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1
Q

What kind of neuroimaging did Owen use?

A

fMRI

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2
Q

Describe the main outline of Owen’s 2006 study

A
  • A patient in vegetative state was (verbally) asked to perform two imagery tasks:
    1) Imagine playing tennis
    2) Imagine visiting the rooms in your home
  • Neural activation was found to be highly similar to that of a healthy, conscious person
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3
Q

Describe the neural activity that was produced in the subject of Owen’s study.

A

Spatial mental imagery task (visiting rooms): Parahippocampal gyrus, posterior parietal cortex, lateral premotor cortex

Motor imagery task (playing tennis): supplementary motor areas

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4
Q

What conclusion did Owen draw from his study?

A

That patients in the vegetative state have consciousness and an active mental life.

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5
Q

What was the basic intention behind the study by Monti (2010)?

A

Investigating the ability of vegetative or minimally conscious subjects to communicate using their brain activation

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6
Q

What was asked of the participants in Monti’s study?

A

Similar to Owen: Imagery tasks:

1) Motor Imagery - Imagine standing on a tennis court and swinging an arm to hit a ball back and forth
2) Spatial Imagery - Imagine navigating the streets of a familiar city or walking from room to room in your house.

Additionally:
3) Communication Task - The participants were asked to attempt to answer yes-or-no questions by using either motor or spatial imagery to modulate their brain activity.

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7
Q

What were the results of Monti’s study?

A

Only 5 out of 54 participants were able to willfully manipulate their brain activity. Out of these 5, only one could use this to answer the questions

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8
Q

What is an interesting characteristic of the 5 people in Monti’s study, that could willfully modulate their brain activity?

A

They all had traumatic brain injury

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9
Q

What does Monti’s study add to the clinical diagnostics of patients whose consciousness is impaired?

A
  • fMRI complements existing diagnostics by providing a method for detecting covert signals of residual cognitive function and awareness
  • Clinical categorisation in this field can be risky and difficult
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10
Q

Burton criticizes Owen’s conclusions from his study. Explain his photograph-analogy.

A

He says that fMRI is like a photo from the outside of a house - One can see whether lights are on and even calculate how much electricity is used. But whether someone is at home to consciously experience this light is still unclear.

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11
Q

What gives rise to the neural processes found by Owen, according to Burton?

A

The pieces of the neural circuity that are able to make unconscious choices might still be physically intact and thus produce the fMRI output we see.

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12
Q

What ethical comments does Burton make about the study by Owen?

A

He says that Owen gives families of LIS patients false hope and that consciousness in these patients would be torture for them.

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13
Q

What does Burton say, Owen’s study actually shows?

A

How much neural activity is at a subconscious level

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14
Q

In his article, Kim et al. show multiple techniques for manipulating visual awareness. What criteria are these evaluated on?

A
  • Generalizability
  • Visual Field Dependency
  • Duration
  • Robustness
  • Invariant Stimulation
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15
Q

What psychophysical techniques are described by Kim et al.?

A
  • Degraded Visual Stimulation
  • Masking & Crowding
  • Bistable Perception (Figures; Binocular Rivalry)
  • Motion induced Blindness
  • Flash Suppression
  • Inattentional Blindness
  • Change Blindness
  • Attentional Blink
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16
Q

What is the theory behind visual masking / Degraded visual stimulation (according to Kim et al.)?

A

That the exposure is too brief for re-entrant signals to occur, which are required for conscious percept.

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17
Q

What do Kim et al. mention as a limitation of degraded visual stimulation?

A

It is a very exact procedure that is not very generalizable.

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18
Q

What are limitations of visual crowding according to Kim et al.?

A
  • It can only validly be done in the periphery
  • Participants might still be aware of the presence of the target but not consciously identify it. This might blur the line between aware and unaware.
  • Doesn’t fulfill the criterion of invariant stimulation
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19
Q

What do Kim et al. mention as something one can do in visual crowding but not in masking?

A

Showing the stimulus for extended periods

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20
Q

How do Kim et al. define bistable perception?

A

When an observer experiences fluctuations in the content of their awareness despite unchanging visual stimulation

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21
Q

What are advantages of bistable perception mentioned by Kim et al.?

A
  • Extended viewing periods
  • No change in physical stimulation
  • Figures can be large and don’t require fixation on some point
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22
Q

What is a disadvantage of bistable perception according to Kim et al.?

A

The inability to control the timing

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23
Q

What is something that binocular rivalry adds to the advantages of bistable figures? (Kim et al.)

A

Any two dissimilar cues can be used and not just ambiguous figures.

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24
Q

What do we have to do according to Kim et al., in order to find the NCVA?

