Lymphatic System and Immunity/Integumentary System/Reproductive System Flashcards

Question

Nonspecific Defenses Vs Specific Defenses

Answer 1

**Nonspecific**: Deny Entry, Limit Spread of Pathogens in Body, is the same regardless of the type of pathogen **Specific**: Specific Resistance & Immunity

Answer 2

**Primary Goals**: Deny Entry Limit Spread of Pathogens in Body Same reaction Regardless of the type of pathogen * Physical Barriers * Phagocytes * Immunological Surveillance * Interferons * Compliment System * Fever * Inflammation

Answer 3

Two types: * **External** (Skin): Hair, Oils, Desmosomes * ***Hair*** - prevents insects/material from sticking to surface * ***Oil Secretions***- coat surface to make slick and be able to be washed away * ***Desmosomes*** - connected tightly, prevents pathogen from squeezing through * **Internal:** mucous, urine, digest * ***Mucous***: sweeps pathogens toward the pharanx * ***Urine***: flushes out of the body * ***Stomach***: Can digest Pathogens

Answer 4

* *First line of defense* * Remove cell debris & respond to the invasion of pathogens * exist in many peripherial tissues * Two types: Microphage/Macrophage * **Microphage** - travel to peripherial tissues that are already dealing with infection/pathogens * **Macrophage** - derived from *monocytes;* can be **fixed** or be **free to travel** * **Fixed** in Peripherial Tissues ie *Kupfter Cells* in Liver * **Free** * *Diapedesis* - can squeeze through/between capillary walls * *Chemotaxis* - attracted to chemicals in the ECF, draws macrophages towards them

Answer 5

* **Microphage** - travel to peripherial tissues that are already dealing with infection/pathogens * **Macrophage** - derived from monocytes (one of the five types of WBC's); can be fixed or be free to travel * Monocytes & Macrophages together for Monocyte-Macrophage system * ***Fixed*** in Peripherial Tissues ie Kupfter Cells in Liver * ***Free*** * *Diapedesis* - can squeeze between cells in capillary walls * *Chemotaxis* - attracted to chemicals in the ECF, draws macrophages towards them in presence of infection or pathogen

Answer 6

* **NK Cells Responsibility**: Monitor for presence of antigens that are foreign to the body *** ****Perforin*** - protein secreted into target cells membrane creating pores or tubules that causes the lysis of the target cell **Natural Killer Cells** Responsible for Immunologic Survelliance account for 5-10% of all lymphocytes * NK cells attack * foreign cells * body cells infected with viruses * normal body cells affected with cancer

Answer 7

* small proteins released by activated lymphocytes & macrophages (due to prescence of virus, parasite, bacteria, tumor in cells) * Named because of their capeability to interfere with viral replication in cell * Work by **second messenger** to prevent replication of the virus * they *don’t destroy* the virus or reverse other damages; they *slow the rate of spread* by the virus * **Cytokines** - a class of chemical messengers that coordinate local activities; cell signaling proteins of which Interferons are a part of

Answer 8

Activation occurs when a compliment protein (11 different types) attaches to an antibody (Ab) * Causes a *cascade* of reactions that result in a ***hole*** in the cell membrane * Arrival of other phagocytes and chemicals * outcome of cascade formation of MAC (membrane attack complex) * Holes in membrane causes cell rupture \*“complements” the ability of antibodies and phagocytic cells to clear pathogens from an organism \*\*Cascade of reactions similar to clotting cascade, chain reaction of events

Answer 9

* Rise in body temperature \> 1 degree above normal (range of temperatures normal to that indiviidual) * **Pyrogens**: reset body thermostat (set point) in hypothalamus * Increased mobility of leukocytes * Enhanced leukocytes phagocytosis * Endotoxin effects decreased * Increased proliferation of T cells

Answer 10

* Any localized tissue response to injury presents in swelling, pain, redness, warmth and the release of chemicals * Goals of inflammation: * deny entry and spread of pathogens present at injury site to any other part of the body * repair damages to injured tissues * **MAST** cells are responsible for releasing ***histamine*** and ***heparin*** * **clotting factors** deal with the bleeding * **compliment proteins** attempt to kill any pathogens that are in that particular area * Dying cells cause formation of Pus * if in an enclosed area - considered an abscess * otherwise if is considered necrosis of those tissues

