Quiz 2 Material - Cell Structure and Function Flashcards

Question

Lysosomes

Answer 1

* Shipped out by Golgi Apparatus * Contains up to 40 digestive enzymes which are toxic to the cell itself and must be contained * Merges with other vessicles temporarily to breakdown "trash" * Used for breakdown of contractile tissue when not in use.

Answer 2

* responsible for the breakdown of fatty acids and other organinc molecules * byproduct is Hydrogen Peroxide H₂O₂ and the production of Free Radicals (which cause secondary cell death) * Free radicals are bad because they kill healthy and damaged cells)

Answer 3

* Powerhouse of the cell * Production of ATP * actual function is cell respiration = process of making ATP * where areobic metabolism takes place * Double membrane organelle

Answer 4

* Brain of the cell * Control center for cellular respiration * Stores all genetic information * RNA/Proteins * w/o nucleus cell will degrage and die within 3-4 months

Answer 5

* anerobic - without oxygen, less efficent, takes place in cytosol, produces lactic acid as byproduct * areobic (with oxygen) more efficent, takes place in mitochondria

Answer 6

* Movement of "stuff" In/Out across the membrane * Diffusion = Osmosis and Filtration * Carrier Mediated Transport = Active Transport/Facilitated Diffusion * Vesicular Transport

Answer 7

* Passive process resulting from random movement and collision of particles * Movement from High concentration to Low Concentration ie. Food Coloring * concentration gradient exists when there is a difference between High and Low concentration

Answer 8

1. **Distance** - the further the distance the slower the particles move 2. **Size** - smaller particles move faster 3. **Temperature** - as temp. increases, rate increases; ie sugar in coffee 4. **Gradient Size** - The \> the distance the \> the rate 5. **Electrical Forces**

Answer 9

* Particles that are small and liquid soluble * Because of small size and ability to interact with lipid portion of membrane, they are able to pass without * Examples: Alcohol, fatty acids, steroids, disolved gasses - O2

Answer 10

* Passive transport (require no use of ATP) * Uses **concentration gradient** to move from In/Out * Channel Protein that may be open for small particles to pass in/out (ie regular diffusion) **Open or Leak Gated** * **Ligand Gated: ** Requiring specific chemical to open * **Voltage Gated:** difference in charges in that area

Answer 11

* Movement of water across membrane (only water, not a solution) * Moves down concentration gradient * Moving from **HIGH** water concentration to area of **LOW** water concentration to eliminate the gradient

Answer 12

* Solute and solution are equal in/out of the cell * Allows water to pass in and out of the cell freely

Answer 13

* Concentration of solution is lower outside the cell * Water moves into the cell toward higher solute concentrationin cell, can cause cell to lyse * **Lyse**; -lysis = to burst

Answer 14

* Solution is higher than that of the cell. * Water moves out of the cell to try to even out the concentration; can cause crenation * **Crenation -** Shriveling of cell

Answer 15

* Indication of force applied by water as it moves across a membrane into a solution

Answer 16

* Amount of pressure required to stop osmotic flow * pushing **against** fluid generates hydrostatic pressure

Answer 17

* Passive * Principal of Hydrostatic pressure * Passage of a solvent and disolved substances across a membrane * The Kidneys are the bloods filtration system

Answer 18

Hypotonic solutions in favor of Hypertonic solution.

Answer 19

* Water always leaves the hypotonic solution, pushing its way into the hypertonic solution. This "pushing" is the osmotic pressure. It turns out that the blood is hypertonic to the extracellular fluid. So water is always trying to push its way into the blood vessel due to osmotic pressure. The pressure due to osmosis remains constant across the entire capillary. * The blood pressure, or hydrostatic pressure of the blood (a.k.a., outward hydrostatic pressure) is an outward pressure. That's because the blood is pushing on the walls of the capillary as it runs through the capillary from arteriole to venule ends. This pressure, however, is not constant throughout the capillary. You see, there is more pressure on the arteriole side because it is closer to the heart (which is applying the pressure in the first place). So it starts off at the arteriole side with a higher pressure than at the venule side.

