gap junctions
2019
Second trimester
limbs elongate and facial features form
2020
Chemoreceptors
Stimulate by chemicals, internal and external
2021
Ingredients for photosynthesis
Co2 reduced to sugars that travel throughout the plant body Water up taken by roots Water and oxygen released
2022
Two systems of electron transport
Non cyclic electron transport- produces NADPH and ATP Cyclic electron transport- produces ATP only * when you need more sugar you need more ATP than NADH, so cyclic transport is needed
2023
Nucleoplasm
Surrounds the chromatin
2024
Blood Vessels
*   Form closed circuit tubes that carry blood from the heart to cells and back to the heart *   Arteries, arterioles (Tiny arteries, still can be seen by the naked eye) , capillaries, venules (merge to form veins), and veins
2025
Antenna systems
Pigments arranged in these Also called light harvesting complexes
2026
Climax of copulation
semen is propelled through the vasa deferentia and urethra in two steps
2027
Thylakoids
The way internal membranes are arranged in chloroplasts, thylakoids make stacks called grana These membranes contain chlorophyll and other pigments
2028
Paraventricular nucleus
Para ventricular nucleus makes mostly oxytocin. Oxytocin acts on smooth muscles of uterus and smooth muscles in mammary glands. Labor and lactation
2029
Neutrophils
Most abundant phagocytic cells Release: Cytokines- alarming chemicals to alarm other immune cells Vasodilators- increases size of blood cells, Make blood vessel bigger so immune cells can travel Chemotaxins- chemo attractants, attract other immune cells, travel in blood vessels and squeeze out of them, can get anywhere in the body
2030
Ions
Electrically charged particles, when atoms lose or gain electrons
2031
G3P
Gylceraldehyde 3 phosphate 5/6 recycled into RuBP 1/6 converted to starch and sucrose to make glucose and fructose
2032
When a photon meets a molecule it can be-
Scattered- photon bounces off the molecule Transmitted- photon passed through the molecule Absorbed- molecule squires the energy of the photon. Goes from ground state to excited state, and disappears and energy is absorbed
2033
Tunica media
Made of smooth muscles Mediate vasoconstriction and vasodilation (controls diameter of blood vessels)
2034
Stoma
Mouth of plant Co2 enters and O2/water exit through these pores
2035
Major endocrine glands
Hypothalamus, pineal, pituitary, Thyroid,Parathyroid, Adrenal glands, Pancreas, Gonads
2036
Chorionic villus sampling
tissue isremoved from the chorion after the eighth week
2037
Protist
Uni or multicellular, contaminate lakes and drinking water to invade host
2038
Functions of the Respiratory System
*   Provides oxygen *   Eliminates carbon dioxide *   Regulates pH level- More co2 you get rid of the more hydrogen ions you get rid of *   Speech production *   Defense against foreign bodies- non specific immunity
2039
Photophosphorylation
Light driven production of ATP H+ transported via electron carriers across the thylakoid membrane from the stroma into the lumen, creating an electrochemical gradient
2040
Motility
Digestive organs lined with smooth muscles that are involuntary and constantly contract, ensure motility (gravity has nothing to do with it) and also ensure mixing of the food •  Propulsive –  Movement of food at an appropriate speed •  Mixing of food –  To promote digestion and mixing with enzymes –  To facilitate absorption
2041
Fertilization
Fertilization is the union of haploid sperm and haploid egg to produce a single diploid cell, the zygote
2042
Duodenum
Receives: Food from stomach Important secretions from pancreas Secretion from liver and gall bladder Complete absorption will occur here
2043
Hair cells at rest
There are stretch gated potassium channels separated by protein bridges Voltage gated calcium channels Neurotransmitters
2044
Pili
Threadlike structures, help bacteria adhere to one another during mating or to other cells for food and protection Some prokaryotes have these
2045
Transmural pressure
The pressure difference between two membranes
2046
Brain size
Average- 1350-1400g Size does not matter! It's the synapses that make the difference in functionality
2047
Thickness of endometrium
About 5 days after ovulation it is at its maximal thickness and ready to accept Highly proliferated and vasularized
2048
How Are Gases Transported?