Answer 11

Specific defense & Immunity * ***T Cells -*** Protect against abnormal cells & Pathogens in ***_LIVING CELLS_*** (*Cell mediated immunity)* * ***B Cells -*** Protect against antigens & pathogens in ***_BODY FLUIDS_*** *(Humoral/Antibody Mediated Immunity)*

Answer 12

**Immunity** * **Inate** -genetically determined * **Acquired-** produced by exposure, causes production of Ab * **Active** - Produced by Ab that develop in response to Antigens * **Naturally Acquired Active Immunity** - antigen in environment; exposure leads to development of Ab * **Induced Active Immunity** - through administration of vaccine * **Passive** - Antibodies transfered from another source * **Natural Passive Immunity** - maternal transfer to fetus * **Induced Passive** - meds given to fight infection

Answer 13

is either **acquired** or **inate** * **Acquired ** - * production of Ab produced by *exposure*; * can be actively or passively acquired * **Inate** - genetically determined

Answer 14

**Actively Aquired Immunity** Production by antibodies that develop in response to Antigens Can be *Naturally Aquired Active Immunity* or *Induced Active Immunity* **Passively Aquired Immunity** Antibodies Transfered from another source (recieving a pass ie recieving Ab from mother or recieving meds to fight existing infection)

Answer 15

Produced by Ab that develop in respose to exposure to antigens * *Naturally Acquired Active Immunity* - exposure to antigen in ***environment*** leads to development of antibodies * *Induced Active Immunity -* Ab produced in response to administration of vaccine (ie Flu Shot)

Answer 16

Antibodies Transfered from another source (recieving a *pass* ie recieving Ab from mother or recieving meds to fight existing infection) * ***Natural Passive Immunity*** - Maternal transfer of immunity to fetus * ***Induced Passive Immunity*** - Meds administered to fight *existing* infection

Answer 17

1. Specificity 2. Versitility 3. Memory 4. Tolerance

Answer 18

Specific Defense is activated by a specific Antigen and the subsequent result affects **only that Antigen**

Answer 19

Production of many receptors to deal with many different antigens/pathogens

Answer 20

Remain inactive In event of second exposure they are ready to attack After first exposure cells are duplicated; some attack inital exposure; remainder are held in reserve for second exposure to same pathogen They retain a memory for what the pathogen looks like and are ready to attack it on second presentation

Answer 21

Will not allow own body cells to be destroyed in an imune response If T or B cells attack body cells they are destroyed

Answer 22

Produced in response to ***Antigen Recognition*** of an Antigen, Pathogen, Virus, or allergen Communication takes place between Cell Mediated Immunity (T Cells) & Antibody Mediated Immunity (B Cells) * T Cells attack due to direct physical or chemical contact * B Cells attack by circulating Antibodies

Answer 23

is used to generate a specific defense when activated by a specific antigen. Antigen receptors sitting on surface of the B cell are activated only by antigen that matches that receptor.

Answer 24

**_MHC Class I proteins_** are found on all ***nucleated*** cells Work by presenting fragments of proteins from within the cell (cytosol) on cell surface for recognition by T Cells **Cytotoxic T** cells are ***only*** activated by MHC Class I proteins **_MHC Class II proteins_** are found only on Antigen Presenting Cells (APC) and lymphocytes Helper T cells are activated by Class II MHC proteins to coordinate specific and non-specific defenses, Helper T's stimulate cell and antibody mediated immunity (communication component of Immune response).

Answer 25

Usually recognize antigens when they bind to receptors on body cells * Inactive T Cells recognize Class I and II MHC (Major Histocompatibility Complex Protein) * can also bind antigens to itself * is looking for one specific antigen if found it will divide and differentiate into: * Cytotoxic T Cells * Helper T Cells * Memory T Cells * Supressor T Cells

Answer 26

* Activated only by **CLASS I MHC - *AKA Killer T's or Cytotoxic T's*** * **Responsible for Cell mediated immunity** 1. **secretion of Lymphotoxins** which disrupts metabolism of the cell 2. **secretion of Cytokines** (interfere with genes) Affecting genes and causing *Apoptosis (Programmed cell death)* 3. release of ***perforin*** - causes rupture of target cell membrane \*\***All three help to destoy target cell**

Answer 27

The cytotoxic T cell will recognize an antigen bound to a class I MHC protein then it will divide and differentiate into: * **active cytotoxic T** cells which help to manage current presentation of antigen * **memory T cells** which lie dormant until a second presentation of antigen.

