Macromolecules Flashcards
(97 cards)
1
Q
What are the two major groups of molecules
A
Organic and Inorganic
2
Q
3 characteristics of organic Molecules (Macromolecules)
A
Have carbon, produced in association with living things and are complex
3
Q
4 types of macromolecules
A
Carbohydrates, Proteins, nucleic acid (DNA, RNA), lipids (fats and oils)
4
Q
What does a polysaccharide contain
A
Repeating units of sugar
5
Q
2 Examples of a mono-saccharide
A
Glucose, fructose
6
Q
Examples of a Di-saccharide
A
Sucrose, lactose
7
Q
3 examples of a polysaccharide
A
Starch, cellulose, glycogen
8
Q
What is the purpose of glucose
A
Source of energy
9
Q
What is the purpose of starch
A
Used by plants to store excess energy
10
Q
What is the purpose of cellulose
A
In the structure of cell walls
11
Q
Purpose of glycogen
A
Storage of energy in muscle (animals only)
12
Q
Purpose of chitin
A
Exoskeleton of authropods
13
Q
Chitosan purpose
A
Cell wall of fungi
14
Q
What are lipids made up of
A
Subunits of glycerol and fatty acids.
15
Q
What are lipids used for
A
Storage of excess energy
16
Q
What is the primary structure of a protein
A
The sequence of amino acids
17
Q
What two aspects make up a lipid
A
Glycerol and fatty acids
18
Q
What three parts make up a phospholipid
A
Glycerol, phosphate and fatty acids
19
Q
Formula for carbohydrates
A
C6H12O6
20
Q
What are enzymes used for
A
Biological catalysts
21
Q
What are enzymes
A
Proteins
22
Q
What is the specific region where enzymes bind to a subtrate called
A
Active site
23
Q
What happens to an enzyme when it comes into contact with a subtrate
A
Enzyme shape changes to more perfectly fit the substrate
24
Q
What happens to enzymes when they get too hot
A
Denature
25
What are four things which may stop enzymes from working
Temperature, pH, Concentration and the Presence of inhibitors
26
What's a competitive inhibitor
An inhibitor which is the same shape as the substrate, binds to the enzyme and doesn't Let go
27
What's a non competitive inhibitor
Binds elsewhere on the enzyme Changing the shape of the active site.
28
What is the primary structure of a protein
The sequence of amino acids
29
What two aspects make up a lipid
Glycerol and fatty acids
30
What three parts make up a phospholipid
Glycerol, phosphate and fatty acids
31
Formula for carbohydrates
C6H12O6
32
What are enzymes used for
Biological catalysts
33
What are enzymes
Proteins
34
What is the specific region where enzymes bind to a subtrate called
Active site
35
What happens to an enzyme when it comes into contact with a subtrate
Enzyme shape changes to more perfectly fit the substrate
36
What happens to enzymes when they get too hot
Denature
37
What are four things which may stop enzymes from working
Temperature, pH, Concentration and the Presence of inhibitors
38
What's a competitive inhibitor
An inhibitor which is the same shape as the substrate, binds to the enzyme and doesn't Let go
39
What's a non competitive inhibitor
Binds elsewhere on the enzyme Changing the shape of the active site.
40
What do enzymes do to reaction energy
Lower it
41
Do enzymes change the energy of the products
No
42
What are the three ways enzymes lower activation energy
Correctly orientate reactants, bind to the substrate putting a strain on the bonds between molecules, makes a long complicated sequence of steps requiring only a small amount of activation energy
43
Role of DNA
Give genetic information to new cells, contain the 'instructions' on how to create proteins vital for a cells function
44
Polymer define
Repeating units of nucleotides
45
3 aspects of a nucleotide
Phosphate, Sugar, Nucleotide
46
Complimentary base pairs and number of hydrogen bonds
A-T two
| G-C three
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Why is DNA replication a semi conservative process
Includes 1 new and old strand of DNA
48
When does DNA replication occur in the cell cycle
Interphase
49
Four steps of DNA replication
1) Helicase breaks hydrogen bonds 2) Free nucleotides join to complementary base pairs using DNA polymerase 3) Enzyme rewinds double helix 4) Two new double Helices each containing one of the original strands are formed.
50
Gene define
A sequence of DNA that has instructions to make a protein
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Where are proteins made
Ribosomes
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What does transcription do
Creates a molecule to take instructions to the ribosome
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Qualities of RNA
Single stranded, ribose sugar not deoxyribose, can leave nucleus, uses Uracil instead of Thymine
54
3 types of RNA
messenger RNA, transfer RNA, ribosomal RNA
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3 steps of transcription
1) DNA unwinds at specific point using enzyme Helicase
2) Free RNA base pairs start to line up against the right DNA strand
3) RNA base pairs join together with help from the enzyme RNA polymerase to form the mRNA molecule. The original DNA strands rejoin with help from the enzyme DNA polymerase
56
Description of tRNA
Contains an anticodon at one end and a specific amino acid at the other, clover shaped
57
What is a gene mutation
Change in genetic material (DNA Code)
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What is 'junk' DNA
DNA which doesn't code for a protein, makes up 93% of human DNA
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What frequency do mutations occur at
1 in every billion base pairs, everybody has about 6 mutations per cell
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3 effects mutations may have
Cause harm, be helpful, have no effect
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How do genetic mutations effect a population
Cause genetic variation, may allow some people to survive better
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Which mutations are passed on to offspring
Mutations in gametes
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3 types of mutations
Substitution, Deletion, Insertion
| D & I are frameshift
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Will substitution mutations effect the amino acid or protein
Maybe
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Will insertion mutations effect the amino acid or protein
Yes, always
66
Will deletion mutations effect the amino acid or protein
Yes, always
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Example of a substitution mutation
Sickle cell anemia
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Example of an insertion mutation
Hungtingtons disease
69
What natural factors cause gene mutations
UV Light, radiation, increased temperatures
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What non natural factors cause mutations
X-Ray's, smoking, chemicals (carcinogens)
71
What are bases attached to in DNA
Sugar Phosphate backbone
72
What is a chromosome made of
Many Genes
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What is the induced fit model
when the active site on the enzymes makes contact with the proper substrate, the enzyme molds itself to the shape of the molecule
74
First 3 steps of PCR
Remove bacterial DNA (known as a plasmid).
