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Anatomy and Physiology 2 > Lymphatic System > Flashcards

Lymphatic System Flashcards

1
Q

What are the three functions of the lymphatic system?

A
  • Fluid recovery
  • immunity
  • lipid absorption
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2
Q

What percent of fluid is filtered through the lymphatic system daily?

A

15% 2/4L

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3
Q

___ in the small intestines absorb dietary lipids

A

Lacteals

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4
Q

What is lymph?

A
  • Clear liquid, similar to plasma minus the proteins

- originates as extracellular fluid drawn into lymphatic capillaries

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5
Q

What four structures make up the lymphatic system?

A
  • Lymph
  • Lymphatic vessels
  • Lymphatic tissues
  • Lymphatic organs
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6
Q

What is the function of lymphatic vessels?

A

transport the lymph

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7
Q

What is the basic composition of lymphatic tissues?

A

aggregates of lymphocytes and macrophages

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8
Q

What is unique about the structure of lymphatic capillaries?

A

they are closed at one end

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9
Q

Where can lymphatic capillaries be found?

A

nearly all tissues of the body minus cartilage, corneas, bone and bone marrow

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10
Q

What is the composition of lymphatic capillary walls?

A
  • consists of overlapping endothelial cells
  • tethered by protein filaments
  • They have large gaps to allow bacteria and cells to enter
  • They have valves that open when pressure is to high
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11
Q

When lymphatic capillaries converge what do they form?

A

Lymphatic vessels

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12
Q

What are lymphatic vessels?

A

Large collecting vessels that are composed of three layers similar to blood vessels

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13
Q

What are the three layers of a large lymphatic valve?

A 
– Tunica interna: endothelium and
valves
– Tunica media: elastic fibers, smooth
muscle
– Tunica externa: thin outer layer
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14
Q

When lymphatic vessels converge what do they form?

A

lymphatic trunks

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15
Q

How many lymphatic trunks or trunk pairs does they body have?

A

6

5 pairs and 1 single

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16
Q

What are the two lymphatic collecting ducts and where do they empty into in the body?

A
  • The right Lymphatic duct empties into the right subclavian

- The thoracic duct empties into the left subclavian

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17
Q

What parts of the body drains into each of the lymphatic ducts?

A
  • Right lymphatic duct: Right arm, right side of the head and thorax.
  • Thoracic duct: everywhere else
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18
Q

What is the prominent sac that the thoracic duct begins as?

A

the cisterna chyli

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19
Q

How does lymph flow in the body?

A
  • slower than venous blood because of no heart pump
  • uses similar pumps as veins like the skeletal muscle pump

also from rhythmic contractions of the vessels

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20
Q

What are the 6 lymphatic cells?

NTBMDR

A
  • Natural killer cells
  • T Lymphocytes
  • B Lymphocytes
  • Macrophages
  • Dendritic cells
  • Reticular cells
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21
Q

What is the function of Natural killer cells?

A

They are large lymphocytes that attack and destroy bacteria, infected cells, transplanted tissue, and cancer

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22
Q

What is the function of B lymphocytes?

A

they activate and become plasma cells that produce antibodies

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23
Q

What is the function of macrophages?

A
  • they mature from monocytes, they are large phagocytic cells that eat debris, foreign matter, bacteria, dead cells
  • They are also APC’s or antigen presenting cells
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24
Q

What is a Antigen presenting cell? (APC)

A

A cell that presents antigens found to T cells which then alerts the immune system to a threat

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25
Q

What is the function of dendritic cells?

A

They are mobile APCs found in the epidermis, mucous membranes, and lymphatic organs

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26
Q

What is the function of reticular cells in the lymphatic system?

A

Cells that produce the reticular fibers that create the branched network within lymphatic organs

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27
Q

What are the two types of lymphatic tissues?

A
  • Diffuse: scattered lymphocytes. in body passages open to the exterior
  • Nodules(follicles): Dense masses of lymphocytes and macrophages. Nodes, tonsils, appendix
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28
Q

What are the primary lymphatic organs?

A
  • Red bone marrow
  • thymus

immune cells become immunocompetent here

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29
Q

What are the secondary lymphatic organs?