Answer 28

* Activated by Class II MHC* * coordinates **specific and nonspecific defenses** * Stimulates **cell mediated immunity & antibody mediated immunity**

Answer 29

* Remain in reserve for second exposure to pathogen * can only be activated by second exposure or later * differentiate into cytotoxic T’s and Helper T cells. * Memory T’s help to create a rapid response in event of second exposure, increasing the effectiveness of the immune response. * Rapid response increases effectiveness of immune response

Answer 30

Secretes Cytokines AKA supression factor * dampens response of T and B cells * Prevents immune response that is out of control

Answer 31

Launch Chemical attack by producing antibodies 1. antigen binds to B cell where it is engulfed and presented on surface 2. sensitizing B cell 3. Circulating Helper T's recognize presence of antigen and secrete cytokines which 4. Causes B Cell activation and differentiation. B’s differentiate into * ***Active B*** cells for circulation against current pathogen; Active B’s turn into **plasma cells** which are *responsible for the production* of antibodies. * ***memory B’s*** for use against future invasions by same antigen.

Answer 32

5 major classes IgG IgM IgA IgE IgD

Answer 33

Largest class of Antibodies Able to cross placental barrier - protection passed from mother to fetus defense against viruses, bacteria, and bacterial toxins

Answer 34

First Ab secreted after arrival of pathogen Ability to circulate and attack bacteria Responsible for cross reaction with incompatible blood types (sometimes even same type)

Answer 35

Present iin exocrine secretions ie tears, mucous Enables Ig to attack pathogen even before it has entered the body

Answer 36

Bound to MAST cells and Basophils Stimulates release of histamine and other chemicals Promotes inflamation

Answer 37

Bound to B cells Try to eliminate pathogens in ECF **Responsible for B cell Activation**

Answer 38

Elimination of Antigens via 1. Neutralization 2. Agglutination and Precipitation 3. Activation of Compliment Proteins 4. Attraction of Phagocytes 5. Enhancement of phagocytosis 6. Stimulation of Inflamation

Answer 39

Ab binds to antigen/virus/bacteria so that it cannot bind to a body cell

Answer 40

**Agglutination** - Clumping resulting from Ab attaching to one or more antigens when in close proximity **Precipitation** - Larger Clumps form PPT and fall out of solution (become insoluble) \*With incompatible blood ppt is in form of clots.

Answer 41

Ab bind to antigen causing a change in shape of the Ab which then activates compliment cascade Non-specific defense aimed at creating a hole in the membrane ⇒ lysis

Answer 42

Attraction drawn to antigen which bring it to the attention of other WBC's Macrophages/Neutrophils/Eosinophils which engulf antigen

Answer 43

like a condiment for the Antigen covered in Antibodies which makes it easier to eat

Answer 44

due to stimulation of MAST cells and basophils Responding to site of injury

Answer 45

_Primary Response_ The peak response to a first exposure to an antigen is about 2 weeks, where IgM is secreted in response to the presence of the antibody. This response is delayed due to the body needing time to become sensitized to antigen, causing activation of B cells and the formation of plasma cells to make the antibodies, meanwhile we are making memory B cells. The first exposure takes about 4 weeks to complete. _Secondary Response_ The second exposure can take place anytime after the first exposure, this time IgG is primarily released, causing a earlier peak response with a stronger effect.

Answer 46

**Auto-immune disorder** - malfunction in Antigen recognition **Immunodeficency disorder** - Immune System fails to develop normally or becomes blocked **Allergies** - Innapropriate or Excessive Immune response to an Antigen ≈ Allergen

Answer 47

Malfunction in Antigen recognition Body gets confused as to what belongs and what is foreign and attacks its own body cells B Cells manufacture Ab against body cells (auto antibodies) Examples: IDDM, Lutus, Mysthenia Gravis, Rheumatoid Arthritis, Pernicious Anemia, Graves Disease, Addisons, Disease, Narcolepsy, psoriasis, chronic hepatitis

Answer 48

Immune System fails to develop normally or becomes blocked Examples: AIDS (Acquired ImunoDeficency Syndrome) results in a destruction in Helper T Cells (which participate in both Cell and Anti-body mediated Immunity SCID (Severe Combined Immunodeficency Disease) neonatal/infant disease where infant fails to develop any cell or antibody mediated immunity.