Answer 20

* Symport = Cotransport - where molecules move in same direction through a carrier protein * Antiport = Counterport - Where molucule binds to specific spot enabling carrier to transform so molecule can enter/exit cell; different site on same carrier for different molecule can now attach and use door for passage in/out of the cell; molecules traveling in opposite directions.

Answer 21

* Requires Energy in form of ATP * Molecules move in/out against concentration gradient; ie paddling upstream * The sodium-potassium pump is an example of Active Transport

Answer 22

* Active transport, requires use of ATP * Movement of Large Molecules into or out of the cell by using vessicles * Vessicles are membrane enclosed sacs

Answer 23

* Active Transport, requiring the use of ATP * For transport of large molecules **into** the cell * 3 Types: 1. Receptor Mediated Endocytosis 2. Pinocytosis 3. Phagocytosis

Answer 24

* Active transport * Ligand initiated ingestion of moleculesby a cell.

Answer 25

* Active Transport * Pinocytosis = Cell Drinking * Ingestion of ECF into the vesicles; which bind with Lysosomes and hydrolyze (break down) the molecules

Answer 26

* Active Transport * Phagocytosis = Cell Eating * Common example is Macrophages used by WBC's to ingest bacteria/pathogens * Phagosome - vessicle that ingests molecule, frequently link up with lysosomes to used digestive enzymes to destroy or breakdown bacteria/substances

Answer 27

* Active Transport * Process of expelling contents/substance of vesicle from cell into ECF

Answer 28

* occurs where charges are held apart by a cell membrane * Protein Anions are primary reason cell is more negative on the inside. * opposite charges attract; when seperated by cell membreane it creates a **Potential Difference** * Unit of measure is in millivolts

Answer 29

The transmembrane potential of an undisturbed cell.

Answer 30

DNA & RNA * DNA - Dexiribose has more OH molecules - Double stranded; Used for long term storage of genetic instructions; never leaves nucleus; more stable less reactive. * RNA - Ribose; single stranded; used for transcription and creation of proteins from nucleus to ribosome; less stable more reactive

Answer 31

Large pores in nucleolus which allow the exit of RNA

Answer 32

* Unwinding of DNA into single strands * **Transcription** RNA inverse of DNA strand, then called mRNA * mRNA leaves nucleus and travels to Ribosome to facilitate translation * **Translation** - use of RNA to asemble a linear chain of amino acids; uses tRNA (transfer) and rRNA (ribosomal) * 3 Nucleotides = 1 amino acid

Answer 33

* **Chromatin ** - Loosely coiled DNA * **Chromasome - ** Tightly coliled, 23 Pairs; Coiled for use in replication * **Histones** - when coiled up it is wrapped around these * Double Helix is DNA in its coiled form

Answer 34

1. DNA Replication 2. Mitosis 3. Cytokinesis

Answer 35

* G₀ - Interphase - waiting, not actively participating in replication, or prep for division * G₁ - Standard daily life, duplication of organelles, normal cell functions, protein synthesis * S - Replication of DNA * G₂ - Additional Protein synthesis, preparing for mitosis

Answer 36

* Chromasome - two sister chromatides joined by centromere * Chromatid - one omplete set of DNA; duplicate of sister chromatid, with exception of mutations * Centromere - Part of chromasome that links sister chromatids

Answer 37

4 Phase process in cell division 1. Prophase 2. Metaphase 3. Anaphase 4. Telophase

Answer 38

* Chromatids attached and present * Spindles begin to form

Answer 39

* Chromasomes lined up on midline

Answer 40

* Begin to seperate

Answer 41

* Cleavage Furrow forms

Answer 42

* Complete when seperated into two individual cells * Once seperate cycle begins again at G₀ - Interphase

Answer 43

* a mistake in DNA replication * may lead to the steady increase in the rate of cell division

Answer 44

* Tumor - abnormal growth of cells * may produce swelling/mass

Answer 45

* Malignant - when tumors spread to other tissues * Benign - tumors that are confined to epithelium or connective tissues

Answer 46

* When tumor has spread to distant tissues, problem in multiple location

Answer 47

* Characterized by illness in body that results from mutations * disrupts normal body functions (could be just one function)

Answer 48

lose their resemblance to normalized cells.