Cut the Bacterial DNA with restriction enzymes.
Cut the DNA with the required gene from the “gene donor” organism. This is done with restriction enzymes.
75
Final 4 Steps of PCR
Select the required gene in gene donor DNA using a probe or antibody method and cut the gene required using the restriction enzyme. The DNA is left with “sticky ends”. Sticky ends have a complementary code that allows it to attach to complementary plasmid donor DNA
Restriction enzymes are used to cut the plasmid complementary to the sticky ends. Combine the cut pieces of DNA into the plasmid with the enzyme ligase and insert them into bacteria
Reproduce the recombinant bacteria.
The foreign genes will be expressed in the bacteria which code for the needed protein.
76
What is a DNA probe
A short piece of DNA or RNA which is complementary to the gene to locate it. It is labelled with a radioactive chemical and mixed with the DNA strand. It is heated to unzip the DNA and on cooling the probe will have bonded to the specific area of the DNA
77
Why is taq polymerase used
DNA polymerase would denature when PCR is heated to Almost 100 degrees
78
What is primer used for
Prevent the DNA from binding with the original strand
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What is buffer used for in PCR
Maintains pH
80
4 steps of Gel Electrophoresis
1. Cut DNA sample with restriction enzymes at recognition sites. The lengths of the DNA fragments will vary depending on the individual. These DNA fragments are known as Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLPs)
Place the DNA into an agarose gel which is connected to a power source with +ve (anode) and –ve (cathode) electrodes. “Run” the DNA fragments through a gel.
3. The phosphate group gives the DNA a negative charge, therefore the DNA fragments will move towards the positive electrode
3. Bands will form in the gel known as a DNA fingerprint. The longer ones do not move as far as the shorter fragments.
4. Everyone’s DNA bands are unique due to some fragments and can be used to identify a person. The Junk DNA found in our chromosomes are what make our DNA more unique
81
What is transgenesis
This is the incorporation of “foreign” DNA into higher order plants and animals.
82
3 steps of somatic cell transfer
1. A nucleus with desired DNA is
added to another egg cell and fused using electrical impulses.
2. The cell will grow into an embryo
3. The embryo is implanted into a surrogate and grown to term
83
What does the unique shape of each and every protein determine
It's particle function as its structure is suited to this
84
How do most proteins function
By recognising and binding to other molecules
85
What is the primary structure of a protein
The unique sequence of amino acids
86
What is the secondary structure of a protein
The coiling or folding that contributes to the particular shape of the protein caused by hydrogen bonding between the amino acids
87
What is the tertiary structure of a protein
The three dimensional folding of the polypeptide chain to give rise to its functional shape
88
What is the quaternary structure of a protein
For proteins that have more than one polypeptide chain linked together, arises due to bonding between the chains
89
How does the structure of receptor proteins assist in their functions
It will have a particular shape that will bind to the shape of specific messenger molecule such as a hormone
90
What are antigens
Foreign or non-self molecules usually found embedded in the membrane of cells
91
What are antibodies
Protein molecules that are part of the defence system of organisms and act by binding to antigens
92
What is about antibodies that allows them to bind with and inactive antigens
The particular 3D shape of the quaternary structure
93
What is the process of DNA hybridization
DNA from two species is heated to get complementary strands to separate from one another. Upon cooling the single strands of DNA recombine to form the DNA double helix again. The degree of bonding between one species' DNA and another gives a measure of how closely related the two species are
94
3 general uses of genetic engineering
Producing desired proteins eg Insulin or vaccines
Improving plants
Improving animals
95
3 steps of transferring genes into animals
1) Isolate gene of interest
2) inject the recombinant DNA with a fine glass needle into the pronuclei present in the embryo 12-14 hrs after fertilisation
3) transfer embryo to a recipient mother where it can develop into normal animal
96
Three steps of PCR
DNA is heated to about 95 degrees to separate the complimentary strands, primer is used to prevent strands from rejoining
DNA polymerase and free nucleotide are added
DNA is cooled to allow binding of the free nucleotides to the exposed bases and the formation of complementary strands of DNA
97
Describe the process of gel electrophoresis
Restriction enzymes extract DNA from cells creating ''restriction fragments'. The fragments are placed at one end of a flat rectangular gel, electrodes are at both ends and DNA (has negative charge PO4^3-) moves towards positive end, smaller fragments move quicker allowing scientists to compare differences