Answer 49

Inappropriate or excessive immune response to an Antigen ≈ Allergen Type I: Immediate Hypersensitivity/Anaphlaxis * still follows the first exposure, second exposure rule. * On first exposure the B cell is sensitized (pathogen engulfed) causing: * B Cell Activation and the differentiation of: * Activated B Cells⇒Plasma Cells⇒Production of IgE * Memory B Cells (For second exposure Pathway) * This process is slow and therefore it is not uncommon that upon first exposure the person may have no symptoms (no hives, swelling etc.) * On Second exposure: when B cells are activated: * Memory B cells (that were created in response to first exposure are ready to go) once B cells are activated for second time make antibodies (IgE) * Which attach to MAST and Basophil cells which then release: * Histamine * prostaglandin * heparin * cytokines * These cause inflamatory response

Answer 50

Cytotoxic reactions Transfusions Cross reactions

Answer 51

Immune Complex Disorders ( not likely to see due to need for detailed history of patient illness) Phagocytes fail to remove Antigen-Antibody Complex

Answer 52

Delayed Hypersensitivity Inflamatory response is delayed Symptoms 2-3 days after exposure Examples: Posion Ivy/Posion Oak

Answer 53

Two parts: * Continuious Membrane (Skin) * Epidermis * Dermis * Hypodermis * Accessory Structures * Hair * Nails * exocrine glands (sweat)

Answer 54

1. **Protection** - Loss of body fluid, impact, chemicals, and infection 2. **Temperature Maintenance** - regulate heat loss to the environment 3. **Synthesis & Storage of Nutrients** - ie Vitamin D3 4. **Sensory Reception** - Touch, Pressure, Pain; Neurons stimulated by mechanical distortion that sends information to the CNS 5. **Excretion/Sucretion** - Salts, Water, Orgainic Waste lost to the environment

Answer 55

Comprised of Stratified (multilayered) Squameous Epithelium * Thin Skin - 4 Layers of strata * Thick Skin - 5 Layers of strata - (Palms of Hands/Bottom of Feet) * Cells grow at bottom and move towards exterior * Is Avascular - gets its nutrient from basment layer

Answer 56

5 Strata Layers & Basic Function * Stratum Corneum - 15-30 Layers of Dead epithelium; most of barrier functions are provided by this layer * Stratum Lucidum - Clear/Translucent layer only found in Soles and Palms; contains lots of keratin * Stratum Granulosum - Synthesis of Keratin; cells lose their nucleus and cytoplasm looks grainy * Stratum Spinosum - Continues process of mitosis and daughter cell creation * Stratum Germinativum - Attached to basment layer; Contains Melancytes which are responsible for skin color

Answer 57

Base layer of Epidermis Connects to Dermis via Epidermal ridges; attached via **Hemidesmosomes** - stitched to basement layer Top side called Epidermal Ridges/Bottom side called Dermal Papillae _Epidermal Ridges function_ * similar to that of microvilli in intestines; **increases surface area** for nutrient absorption * create ridges that become finger prints which also increases friction and grip security Contains: * **Stem Cells** (germanitive cells) - ***undifferentiated cells*** that will become differentiated later for specific function * **Melanocytes** - Melanin - partially responsible for skin color These cells will divide via **Mitosis** (cell division) making more daughter cells, One stays in layer and one which will then move up into the next layer; process will continue until it reaches the surface.

Answer 58

Recieves one daughter cell from below. Process of Mitosis and creation of daughter cells; one of which gets sent to next layer continues

Answer 59

Recieves daugter cell from below and continues the process Synthesis of **Kerotin** - a durable, water resistant protein, coats skin (and hair) to prevent water from entry cells lose their nucleus and cytoplasm looks grainy