Answer 49

* Lymphatic system - filter system of body- picks up cancer cells * Cancer uses Lymph system as a mode of transportation to spread throughout the body

Answer 50

* Due to rapid cell growth - body supplies more blood vessels and nutrient to region for growth * This increases rate of development at the expense of surrounding tissues

Answer 51

Group of cells working together to preform similar function 4 Types 1. Epithelial - **Linings/coverings** of internal/external surfaces of body 2. Connective - Fills internal spaces, structural support, transport of stuff in blood **\*Most variable** 3. Muscle - Specialized for contraction; skeletal/cardiac, walls of hollow organs 4. Nervous - Communication in form of electrical impulses between different locations in body

Answer 52

**Epithelia**: layers of cells that cover internal/external structures

Answer 53

* structures that produce fluid secretions * derived from or associated with epithelia * ie. mucous membranes glandst - fluid is secreted onto epithelial surface * Classified as endocrine - internal secretions or exocrine - secretions to body surface

Answer 54

Epithelia (plural) Epithelium (singular) * Cells bound closely together * Polarity - one side is always bound to the basal lamina and one side exposed; like a top and bottom * avascular - nutrients must come from attached/exposed surface * have stem cells - ability to make new cells on regular basis - important due to harsh conditions * Exposed surface often has cilia or microvili

Answer 55

* **Simple** - one layer; or **Stratified** - \> 1 layer; and can be andy of the following * Squamous - Flat * Cuboidal - Cube * Columni - Columnar

Answer 56

1. CAMS - Cell Adhesion Molecules - transmembrane proteins that connect large areas of the cell membrane 2. Cell Junctions - Tight - lipid portion of cell membrane, joined by locking membrane proteins Gap - connexion - junction between excitable cells allowing for rapid passage of ions Demosomes - hemidemosomes - durable interconnection of cells between CAMS and proteoglyans buttondesmosomes

Answer 57

* Basal Lamina = **Basement Layers** * allows epithelial cells to be seperated from connective tissues * acts as filter only allowing water and small molecules to pass through

Answer 58

* contain stem cells = germ cells = germinative cells * due to exposure to harsh environment, need ability to regenerate

Answer 59

Key Features in Common 1. all specialized 2. made of ground substance - space filler, syrup like consistancy 3. all contain extracellular proteins

Answer 60

1. Support 2. Transport 3. Protection 4. Energy Storage 5. Heat/Warmth

Answer 61

* Connective Tissue Proper: **Loose** (Adipose), **Dense** (tendons) * Fluid Connective Tissue: suspended in water-like matrix : **Blood**, **Lymph** * Supporting Connective Tissue: Smaller variety od densely packed extracellular fiber: **Bone**, **Cartilage**

Answer 62

* usually epitelial+connective tissue * usually a physical barrier * sometimes they enclose fluid * 4 Main types: Mucous, Serous, cutaneous, synovial

Answer 63

* Epithelial Tissue + Connective tissue + Gland * Gland secretes fluid onto the epithelial surface * most of the time wet and lined with mucous

Answer 64

* Pair of linings that is seperated by fluid * allows for the lubrication for chaning size, and to cushion organs * **Visceral** lining - lines the organ * **Parietal** Lining - Lines Cavity * **Serous Fluid** fills space between linings

Answer 65

* Waterproof covering exterior of the body

Answer 66

* Lining of the inside of your joints * Lubricates joints

Answer 67

* Responsible for muscle contration and movement * 3 Categories * **Smooth Muscle** - non striated - involuntary * **Cardiac Muscle** - striated - involuntary * **Skeletal Muscle** - striated - voluntary * **Striated** - Linear and organized arrangement of Actin and myosin * **Non-Striated** - not linear arrangement of actin and myosin

Answer 68

* Conduction of impulses from 1 part of the body to another * Neurons - nerve cells * neuroglia - supporting cells

Answer 69

* Inflammation * regeneration

Answer 70

* many stimuli: distortion, impact, penetration, chemical irritant, extreme temperature, abrasion, infection * can cause damage and cell death * Damaged cells release Prostaglandin/proteins/K+ * characterized by redness/warmth/swelling/pain * increased blood flow, histamine release

Answer 71

* Lays foundation for repair * **fibroblasts** - make fibrous tissue (scar tissue) * Remodeling - overtime, ability to return to normal