•  Once in the blood, oxygen is transported in two ways –  1.5% is dissolved in the plasma and cytosol of erythrocytes –  98.5 % Bound to hemoglobin
2049
Photosystem
Multiple antenna systems, surround reaction centers Pigments packed together on thylakoids membrane proteins Excitation energy passes from the pigments that absorb short wavelengths to those that absorb longer wavelengths, and ends up in the reaction center pigment
2050
Vitamins
Small molecules not synthesized by the body, must be acquired in the diet
2051
Nucleic acids
Polymers specialized for the storage, transmission, and use of genetic information DNA: deoxyribonucleic acid (can convey info) RNA: ribonucleic acid
2052
Quaternary structure
Interaction of subunits by hydrophobic interactions, van der waals forces, ionic bonds, and hydrogen bonds Each subunit has its own tertiary structure
2053
How is polypeptide chain organized?
Like a sentence- "capital letter" is like the amino group of the first amino acid, and the "period" is like the carboxyl group of the last amino acid
2054
Secondary structure
Alpha helix- right handed coil, resulting from hydrogen bonding, common in fibrous structural proteins Beta pleated sheet- two or more polypeptide chains are aligned, hydrogen bonded
2055
Genome
Complete set of DNA in a living organism
2056
Two functions of DNA
Can reproduce itself (replication) Can copy its information into RNA (transcription), RNA can specify a sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide (translation)
2057
Phospholipids
Fatty acids bound to glycerol a phosphate group replaces one fatty acid Phosphate group is hydrophilic "head" "tails" are hydrophobic fatty acid chains (ampipathic)
2058
RNA bases
Uracil instead of thymine Single stranded but complementary base pairing occurs in the structure of some types of RNA
2059
Different amino acids
5 charged hydrophilic side chains 5 polar uncharged side chains 7 non polar hydrophobic side chains Cysteine- has terminal sulfhydryl that allows for disulfide bonding Glycine- H as R group Proline- modified amino group, forms a ring with R group
2060
Phosphodiester linkages
Bonds sugar and phosphate to form backbone of DNA and RNA Like carbon 3 and carbon 5 Two strands of DNA run in opposite directions
2061
DNA and evolution
DNA carries hereditary information between generations Determining sequence of bases helps reveal evolutionary relationships Closest living relatives of humans are chimps and bonobo
2062
Glycosidic linkages
Monosaccharides bind together in these condensation reactions Can be alpha or beta
2063
Polymers
Formed by covalent linkages of smaller units called monomers
2064
Glycogen
Storage of glucose in animals | Highly branched
2065
Carbs can be modified by the addition of functional groups
``` Sugar phosphate (can make fructose biphosphate, intermediate compound in biochemical pathways) Amino sugars (glucosamine, major component of cartilage) Chitin ( insect and crustacean skeletons) ```
2066
Types of lipids
Fats and oils- store energy Phospholipids- structural role in cell membranes Carotenoids and chlorophylls- capture light energy in plants Steroids and modified fatty acids- hormones and vitamins Animal fat- thermal insulation Lipid coating around nerves- electrical insulation Oil and wax on skin fur and feathers- repels water
2067
Glycerol
3 OH groups (an alcohol)
2068
Polysaccharides
Polymers of monosaccharides | Starch, glycogen, cellulose
2069
Ester linkage
Carboxyl bind with hydroxyls of glycerol
2070
Denaturation
Loss of a protein's normal 3D structure
2071
Saccharides
Simple sugars, monomers of carbohydrates Di- 2 Oligo- 3-20 Poly- hundreds of thousands
2072
Functional group
Groups of atoms with specific chemical properties and consistent behavior Each macromolecule has at least one
2073
Monosaccharides with different numbers of carbons
Hexoses: six carbons, has structural isomers (mannose, galactose, fructose) Pentoses: five carbons (ribose has OH, deoxyribose is more stable, has H)
2074
Alpha glucose
OH down, H up
2075
Saturation of animal fats and plant oils
Animal fats: saturated | Plant oils: unsaturated
2076
Phospholipid belayer
Hydrophobic tails line up and the hydrophilic heads face outward
2077
Steroids
Multiple rings share carbons
2078
Waxes
Highly nonpolar and impermeable to water Ester linkage between saturated long chain fatty acid and a saturated long chain alcohol
2079
Peptide linkage
Condensation reactions between amino group of one amino acid and the carboxyl group of another Synthesizes proteins
2080
Polypeptides