Answer 60

Clear/Translucent layer only found in Soles and Palms Contains lots of keratin

Answer 61

**15-30** Layers of flattened and Dead epithelium cells Connected by **desmosomes** which is why skin layers shed in sheets vs a fine powder Dead due to distance for diffusion too great to recieve nutrients Cells begin to accumulate large amounts of Keratin and become **Keratinized** (cornified) Takes **2-4 weeks** for cells to make it into Stratum Corneum and another **1-2 weeks** for skin to begin to shed most of barrier functions are provided by this layer; **because cells are dry** they don't provide much of a breeding ground for bacteria or pathogen which prevents infection from taking root These cells are considered expendible cells due to number, allowing cells to make sacrifices for the rest of the body

Answer 62

Similar; differ in type of tissues Both contain nerves and blood capillaries as well as Hair Follicles, Sweat Glands, & Lymphatic vessels **Papillae Layer** Loose connective tissue whose function it is to support the Epidermis **Reticular Layer** Dense Irregular connective tissue * Elastic Fibers* allow for stretch and **increased** flexibility * Collagen fibers* are responsible for **limiting** flexibility

Answer 63

*Not really part of the integumentary system* Primary function is to **stabilize position of skin** realitive to underlying organs Permits movement of connective tissue Contains connective tissue; including adipose cells (never lose number of adipose cells once gained; chronically high lipid levels may cause stem cells to differentiate into more adipose cells)

Answer 64

Two primary factors in pigmentaion * **Carotene** - Orange-Yellow color found in vegetables; converts to Vit A ≈ good for eyes * **Melanin** - derived from melanocytes; increase in color with increase in sun exposure; changes to protect sun from UV radiation \*Freckles are concentrated deposits of melanin \*\*UV Radiation promotes Vit D3 Synthesis which converts to **Calcitrol** in kidneys and promotes Ca2+/Phosphorus Absorption on the small intestines

Answer 65

Vasodilation = red-pink coloration Vasoconstriction = pale-cyanotic coloration

Answer 66

Non-Living Structure Present on surfaces of most of the skin Produced in an organ called the **hair follicle** Hair is divided into 3 Sections: * **Hair Papilla** - type of connective tissue located at very bottom; connected to a capillary and a nerve * **Hair Root -** prekaratinization; up to about 1/3 of the way up * **Hair Shaft** - remainder of hair; post-karatinization; comprised of 3 layers * **Medulla** - Located in center of shaft, comprised of *Soft Keratin* * **Cortex -** Middle layer; comprised of *Hard Keratin* * **Cuticle -** Outermost layer; comprised of *hard Keratin* * Cells reproduce like the skin; ie pushing up daughter cells to next layer ***\*Arrector Pilli Muscle*** - ennervated by sympathetic nervous system; contraction when cold will make hair stand on end

Answer 67

* Hair grows for 2-5 years; then it takes a break, falls out, and starts back up again * Male Pattern Baldness in an X-Linked Trait; more common in males than females; ressesive, for female to have it, both mom and dad have to contribute that trait to child * Pigment for hair is melanin (just like skin); abscence of melanin = gray hair; melanin production decreases with age * Eyelashes and nose hair - guard pathogens from entering body * Cushions a blow to the head * Provides some protection from UV Light * Insulates the skull

Answer 68

Present on the Dorsal Surface of fingers and toes Function is to provide protection, limiting distortion secondary to mecanical stress **Nail Body** - on surface; dead part that you can feel/see becomes visible at surface of the skin at the **cuticle** Below the skin is the **nail root** Below the nail is the **Nail Bed** (skin underneath the nail) **Lunula** - caused by blood vessels under the nail \*If nail pulls out completely, it will not grow back. If you stick a pice of nail back under cuticle while it heals it will regenerate.

Answer 69

Sebaceous = Oil Secretes oil; present into surface of the skin and at hair folicles Part of Function is to *prevent growth of **bacteria*** responsible for oily residue of hair *Stimulation of Accector* muscle also causes ***oil*** secretion

Answer 70

Two different types differentiated by where they are located * **Apocrine Gland -** armpits, nipples, groin * **Merocrine Gland - ** everywhere else Comprised of: * **99%** - Water * **1%** - NaCl, Urea, Organic Nutrients Primary responsibility is to cool the body Water on surface of the skin via breeze, produces cooling of body and temperature control Must be concious of water loss and consume more water

Answer 71

**Mitosis** Somatic (Body) cell division 23 pairs = 46 chromosomes diploid = pairs of chromosomes **Meosis** Of an organism 2 Cycles of cell division *Goal*: To make 4 haploid cells (**Gamates**) 23 Chromosomes Total ***Gamates*** are the reproductive cells (sperm & ova)