Answer 72

* cell death within hours of injury * lysosomes begin to digest damaged cell and parts * build up of pus - **Abcess** - Puss cannot escape

Answer 73

Control system of body

Answer 74

Brain and Spinal Cord

Answer 75

Everything else: *including* spinal nerves and cranial nerves

Answer 76

Efferent Division (Motor) & Afferent Division (Sensory)

Answer 77

aka Motor Division Information traveling from Brain and Spinal Column **to** other parts of the body

Answer 78

aka Sensory Division carries information from other parts of the body to the brain and spinal cord

Answer 79

Visceral - Internal organs sensing change in internal organ & Somatic - relays "something" about the environment ie table is smooth, clothes soft etc. to the brain

Answer 80

Somatic Nervous System (SNS) & Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)

Answer 81

Motor Control of Skeletal Muscle Voluntary/Involuntary - includes reflexes

Answer 82

Sympathetic Division & Parasympathetic Division

Answer 83

Motor control of everything **but** skeletal muscle ie. Cardiac, Smooth, glandular secretions etc

Answer 84

**Nervous System** * **CNS** - Brain & Spinal Cord * **PNS** - Everything Else * **Afferent** - Sensory * Somatic - * Visceral - * **Efferent** - Motor * **Somatic Nervous System** - Voluntary * **Autonomic Nervous System** - Involuntary Actions * **Sympathetic Division** - * **Parasympathetic Division** -

Answer 85

The functional unit of the nervous system

Answer 86

Where the neuron recieves the information

Answer 87

aka: Synaptic Knob, Bouton Where information is sent out

Answer 88

All or nothing point of Neuron If input is large enough to reach axon hillock, charge will procede down axon to Synaptic terminal

Answer 89

**Synapse** - Location where two neurons come together and share information **Presynaptic Neuron** - sending of information via chemical neurotransmitter when elicited by action potential **Postsynaptic Neuron** - dendrites recieve signal which excites/inhibits signal **Synaptic Cleft** -gap between pre and post synaptic neurons **Neurotransmitter** - specific chemical agent released by a presynaptic cell, on excitation, that crosses the synaptic gap to stimulate or inhibit the postsynaptic cell

Answer 90

* Sensory Neurons * Motor Neurons * Interneurons

Answer 91

Deliver information from *perriphery* via sensory receptors to the CNS * Composed of Afferent neuron fibers relaying: * **somatic** - sensing a change in external environment * **visceral** - sensing some change in internal organ

Answer 92

carry instructions *from* CNS to peripheral effectors * **Somatic** - Skeletal Muscle movement * **Visceral** - everything else - Cardiac Muscle - cardiac/smooth muscle; glandular,

Answer 93

* Oppose each other in autonomic function Homeostasis could be described as a balance between Parasympathetic (rest and digest) & Sympathetic (Fight of Flight) * Generally, the *sympathetic* nervous system releases a chemical called *norepinephrine*, which is excitatory to neurons, from its postsynaptic neurons. * The *parasympathetic* nervous system releases a chemical called *acetylcholine* from its postsynaptic neurons.

Answer 94

* Coordination of information between sensory and motor neurons * Located primarily in brain, redirect information so appropriate response occurs

Answer 95

1. Receptor - Sensory Neurons 2. Control Center - Interneurons 3. Effector - Motor Neurons

Answer 96

aka: Glia Cells/Supportive Cells Glue that holds Nervous System together

Answer 97

1. Apendymal Cells 2. Astrocytes 3. Oligodendricytes 4. Micro Glia

Answer 98

1. Schwann Cells 2. Satellite Cells

Answer 99

* Belongs to CNS * Forms lining of central canal and ventricles where CSF is found

Answer 100

* Found in CNS * surround capillaries responsible for blood-brain barrier * regulate passage of "stuff" crossing into interstitial fluid between neurons * regulate ion concentrations in interstitial fluid

Answer 101

* Blongs to CNS * Forms Mylein Sheath that is rolled around axon; flattened out like a pancake squeezing out cytoplasm * Membrane is primarily lipid that creates insulation * **Internodes** are the myelin sheath between **Nodes of Ranvier** - the space between oligodendrocytes