A

Lymph nodes, tonsils, spleen

immunocompetent cells populate these tisues

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30
Q

What are the two functions of lymph nodes?

A
  • Survey lymph

- act as a site of T and B cells activation

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31
Q

how is the composition of lymph nodes similar to the thymus?

A

they both have trabeculae that divide interior into compartments

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32
Q

What types of vessels lead to lymph nodes?

A
  • Several afferent lymphatic vessels
  • one to three efferent lymphatic vessels in the hilim
  • blood vessels
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33
Q

What is metastatic cancer?

A
  • When cells from a tumor break off and end up in a new place where they then form cancer growth
  • tends to effect lymph nodes and cause painless swelling
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34
Q

What are tonsils?

A

patches of lymphatic tissue located at the entrance of the pharynx

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35
Q

What are the three main sets of tonsils?

A
  • Palatine tonsils back of the mouth
  • lingual tonsils root of tongue
  • pharyngeal tonsils (adenoids)
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36
Q

What are the two types of tissue found in the spleen?

A

– Red pulp: sinuses filled with erythrocytes
– White pulp: lymphocytes, macrophages
surrounding small branches of splenic artery

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37
Q

What are the functions of the spleen?

A
  • It is the erythrocyte graveyard
  • WP monitors blood for foreign antigens
  • stabilizes blood volume
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38
Q

What are pathogens?

A

Agents capable of producing disease

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39
Q

What are the body’s three lines of defense against pathogens?

A

1st- Skin and Mucous membranes
2nd- innate defende mechanisms (WBC’s, inflammation, fever)
3rd-Adaptive immunity (memory of pathogen after defeat)

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40
Q

What are innate defenses?

A

defenses that guard equally against a broad range of

pathogens

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41
Q

What are the limitations of innate defenses?

A

They lack memory and are nonspecific

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42
Q

What are the three types of innate defenses?

A
  • Protective proteins
  • Protective cells
  • Protective processes
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43
Q

What is adaptive immunity?

A 
Body adapts to a pathogen and wards it off more easily upon
future exposure (memory)
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44
Q

How do Neutrophils act against pathogens?

A

– Phagocytosis and destruction by fusion with lysosome

– Lysosomes degranulate, destroying several bacteria in surrounding area (neutrophil too)

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45
Q

How do Eosinophils act against pathogens? and where are they especially found?

A

found especially in mucous membranes
– Guard against eukaryotic parasites such as tapeworms and roundworms
– “Guard” against allergens (allergy-causing agents)
• By promoting action of basophils and mast cells
• Phagocytize antigen–antibody complexes
• Limit action of histamine

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46
Q

How do Neutrophils act against pathogens?

A

– Secrete chemicals that aid mobility and action of other leukocytes
• Leukotrienes: activate and attract neutrophils and eosinophils
• Histamine: a vasodilator, which increases blood flow to speeds delivery of leukocytes to the area
• Heparin: inhibits clot formation (that would impede leukocyte mobility)
– Mast cells (type of connective tissue cell similar to basophils) also secrete these substance

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47
Q

How do monocytes act against pathogens?

A
  • emigrate from blood into connective tissues and
    transform into macrophages
    – Wandering macrophages: actively seek pathogens
    • Widely distributed in loose connective tissue
    – Fixed macrophages: phagocytize only pathogens that come to them
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48
Q

what is the Macrophage system?

A

all the body’s avidly phagocytic cells, except

leukocytes (so includes dendritic cells)

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49
Q

What type of Lymphocytes are part of innate immunity?

A

NK cells all others are adaptive

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50
Q

What are the twofamilies of antimicrobial proteins?

A

– Interferons

– Complement system

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51
Q

What are interferons?

A
  • Proteins secreted by certin cells (many WBC’s) that are infected with a viris.
  • Bind to neighbor cells and cause the synthesis of antiviral proteins
  • Also calls NK cells and macrophages to eat the infected cell before it can spread
52
Q

What is the complement system?

A

Group of 30 or more globular proteins that make contributions to
both innate immunity and adaptive immunity
• Synthesized mainly by liver and circulate in blood in inactive form
• Activated by presence of a pathogen

53
Q

What are the three routes of complement activation?