Answer 72

**Gamates** are the reproductive cells (sperm & ova) Goal of Meosis is to produce 4 gamates (haploid cells *23 chomosomes*) 23 gamates come from the mother and 23 come from father to produce offspring with 46 chromosomes **Gonads** are the reproductive organs which produce ***Gamates & Hormones***

Answer 73

**Fertilization** is the uniting of ***sperm + ova*** to produce a **Zygote** **Zygote** is a single cell that then divides into multiple cells and then many cells typically formed by union of 2 haploid cells (23 chromosomes) to form one diploid cell (46 chromosomes)

Answer 74

**Testis (singular) / Testes (plural)** - male reproductive organ **Scrotum** * contains testes (plural), Testis (singular) * lined by serous membrane to reduce friction * 2°F/1.1°C cooler than the body **Sperm (spermatozoa) -** Reproductive cells produced by the testes **Spermatogenesis** - Series of divisions that will produce sperm cells; *daughter cells* move *centrally* w/ each cell division 1. **Mitosis** 2. **Meosis I** 3. **Meosis II**

Answer 75

* **Scrotum -** ***3*** layers of skin, lined by serous membrane to reduce friction; 2°F/1°C cooler than body * **Cremaster Muscle -** Its function is to raise and lower the testes in order to regulate the temperature of the testes and promote spermatogenesis. * **Spermatogenesis** - Process that takes place in Seminiferous Tubules. Mitosis/Meosis 1/Meosis 2; 23 Diploid Chromosomes to 23 Haploid Chromosomes * **Seminiferous Tubules -** 80cm in length (per testis); tightly coiled = ***.5 miles*** in toal length; *initial location of sperm production*, developing sperm move from outside toward center of tubule * **Sustentacular Cells -** provide *nourishment* to developing sperm; located in walls of seminiferous tubules; activated by FSH. * **Loose Connective Tissue - ** fills space around Seminiferous Tubules **& Interstitial Cells -** where **Androgens (testosterone)** is produced * **Ductus deferens -** they transport sperm from the epididymis in anticipation of ejaculation * **Efferent Ductule -** connect the testis with the initial section of the epididymis * **Epididymus -** connecting the efferent ducts to its vas deferens (ductus deferens; storage of sperm

Answer 76

**Spermatogonia (Stem Cells)** - undifferentiated cells that divide by **Mitosis** to form into primary spermatocyte (***_still diploid_*** at this point) * divide by mitosis for entire adult life (post puberty); different than female where Mitosis - oogonia (female stem cells divide before birth and produce cells called primary oocyte) * **Goal:** to make **2** *duplicate daughter cells* from existing parent cells = 4 diploid cells * one stays & one daughter cell moves toward lumen (centrally) and becomes ***Primary Spermatocyte*** moves to Meiosis One

Answer 77

Primary Spermatocyte (diploid cell formed in Mitosis) Tetrad Formation takes place Where crossover occurs and recombination of genes recieved from parents Primary Spermatocyte then divides into two cells each with two chromatids (chromatid = one half of a chromosome) forming **secondary spermatocytes**

Answer 78

2 Secondary Spermatocytes (daughter cells) formed in Meiosis I ***divide*** to produce 4 Haploid Spermatids Each spermatid has half the genetic material originally present in the primary spermatocyte Spermatid - haploid male gamate **Spermiogenesis** final stage of *spermatogenesis* which sees the maturation of spermatid into Spermatozoa (Sperm) \*\****Spermatogenesis is the entire process, not to be confused with Spermiogenesis which is the maturation of spermatid into sperm\*\****

Answer 79

**Head** - houses nucleus and acrosomal cap **Acrosomal Cap -** contains enzymes necessary for fertilization **Nucleus** - houses product of Spermatogenesis **Neck** - where head meets middle piece **Middle Piece -** houses Mitochondrial Spiral **Mitochondrial Spiral -** important becauses it provides ATP for locomotion **Flagellum -** whip like tail necessary for locomotion