Answer 102

* Belong to CNS * Engulf cell debris and waste products

Answer 103

* Belongs to **PNS** * PNS version of Oligodendrocytes * Myelin sheath that wraps peripherial axons

Answer 104

* Belongs to PNS * PNS version of Astrocytes * Surround cellbodies of neurons and regulate exchange with interstitial environment

Answer 105

* Concentration Gradient based on the # of ions of a particular kind * each chemical has its own gradient and will look to equalize it own concentration

Answer 106

* Allow free movement of a particular ion in/out of a cell * Usually specific to one type of ion

Answer 107

* Exists alongside Chemical gradient * Electrical gradient may move chemical in/out based on charge of ECF vs ICF environment

Answer 108

* movement of charges to eliminate the potential difference * ie fixing the electrical or chemical gradients

Answer 109

* Becomes a barrier that creates **resistance** by restricting the flow of current

Answer 110

* how much the barrier restricts the flow of current

Answer 111

Sum of all Electrical and Chemical factors that determine the direction of ion flow For example: * K+ wants to move out of the cell due to concentration gradient from Hi to Low; however because the presence of the Protein Anion and the overall negative charge inside the cell, the K+ is attracted, and wants to pass back into the cell. * Na+ wants to move into the cell due to concentration gradient between ECF and ICF; and the electrical gradient which is negative inside cell and attractive to Na+

Answer 112

meaning with charge

Answer 113

* adding positive charge * Becoming less negative * moving toward zero * change in ion flow ⇒ becoming more more positive

Answer 114

* When cell moves more negative towards resting potential *

Answer 115

* Na+K+ Pump maintains the resting membrane potential across by pumping sodium out of the cell and potassium into cell against concentration gradients. * Enables cells ability to depolarize and propogate an electrical impule to the synapse

Answer 116

* **propogated** in a **graded** and **decremental** fashion * Propogated - Charge spreads outward in all directions * Graded - Vary in size in relation to size of chemical input * Decremental - decreases in size as it moves further from point of orgin

Answer 117

* Propogated changes in transmembrane potential * once initiated it will affect the entire excitable membrane * All or nothing, must meet threshold @ axon hillock to initiate Action Potential all the way to Synapse * **Not decremental or graded**

Answer 118

minimum stimulus required to form an action potential

Answer 119

1. The presynaptic neuron sends neurotransmitters to postsynaptic neuron. (A chemical message) 2. Once the threshold of excitation is reached (Axon Hillock) the neuron will fire an action potential. 3. Na+ channels open and Na+ is forced into the cell by the concentration gradient and the electrical gradient. depolarizing the neuron. 4. K+ channels open (@ -30mV) and K+ is forced out of the cell by the concentration gradient and the electrical gradient. The neuron continues to depolarize. 5. The Na+ channels close at the peak of the action potential (+30mV). The neuron starts to repolarize. The K+ channels close, but they close slowly and K+ leaks out. 6. The neurotransmitter is released to the postsynaptic neuron 7. The resting potential(-70mV) is overshot and the neuron falls to a -90mV (hyperpolarized) 8. The Na+/K+ pump then starts to pump 3Na+ ions out for every 2K+ ions it pumps in, some K+ leaks out synapse. 9. The neuron returns to resting potential

Answer 120

* period of time when neuron is unavailable to refire * From time it leaves it's resting potential -70mV, depolarizes yo +30mV and returns to -70mV * Like Toilet - the time when toilet is flushed until it has minimum amt. of water necessary to flush again.

Answer 121

* Period of time after cell has depolarized and returned to initial resting potential; however cell is now in hyperpolarization phase and is not best suited for reconduction * Analogous to being able to flush the toilet before it is optimal to do so.

Answer 122

* Continuously Propogatate - local current depolarizes adjacent membrane * Can't travel backwards (True for all AP's)

Answer 123

* Oligodendrocytes/Schwanns Cells that wrap around axon, * Produces salutatory conduction/propogation as nerve impulse jumps from node to node along signal path

Answer 124

* Electrical - does not require chemical nerotransmitter * Chemical - common in cardiac cells, requires use of nerotransmitter; \*makes up majority of synapses

Answer 125

* is a special kind of effect of a hormone on its target. * The hormone activates or deactivates ionotropic receptors (ligand-gated ion channels). * The effect can be either positive or negative, whether the effect is a depolarization or a hyperpolarization respectively.