A
  1. Classical pathway-Antibody dependent
  2. Alternative pathway-antibody independent
  3. Lectin pathway-antibody independent
54
Q

What are the four methods of pathogen destruction brought out by the complement system?

A
  1. Inflammation
  2. Immune clearance
  3. Phagocytosis
  4. Cytolysis
55
Q

Explain the alternative pathways of complement activation

A
  • C3 spontaneously breaks down into C3a and C3b
  • C3b binds to cells but is only active on foreign cells
  • Once it binds to a foreign cell it begins a casaced of converting more C3 in C3a-b
56
Q

Explain the lectin pathway of complement activation

A

Lectins bind to carbohydrates present on many pathogens but not on vertebrate cells

sets off the C3a-b cascade

57
Q

Explain the classical pathway of complement activation

A
  • Antibody binds to antigen forming an antibody-antigen complex
  • this changes the antibody’s shape exposing complement binding sites
  • C1 binds and starts C3a-b cascade
58
Q

What type of mechanism of destruction does the presence of C3a cause?

A

inflammation

59
Q

How does C3a cause inflammation?

A

– C3a stimulates mast cells and basophils to
secrete histamine and other inflammatory
chemicals
– C3a activates and attracts neutrophils and
macrophages

60
Q

Explain the immune clearance mechanism of complement destruction

A 
– C3b binds with Ag-Ab complexes to red
blood cells
– These RBCs circulate through liver and
spleen where macrophages strip off and
destroy the Ag–Ab complexes leaving RBCs
unharmed
61
Q

Explain the phagocytosis mechanism of complement destruction

A

– Neutrophils and have receptors for C3b
– Phagocytose what is bound to C3b receptor
– Opsonization

62
Q

Explain the cytolysis mechanism of complement destruction

A 
– C3b splits complement protein C5
– C5b, C6-8, and multiple C9 bind to
foreign cell
– Forms membrane attack complex
(MAC) forms
• Electrolytes leak out, water flows,
cell ruptures
63
Q

What do NK cells destroy?

A

– Cells coated with antibody

– Cells with surface markers representing viral infection or disease (e.g. cancer cells)

64
Q

How do NK cells destroy?

A
  • Release perforins that make a ring in target cells plasma membrane
  • insert protein degrading enzymes called granzymes
  • Induces apoptosis(programed cell death)
  • Macrophages come to clean it all up
65
Q

What is fever and what triggers it?

A

-an abnormal elevation of body temperature

Triggered by pyrogens

66
Q

What are the two types of pyrogens and where are they found?

A

Endo and Exogenous

Endo-is secreted by neutrophils and macrophages

Exo- caused by a substance on foreign cell (glycolipids on bacteria)

67
Q

What are the benefits of fever

A

– Promotes interferon activity
– Elevates metabolic rate and accelerates tissue repair
– Inhibits reproduction of bacteria and viruses

68
Q

How do pyrogens work?

A

raise hypothalamic set point for body temperature

69
Q

How do antipyretics work?

A

inhibit Prostaglandin E2 synthesis

• Neurons in the hypothalamus secrete prostaglandin E2 which also raises set point

70
Q

What is inflammation?

A

local defensive response to tissue injury, including trauma and
infection

71
Q

What are the purposes of inflammation?

A

– Limits spread of pathogens, then destroys them
– Removes debris from damaged tissue
– Initiates tissue repair

72
Q

What are the four cardinal signs of inflammation?

A

– Redness, swelling, heat, pain

73
Q

What induces inflammation?

A

cytokines from leukocytes or damaged

tissues

74
Q

What are the three processes of inflammation?

A
  1. Mobilization of defenses
  2. Containment and destruction of pathogens
  3. Tissue cleanup and repair
75
Q

Explain the process of mobilizing defenses in inflammation

A
  • Blood flow increases
  • Endothelial cells contract allowing influx of fluids, leukocytes, and plasma proteins
  • Chemotaxis occurs attracting and guiding more leukocytes
76
Q

The priority of inflammation is to _____

A

prevent pathogens from spreading

throughout body

77
Q

How does inflammation contain pathogens?

A
  • Fibrinogen that filters into the tissue forms a clot around the inflamed area
  • Heparin prevents clot from forming at the site of injury creating a fluid pocket
78
Q

How does inflammation destroy pathogens?