Answer 80

* **Efferent Ductile** - just a tube for transport, a travel space lined with cilia to **sweep** sperm cells into epididymus, due to nonfunctional locomotion. * **Epididymis Functions** * **adjust** fluid concentration of seminiferous tubules * **Recycle** damaged spermatazoa * **Store** sperm cells * In order for sperm to become mobile, they must undergo ***Capacitation*** * **mix** with secretions from ***seminal vesicles*** * be **exposed to** conditions of the ***female reproductive tract***

Answer 81

* Track toward the prostrate gland enclosed by the **spermatic cord** * **spermatic cord** - a sheet of connective and muscle tissue containing blood, nerve, and lymphatic vessels * Sperm propelled through passageway via peristalsis

Answer 82

* Seminal Vessicles **- 60%** of semen - * **fructose** for *energy*; * **prostaglandins** for *SMC contractions* * **fibrinogen** for *forming clot* in vagina * Prostate gland - 20-30% of semen * **seminal plasma** important for *preventing UTI's* * Bolbourethreal gland * **sticky mucous** that is used to *neutralize urinary acids*

Answer 83

Semen = Sperm + Secretions (Seminal, Prostrate, Bolbourethreal Fluids) Ejaculate = 2-5ml (Sperm, fluid, enzymes).

Answer 84

**Root** - Attachment of penis to body **Shaft -** contains erectile tissue **Glands** - distal portion surrounds the External urethreal meatus **Dorsal Vein** **Corpora Cavernosa** **External Urethreal Meatus** **Corpus Spongiosum**

Answer 85

* At rest, vasculature is constricted = very little blood flow * Penile Arteries recieve parasympathetic innervation, stimulating neurons and causing the release of NO, which causes vasodilation and erection * How Nitro works (recording)

Answer 86

* **Priaprism** * unopposed parasympathetic innervation due to spinal cord injury * **Testicular Torsion-** * Twisting of Testes around spermaticord; * impeeds blood suply leading to necrosis. * Accute illness that is fast-tracked to surgery

Answer 87

* Hypothalamus releases **GnRH (Gonadotropin Releasing Hormone)** * Stimulates Anterior Pituitary to produce and release FSH & LH to affect Testes (target organ) * **FSH** - Folicle Stimulating Hormone * **LH -** Leutinizing Hormone * Interstitial cells in testes produce testosterone which influences * **Sex Drive** * Promotes **Secondary Sex Characteristics** * Spermatogenesis * Stimulates metabolism (growth/bone growth)

Answer 88

* **Ovaries** - Female Reproductive Organs * Produce - **Ova** (plural), **Ovum** (singular) * **Secrete** Sex Hormones * Oogenesis ≈ ovum production * begins **before birth** * ends @ **Menopause** * Follows similar pattern to Spermiogenesis

Answer 89

* **oogonia** (stem cells) divide before birth produce daughter cells called ***primary oocyte***

Answer 90

* Begins @ 3-7 months of fetal development * Double all chromosomes; then **placed on hold until puberty** * Meiosis I is completed once monthly to form ***ONE secondary oocyte*** & **ONE** **Polar Body** (2 more produced later in meosis II) which will be ***destroyed*** later by the body

Answer 91

* **Secondary oocyte** is released during ovulation * **ONLY** completed **IF** *fertilization* takes place, then would be called an **OVUM**

Answer 92

**Ovarian Follicle** * Speciallized structure within ovary that houses the development of what will be the primary oocyte growth & Meosis I 1. Primordial follicle 2. Primary follicle 3. Secondary follicle 4. Tertiary follicle 5. Folllicle ruptures - releases egg into interstitial space

Answer 93

The cycle of the ovary lasts around **28 days**. It consists of two stages or phases: * The **follicular phase**, the first half of the cycle, some of the eggs within the ovary complete their development. *The **maturation of the oocytes** is under the control of the follicle-stimulating hormone (**FSH**)*, which promotes the development of a follicle, which secretes *estrogen*. **{Formation of tertiary follicle, and allows for formation of secondary oocyte}** * The high level of **estrogen** in the blood causes the **LH** production by the anterior pituitary and ovulation (or release of the ovum into the Fallopian tube so it can be fertilized) at about the **fourteenth day** of a 28-day cycle.**{secondary oocyte ruptures from ovary and is released into the pelvic cavity** ⇒ **swept into the uterine/fallopian tube****}** * After ovulation and during the *second half*, or ***luteal phase,*** **days 14-28**, the cells that surrounded the ovum are transformed into a mass of yellow cells (*the **corpus luteum**), which secretes progesterone*. If fertilization does not take place, this mass of cells degenerates, menstruation occurs, and a new cycle begins. \***GnRH** is a hypotalamic-releasing hormone that stimulates the anterior pituitary to *secrete* **FSH** and **LH**, which act on the ovaries. **\*\*FSH** *promotes the development of the follicle* that later, *under the influence of* **LH**, becomes the **corpus luteum**. **\*\*\*Negative feedback** controls the level of all hormones involved