Answer 126

* effects some sort of metabolic activity inside the cell * ie. second messengers are molecules that relay signals from receptors on the cell surface to target molecules inside the cell

Answer 127

1. AP arrives at synaptic knob 2. Voltage changes allow opening of Ca²⁺ voltage gated chanels entry of Ca²⁺ions 3. Entry of Ca²⁺ ions allows vessicles containing nerotransmitters to fuse with membrane and excytosis of neurotransmetters into synaptic clef 4. Neurotransmitter binds to ligand gated channel on post synaptic membrane, inhibitory/excititory transmission follows 5. Neurotransmitter broken down or taken up into presynaptic membrane

Answer 128

The five basic functions that all living things share are: * responsiveness * growth * reproduction * movement * metabolism.

Answer 129

Anatomy is the study of internal and external **structures**. Physiology is the study of how living organisms perform their vital **functions**.

Answer 130

Pathophysiology is the study of the effects of disease on the body. Pathophysiology can be broken down into **acute** and **chronic** illnesses and how they affect the body.

Answer 131

* Molecular/Chemical * Cellular * Tissues * Organs * Organ Systems * Organism

Answer 132

* Skeletal * Integumentary * Endocrine * Cardiovascular * Lymphatic * Digestive * Reproductive * Respiratory * Nervous * Muscular * Urinary/Renal

Answer 133

The patient suffered an anterior laceration on the surface of the patella, with superficial bleeding.

Answer 134

A CT scan commonly captures images of the transverse plane.

Answer 135

The two major functions of body cavities are to: * protect delicate organs * permit changes in size and shape of organs. They do this by providing a lining to each organ (visceral) and their associated cavity(parietal). They space between the two linings is filled with fluid which acts as a cushion, allowing linings to slide past each other without creating friction e.g. the lungs while breathing, or the stomach after ingesting a large meal.

Answer 136

The umbilical or naval is at the center of the four quadrants. The quadrants contain the following organs: RUQ – Gallbladder, Ascending colon, Liver, Portion of Small Intestine RLQ – Appendix, Cecum, Portion of Small Intestine, Portion of bladder LUQ – Stomach, Pancreas, Portion of Small Intestine, spleen LLQ – Descending colon, Sigmoid colon, Portion of Small Intestine

Answer 137

Homeostasis is the underlying principal of A&P. It is the existence of a stable internal environment necessary to preserve normal body function, failure to maintain leads to disease/illness, which without intervention results in death. **The Three Components are Receptor, Control Center, Effector** The key components of homeostatic regulation are intrinsic and extrinsic regulation. * **Intrinsic** is the local change or automatic adjustment in a cell, tissue, organ or organ system in response to an internal environment change. * **Extrinsic** is a commanded change or action, specifically found with the endocrine or nervous systems.

Answer 138

* **Negative feedback** is a variation outside of normal limits. In the case of negative feedback the effector opposes the original stimulus, attempting to minimize change therefore maximizing survival. * **Positive feedback** the initial feedback is exaggerated and reinforced causing a change that brings the body further from homeostasis, after a time this feedback will be turned off and the body will return to homeostasis, eg. Digestion.

Answer 139

Understanding what is “normal” in the human body and how the body compensates for normal body functions can help us understand how it compensates for injuries and illness. Developing a better idea of homeostasis will enable us to develop better differential diagnoses and comprehensive patient care.

Answer 140

The likely-hood that an atom will form a chemical bond is determined by the number of electrons in its valence shell. Atoms that have +/- 1 to 2 electrons from having a full valence shell are the most likely to make chemical bonds. If the valence shell is full it is considered inert and is unable to readily form a chemical bond.

Answer 141

Potassium = K Sodium = Na Carbon = C Oxygen = O

Answer 142

A molecule is comprised of more than one atom of the same element bonded together. A compound consists of _\>_ 2 elements bonded together. Compounds gain new chemical properties when they bond.