A
  • The increased presence of neutrophils respond to and kill pathogens
  • Secrete Cytokines for recruitment
  • Recruted macrophages and T cells secrete colony-stimulating factor causing an increased production of WBC’s
79
Q

How does inflammation cause tissue clean up and repair?

A
  • Hyperemia allows the delivery of more nutrients
  • the heat increases metabolic rate so mitosis happens faster
  • pain limits use
  • swelling promotes lymphatic drainage
  • Monocytes clean up
  • platelet dirived growth factor stimulates fibroblasts to multiply increasing collagen production
80
Q

What three characteristics distinguish adaptive immunity from
innate immunity?

A
  • Systemic effect
  • specificity
  • memory
81
Q

What are the two types of adaptive immunity?

A
  • Cellular

- Humoral

82
Q

What is Cellular(cell-mediated) immunity?

A
  • Lymphocytes directly attack and destroy foreign cells or diseased host cells
  • rids the body of pathogens that reside inside human cells
83
Q

What is humoral (antibody-mediated) immunity?

A
  • immunity mediated by antibodies that do not directly destroy but tag it for destruction
  • only works extracellular
84
Q

What are the four forms of immunity?

A

Natural active
Natural passive
artificial active
artificial passive

85
Q

What is Natural active immunity?

A

Production of one’s own antibodies or t-cells as a result of infection or exposure

(got sick from something)

86
Q

What is artificial active immunity?

A

production of antibodies as a result of exposure from a vaccination

87
Q

What is natural passive immunity?

A

– Temporary immunity that results from antibodies
produced by another person
mothers milk

88
Q

What is artificial passive immunity?

A

– Temporary immunity that results from the injection of
immune serum (antibodies) from another person or
animal
tetanus

89
Q

What is an antigen?

A

any molecule that triggers an immune response

90
Q

What are epitopes(antigenic determinants)?

A

certain regions of an

antigen molecule that stimulate immune responses

91
Q

What are Haptens?

A

too small to be antigenic in themselves
– Can trigger an immune response by combining with a host
macromolecule and creating a complex that the body recognizes as
foreign
– Subsequently, haptens alone may trigger response
– E.g. penicillin, chemicals in poison ivy, etc.

92
Q

What is an antibody?

A

-A y shaped immunoglobulin (Ig) found in blood plasma, tissue fluids, body secretions….

93
Q

What is the basic structural unit of an antibody?

A

The antibody monomer

94
Q

What are the two regions of an antibody monomer

A
  • Constant area-determines the mechanism of an antibody’s action
  • Variable area-the unique part that detects antigens
95
Q

The five classes of antibodies are based on what?

A

The c region of the antibody

96
Q

What are the 5 classes of antibodies

A 
IgA monomer
IgD monomer
IgE monomer
IgG monomer
IgM monomer
97
Q

What is the function of a IgA monomer antibody?

A
  • Found as a monomer in plasma
  • Found as a Dimer in epithelial secretions
  • prevents pathogen adherence to epithelia
  • provides passive immunity to newborns
98
Q

What is the function of a IgD monomer antibody?

A
  • B cell transmembrane antigen receptor

- function in B cell activation by antigens

99
Q

What is the function of a IgE monomer antibody?

A
  • Transmembrane protein on basophils and mast cells

- Stimulate the release of histamine and chemical mediators of inflammation to attract eosinophils

100
Q

What is the function of a IgG monomer antibody?

A
  • Most abundant make up 80% of circulating antibodies

- secondary immune response and complement fixation

101
Q

What is the function of a IgM pentamer?

A
  • found in plasma and lymph

- Primary immune response, agglutination, complement fixation

102
Q

What are the three categories of lymphocytes?

A
  • NK cells-Immune surveillance
  • T cells
  • B-cells
103
Q

Give an overview of the life of a Tcell

A
  • Born in bone marrow
  • Educated in the thymus
  • Deployed to carry out immune function considered naive until first activation
104
Q

Give an overview of the life of a Bcell

A
  • Born in bone marrow
  • Educated in bone marrow
  • Deployed to carry out immune function considered naive until first activation
105
Q

Compare how T-cells and B-cells recognize antigensgenerally

A

-B-cells recognize free floating antigens

T-cells can only recognize antigens when presented by another cell

106
Q

How do APC present antigens?