Answer 94

AKA Uterine Tubes 13cm in length moves secondary oocyte via cilia and peristalsis ooycte + sperm = zygote if union takes place within 12-24 hours

Answer 95

formed from remnants of tertiary follicle once secondary oocyte is released from ovary secretes progesterone if fertilization does not take place within 12 days, corpus luteum degenerates, menstruation occurs, and a new cycle begins.

Answer 96

The cycle of the uterus lasts an **average of 28 days** and it is the transformation of the internal wall of this organ, called the endometrium, along with the process of maturation of the ovule. Is consists of **three** phases: * **Menses -** days **1-7**, there is a low level of female hormones in the body: the endometrium, which is very thick and vascularised (i.e. has a large number of capillaries), desintegrates, detaches and is expelled through the vagina together with the blood in its capillaries. These hemorrahages are known as menstruation. **{degredation of *functional zone,* sloughing off of tissue; loss of 35-50ml of blood each time}** * **Proliferative Phase** - days **7-14**, the endometrium lost in menstruation regenerates itself. *Increased production of **estrogen** by an ovarian follicle causes the endometrium to thicken* and to become vascular and glandular. **{surviving epithelial cells, multiply and spread across surface of endometrium, couple mm of tissue}** **\*\*Ovulation usually occurs on the fourteenth day of the 28-day cycle.** * **Secrectory Phase** - days **15-28**, *increased production of **progesterone** by the **corpus luteum*** causes the endometrium to double en thickness and the uterine glands to mature. The endometrium becomes thicker and vascularises, so that, if the ovum is fertilised, the embryo can develop. *If fertilization does not take place*, the corpus luteum degenerates and the low level of the sex hormones in the female body causes the uterine lining to break down (i.e. the endometrium is expelled through menstruation). After, a new cycle begins. **{glands enlarge; preparation for arival of embryo; persists as long as there is a corpus luteum}** \*A about age 40-50, the ovaries gradually cease to respond to the anterior pituitary hormones. Eventually, no more follicles are produced. Following this occurrence, called menopause, menstruation ceases entirely.

Answer 97

**Fundus** - Top of Uterus; is massaged post partum to initiate cessation of bleeding Three Layers * **Perimetrium** (viseral lining) - outside * **Myometrium** - muscular layer * **endometrium** - innermost; divides into 3 additional layers: **Functional zone** (at top) only portion of lining that degrades during *menstration*, baslar zone (middle), myometrium (baselayer) **Cervix -** lower narrow portion of the uterus; means neck of the womb

Answer 98

Elastic muscular tube 1. passageway for menstral fluids 2. recieves penis during intercourse; and hold sperm temporarily 3. forms lower portion of the birth canal, through which baby (fetus) passes during delivery

Answer 99

Muscular floor of the pelvic cavity Stretch of tissue between vagina and anus Region that is succeptible to tearing during natural child birth due to size of baby's head.

Answer 100

Contains erectile tissues Engorged with blood during arousal

Answer 101

Converge at nipple produce and secrete milk \*\*Stroking from bottom of nipple by tounge stimulates let down of milk

Answer 102

**Estrogen** * Produced by Follicular cells in ovaries * Increases sex drive * Bone growth and termination * Growth and repair of endometrium **FSH** * during Follicular phase in **Ovarian cycle**, FSH promotes development of the follicle ⇒ follicle cells produce estrogen **Luteal Phase** * **Corpus Luteum** manufacture progesterone **Uterine Cycle** * **Estrogen + Progesterone** ***decrease*** with the breakdown of *Corpus Luteum* **GnRH** * stimulates the anterior pituitary to secrete **FSH** and **LH**, which act on the ovaries. * Negative feedback controls the level of all hormones involved.*