Answer 143

Ionic bonds are formed by the transfer of one or more electrons from one atom to another. A common example of this is Sodium Chloride, where the Na atom donates an electron to the Cl atom changing their resultant charges to Na- and Cl+. This resulting charge forms the ionic bond between the atoms, because opposites attract.

Answer 144

Ionic bonds gain or lose an electron from respective atoms; Covalent bonds share electrons in their valence shell so that each atom is able to become stable.

Answer 145

A reversible reaction can take place in either direction; ie. A + B ⇔ AB or seperatley Synthesis: A + B ⇒ AB; Decomposition Synthesis: AB ⇒A+B. In **dynamic equilibrium** the reversible reaction is taking place *simultaneously at the same rate*

Answer 146

Inorganic compounds largely don’t contain H and C, examples of these compounds found in the body are: CO2/O2 - found at all times in the cardiovascular system H2O – Water makes up to 2/3rds of total body weight

Answer 147

Water plays a crucial role in the body because: * It makes up a majority of the total body weight * It is a solvent used for creating solution and creating a medium for chemical reactions * It has a high heat capacity which helps it to maintain or absorb heat before changing body temperature.

Answer 148

An acid is any substance that breaks apart to release a Hydrogen ion, strong acids dissociate completely in a solution; A Base is any substance that breaks apart and releases OH- (hydroxide ion)

Answer 149

The [H+] or hydrogen ion concentration and pH have a direct relationship. The higher the [H+] the higher the acidity, and the lower the pH value.

Answer 150

The role of the buffer is to resist large swings of pH in the body. Buffers release Hydrogen ions (acting as an acid) when the pH begins to rise, and binding Hydrogen ion (acting as a base) when pH drops. Tums works by neutralizing the acidity of stomach acid by binding Hydrogen ion. The bi-product of the Tums reaction is H2O.

Answer 151

Organic compounds are categorized into: lipids, proteins, carbohydrates, nucleic acids – High E bonds * They always contain C & H * May contain O * Occasionally contain N & P * May be soluble in water * Are always covalent bonds

Answer 152

* Glycogen is a polysaccharide. * It is a larger molecule composed of glucose in branched chains. * It is stored in skeletal muscle and liver cells. * When blood glucose gets low, liver cells break down their storage reserves of glycogen and give the body a boost.

Answer 153

* Solubility is the ability to disolve/ionize in water. * It is important that lipids are generally non-soluble because phospholipids are used in the formation of cell membranes, without which life could not exist.

Answer 154

3 major functions of proteins in the human body are: * Fibrous proteins provide the chief building materials of the body. * Enzymes are globular proteins which act as biological catalysts. * Plasma Proteins function reversibly as acids or bases to help regulate wide swings of pH in the blood stream.

Answer 155

* Nucleic acids are the largest molecules in the body, composed of CHONP. * They are important because they contain RNA and DNA as well as are responsible for the formation of ATP. * RNA works with DNA to synthesize proteins. * DNA encodes the information used to build proteins, directs synthesis of structural proteins, and controls all the features and characteristics of each person.

Answer 156

* The high-energy bond found in ATP is important because it is an energy reserve for the body. * It takes so much energy to hold the phosphates to one another and to the ribose, and because energy is not destroyed, when it is broken off from the bond of the other phosphate, it releases the energy stored for use wherever the body needs it.

Answer 157

1- Cells are the building blocks of all plant and animal cells 2- Cells are the smallest functioning unit of life 3- Cells are produced through the division of pre-existing cells 4- Each cell maintains homeostasis

Answer 158

One function of the cell membrane is to keep the Intracellular Fluid isolated from the Extracellular fluid, this is important to maintain homeostasis, as the ECF and ICF have different compositions and electrical balances.

Answer 159

* The water-loving heads of the phospholipid are happy being in contact with the water in the ECF & ICF, where as the water-fearing tails create a barrier that is resistant. * This aids in isolation of fluids and permits passage of select small molecules lipid soluble particles.

Answer 160

The primary reason for the relatively negative charge in the ICF is due to the presence of the Protein anion.