Another name for proteins (dipeptide, tripeptide, etc)
2081
Primary structure of a protein
The sequence of amino acids Determines secondary and tertiary structure, how the protein is folded
2082
DNA replication
Depends on base pairing, as does transcription Involves entire molecule only small sections of DNA are transcribed into RNA
2083
Genes
Sequences of DNA that encode specific proteins
2084
Double helix
Two strands of DNA molecule form this All have this structure so diversity is in the sequence of base pairs, info encoded in this sequence
2085
DNA bases
Adenine/guanine = purines Cytocine/thymine = pyrimidines A-T and C-G, bond by hydrogen bonding
2086
Amino acids
Have carbonyl and amino groups with a hydrogen and an R group function as an acid and base R group make differences in amino acids
2087
Saturated fatty acids
No double bonds between carbons, saturated with H+ atoms Close packing of phospholipids into a monolayer, solid at room temperature
2088
Nucleotides
Monomers of nucleic acid Pentoses sugar, phosphate group, nitrogen containing base (without phosphate group called nucleosides)
2089
Macromolecules
Giant polymers, molecular weight usually greater than 1000 daltons All form through condensation reactions where water is removed during bond formation
2090
Oligosaccharides
May include other functional groups Covalently bonded to proteins and lipids on cell surfaces and act as recognition signals Human blood groups get specificity from oligosaccharide chains
2091
Starch
Storage of glucose in plants | Branched
2092
Cellulose
Very stable, good for structural components | Linear
2093
Lipids
Non polar hydrocarbons | Van der waals forces- not polymers in strict sense because they are not covalently bonded
2094
Triglycerides
Simple lipids composed of fatty acids and glycerol (ex:fats and oils)
2095
Fatty acid
Non polar hydrocarbon with a polar carboxyl group Ampipathic- opposing chemical properties, when carboxyl group ionizes it forms COO- and H+ and is hydrophilic while the other end is hydrophobic
2096
Other roles for nucleotides
ATP- energy transducer in biochemical reactions GTP- energy source in protein synthesis cAMP- essential to the action of hormones and transmission of information in the nervous system
2097
Carbohydrates
Have carbon and water Source and transport of stored energy Carbon skeletons for many other molecules
2098
Glucose
Monosaccharide All cells use it as an energy source Exists most often in a ring as alpha or beta glucose depending on position of the aldehyde group (can also be found in a chain)
2099
Proteins
Polymers of amino acids, each has different AA composition and order Folding is crucial to the function of a protein, influenced by the AA sequence
2100
Beta glucose
OH up, H down
2101
Unsaturated fatty acids
Some double bonds in carbon chain Double bonds prevent tight packing, lipid monlayer more fluid, liquid at room temperature Monounsaturated: one double bond Polyunsaturated: more than one
2102
Tertiary structure
``` Many bonds: Covalent disulfide bridges Hydrophobic side chain interactions Van der waals forces Ionic bonds Hydrogen bonds ```
2103
Carotenoids
Light-absorbing pigments Source of vitamin A
2104
Non polar covalent bond
Share electrons equally
2105
Covalent bonds
Atoms share one or more electrons so that the outer shells are filled
2106
Ions
Electrically charged particles, when atoms lose or gain electrons
2107
Salts
Ionically bonded compounds
2108
Densities of H2O at various states
Water>ice>vapor
2109
Chemical bond
Attractive force that links atoms together to form molecules All chemical bonds involve changes in the relationships of electrons one with the other
2110
Electronegativity
Depends on number of + charges in the nucleus and the distances of the electron from the nucleus
2111
Ionic bonds
Formed by the electrical attraction of positive and negative ions
2112
What properties of water make it so important in biology?
Polar molecule Forms hydrogen bonds Has tetrahedral shape
2113
How do atoms bond to form molecules
Reactive atoms have unpaired electrons in their outermost shell, atoms share, gain, or lose electrons
2114
How does electronegativity determine the structure of water?
O is more electronegative than H, so the O has a more negative charge
2115
Anions
Negative
2116
Base
Releases hydroxide ions, accept H+, ph greater than 7
2117
Polar covalent bond
One atom has more electronegativity
2118
Cations
Positive
2119
Acid
Releases hydrogen ions through ionization, ph less than 7

LS (17 decks)

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