A
  • they encounter antigen
  • eat and digest antigen
  • present a piece of antigen via a MHC complex protein
  • T-cells survey MHC complexes and initiate attack
107
Q

What are the 4 types of T cells that function in cellular immunity

A

Tc-cytotoxic
Th-Helper
Tr-regulatory
Tm-Memory

108
Q

What is the role of the Cytotoxic T-cell?

A

(T8, CD8, CD8+)
Killer T-cells
to destroy foreign cells

109
Q

What is the role of the Helper T-cell?

A

T4, CD4, CD4+

promote Tc-cells, B-cell, and macrophage action

110
Q

What is the role of the regulatory T cell?

A

T4, CD4, CD4+
-inhibit Tc-cell function to limit the immune response
-

111
Q

What is the role of Memory T-cells?

A

to descend from activated T cells responsible for memory in cellular immunity

112
Q

What are the three R’s of immunity aka the three stages of humoral and cellular immunity

A

– Recognize
– React
– Remember

113
Q

How does cellular immunity recognize antigens?

A

T-cells survey the MHC proteins on the surface of cells and react to those that dont belong

114
Q

What are the two types of MHC proteins and where are they found?

A
  • MHC-1 –Found in all nucleated cells of the body

- MHC-2– found in APC’s

115
Q

Which T-cells respond to which MHC proteins

A
  • Tc-cells respond to MHC-1

- Th-cells responf to MHC-2

116
Q

Explain the process of T-cell activation in cellular immunity

A
  • T-cell binds with MHC protein displaying foreign epitope
  • Does a double checkco-stimulation
  • If co-stimulation is successful than clonal selection occurs producing clones to attack the epitope as well as memory cells
  • an attack follows
117
Q

How do Tc-cells attack

A
  • Only T-cell to directly attack
  • Docks onto target cell
  • delivers lethal chemicals and destroys the cell in the same manner as NK cells
118
Q

How do Th-cells attack?

A
  • The attack by supporting other cells
  • Activate macrophages
  • supports clonal selection of B-cells and Tc-cells
119
Q

What is the main cell of humoral immunity? its function?

A

-B-cells
-B lymphocytes of humoral immunity produce
antibodies that bind to antigens and tag them for
destruction by other means

120
Q

Walk through humoral immune recognition and activation

A
  • B-cell surface IgD antibody’s pick up antigen
  • B-cell digests antigen and presents it via MHC-II
  • Helper T-cell secretes interlukins to activate B-cell
  • Clonal selection is triggered producing plasma cells to produce antibodies as well as memory B-cells
  • Antibodies continue the attack
121
Q

What are the 4 ways that antibodies attack?

A
  • Neutralization
  • Complement Fixation
  • Agglutination
  • Precipitation
122
Q

What is Neutralization

A

When antibodies mask pathogenic region of antigen

123
Q

What is complement fixation ?

A

-IgM or IgG bind to antigen and change its shape to activate the complement system

124
Q

What is agglutination?

A

Antibodys bind to multiple sites on the cells causing them to clump together making them an easy target for phagocytic cells

125
Q

What is antibody precipitation?

A

When antibodies bind to antigens molecules creating and antigen-antibody complex causing them to precipitate and be removed by immune clearance or phagocytosis

126
Q

What is the primary immune response? define

A

—immune reaction brought about by the first
exposure to an antigen
- leaves one with an immune memory of
the antigen
• IgM appears first, peaks in about 10 days, soon declines
• IgG levels rise as IgM declines, but IgG titer drops to a low level within a month

127
Q

What is the Secondary (anamnestic) response define

A

—if reexposed to the same antigen
– Plasma cells form within hours and IgG titer rises sharply and peaks in a few days
– Response is so rapid that the antigen has little chance to exert a noticeable effect
on the body and no illness results
– Low levels of IgM also secreted (then quickly decline)
– IgG remain elevated for weeks to years
• Conferring long-lasting protection
– But memory does not last as long in humoral immunity as in cellular immunity

Anatomy and Physiology 2 (7 decks)

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