Answer 161

* Potassium is highly concentrated inside the cell, * Sodium, Chloride, and Calcium have a higher concentration in the ECF

Answer 162

* Endoplasmic Reticulum – * Smooth – Synthesis of lipids and carbohydrates * Rough – make proteins and ship them to the Golgi Apparatus * Golgi Apparatus – receives/processes/ships * receives proteins from Rough ER, * modifies them to meet need of cell; * ships via Lysosomes internally, Secretory Vesicles to the ECF, and Membrane Renewal Vesicles for repair of damaged cell wall and structures. * Lysosomes – are shipped by Golgi Apparatus, containing up to 40 different digestive enzymes which are toxic and must be contained. They temporary link up with other vesicles to break down “trash” and unused tissues.

Answer 163

* **Diffusion** is the passive process of equalization, where particles move down their concentration gradient form an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration. * **Osmosis** is waters characteristic to travel from an area of high water concentration to an area of low water concentration across a membrane.

Answer 164

If you place a red blood cell into a hypertonic solution water will push its way from the relatively hypotonic cell out into the solution, causing the cell to crenate. This is important because providing the wrong type of solution could further the disease process.

Answer 165

* Active transport – requires ATP, moves against the concentration gradient; Na-K Pump * Facilitated Diffusion – Passive, uses concentration gradient; like glucose and the revolving door

Answer 166

The Sodium Potassium pump’s role is to pump sodium ions out of the ICF **against the concentration gradient**, and facilitate the movement of Potassium from the ECF into the ICF to **maintain the transmembrane potential** of the cell.

Answer 167

Exocytosis is the active transport process of expelling contents or secretions of vesicle from cell into the ECF

Answer 168

The transmembrane potential occurs where opposite charges are held apart by a cell membrane. The sodium potassium pump, and the Protein anion enable the ICF to maintain a relatively negative charge when compared to the ECF.

Answer 169

RNA – is used for transcription and creation of proteins from nucleus to ribosome.

Answer 170

* The cell life cycle consists of 3 stages: DNA Replication, Mitosis, and Cytokinesis * The main four phases of cell division during Mitosis are: 1. Prophase: Chromatids are attached and present, spindles are beginning to form, 2. Metaphase: Chromasomes are lined up on mid line, 3. Anaphase: Chromasomes begin to seperate, 4. Telophase: Cleavage furrow forms. 5. Cytokinesis complete when cell separates into two individual cells

Answer 171

* Epithelial – Linings and Coverings * Connective – Fills internal spaces – *most widely varied* * Muscle – Specialized for contraction * Nervous - Communication

Answer 172

* Due to the harsh conditions epithelial cells encounter they have stem cells so that they may be able to regenerate themselves. * They are avascular, meaning that they must receive their nutrients from either the basal membrane or via the exposed layer. * Epithelial cells are also polar, meaning they essentially have a top and a bottom, one surface is always bound to the basal lamina, and the other side is exposed.

Answer 173

A gap junction is a specialized intercellular connection that allows for the rapid passage of ions between cells.

Answer 174

The only difference between simple and stratified cells is the number of layers that they possess. * **Simple** epithelium consists of a **single** layer, * **Stratified** consists of **more than one layer** of cells.

Answer 175

* Bone belongs to “supporting connective tissue”. * Blood belongs to “fluid connective tissue”. * Adipose belongs to “loose connective tissue proper”.

Answer 176

* When lipid levels in the blood are chronically elevated, excess lipids are converted into more adipose tissue. * Adipose tissue however never goes away, the increased number of adipose cells will always remain, * where as muscle cells will be broken down after periods of disuse.

Answer 177

* Serous membranes are a set of two linings: * the visceral lines the organ; * parietal lines the respective cavity. * Serous fluid fills the gap between linings to lubricate changing organ size and cushion organs from friction and trauma. * Mucous membranes are wet/mucous lined surfaces comprised of glands, and connective and epithelial tissues.

Answer 178

* Muscles are striated due to linear arrangement of actin and myosin which act together to produce contraction, * non striated muscle simply lacks organization of actin and myosin fibers. * Skeletal muscle and cardiac muscle are striated, * muscle found in the stomach and bladder lack striation.

Answer 179

* Neurons- the nerve cells * neuroglia - supporting cells-

Answer 180

Tissue necrosis is cell death that take place within hours of injury. Lysosomes begin to digest damaged cells and parts.