A

produce the physiological effect of seeing something without being aware of it

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25
How does DeGraaf (2016) define attention and why it happens?
Attention is the prioritized processing of some inputs from a larger set of selectable items. There is an advantage in not having to consciously perceive everything.
26
What two types of Attention does DeGraaf (2016) differentiate?
Top-Down/Endogenous and Bottom-Up/Exogenous
27
How do the Posner tasks used in DeGraaf (2016) differ between their endogenous and exogenous versions?
In the endogenous posner task, arrows near the fovea indicate where the target might appear while in the exogenous posner task, cues appeared in the location where the targets would appear. This forces the attention of the participant to this location rather than letting him/her autonomously adjust their attention.
28
Why was the time between showing the arrows (endogenous posner task) and showing the target larger than that between showing the endogenous cues and the target? (DeGraaf, 2016)
Because the arrows can act as exogenous cues as well, grabbing attention in the middle. The added time gives the opportunity to recover from this.
29
Which other theories did DeGraaf discuss?
Feature Integration Theory, Resource Theory, Broadbent's Filter Theory, Egly's Object Attention
30
Describe the 2x2 design by Koch et al. (2012).
Factor 1: Visibility of the target grating (Manipulated by flash suppression using a grey "ring") Factor 2: Locus of attention (Participants asked to either do a letter detection task or focus on the presence of the grating.)
31
What was the main finding of Koch et al. (2012)?
BOLD activation was determined by whether the participant focused on the grating or the letter detection task. When focusing on the grating, there was more activity in relevant areas, independently of whether the target was actually visible.
32
How can the neuroscientific findings of Koch be interpreted in terms of theories of attention?
Activity in V1 seems to be modulated rather by attention than awareness.
33
What are some questions that Koch proposes for future research?
1) How do other cortical regions respond do a similar task? 2) Where in the visual hierarchy does consciousness start to have an influence? 3) Are other primary sensory areas also independent of consciousness?
34
Whose experiment did Koch et al. repeat in a modified form?
Watanabe
35
How was visibility of the target grating in Watanabe's study modified?
When the flashing ring was displayed to the same eye as the target, the target was visible, but when the flash suppression was on the other eye, this rendered the grating on the other eye invisible.
36
Why did Watanabe include some trials of visible targets in the invisible condition and vice versa?
To ensure participants' attention
37
What is a conclusion of Watanabe's study?
That top-down attention influence low level visual perception.
38
What are two arguments made by Watanabe et al. that explain why the result by Koch and Watanabe hasn't been demonstrated earlier?
1) Awareness and attention are difficult to separate experimentally, and this hasn’t been done properly in the past, leading to confounded results. 2) Studies that argue that V1 is important for awareness because V1 lesions are deleterious for visual awareness fail to see that through V1 lesions, recurrent processing involving higher order regions, which is the actual basis for awareness, is also affected.
39
What does Lamme (2003) say about the relationship between attention and awareness?
They are interrelated but not equivalent.
40
Describe the theory of attention laid out by Lamme
Inputs are grouped into either conscious or unconscious. Then comes the filter, that is decides whether something is attended und thus made available for conscious report, or not.
41
Describe the change blindness experiment that supports Lamme's view
In the time between showing the old picture and the new one, the location of the change is indicated. Even though the old image had already disappeared, the indication of the location defeats the effect of change blindness. This supports that we store the entire image in our working memory for a short time without being aware of this, and attending a certain aspect of this image makes it reportable.
42
How does Lamme describe the neuroscientific definition of saliency?
Saliency reflects how long-term memory has shaped and modified sensory processing
43
What kind of NCC does Lamme support?
Feedforward Sweep and Recurrent Processing
44
What is the basic structure of the content of Pinto's 2017 article on the split brain?
He reexamines five hallmarks of split-brain syndrome and explains their pitfalls. He then presents his new model of unified consciousness but unintegrated perception.
45
What is the logic of Pinto's Unintegrated Perception?
Due to the split brain, perceptual information is not shared between hemispheres which leads to maximal specialization.
46
According to Kroustallis (2005), which visual stream is more damaged than the other in blindsight patients?
The ventral stream
47
What is neuroscientific evidence that supports the idea of Kroustallis?
There is an alternative retinal pathway towards V5, which is undamaged in blindsight and which responds to movement, orientation and position.
48
What experiment (according to Kroustallis) made some researchers believe that there is no actual impairment in visual recognition in blindsight patients?
After being shown a word in the blind eye field, the participants (unknowingly) chose words from a group in the intact visual field, that were the same or related
49
In Kroustallis' article, he mentions Marcel, who makes some suggestions for the study of blindsight. What are these?
That indirect research methods are better suited for studying blindsight than the classical forced-choice guessing paradigms.
50
How does Kroustallis define Blindsight?
As a defect of both form and motion perception, correlated with a partial loss of phenomenal awareness.
51
Mutz & Amir-Homayoun (2017) mention the Activation Synthesis Hypothesis. What is its content?
Dreaming results from the physiology of REM sleep.
52
The tendency to forget our dreams is mentioned in Mutz & Amir-Homayoun (2017) and is called ____?
Dream Amnesia
53
What are the most important physiologies of REM sleep mentioned in Mutz & Amir-Homayoun (2017)?
- High freq.-Low Amp. EEG - Increased Heart Rate - Temporary Muscle Paralysis - Increased Respiratory Activity - Similar EEG and PET signals as wakefulness - Strong metabolic activity in higher-order visual areas - Hyperactivity in areas often associated with the Default Mode Network
54
What is, according to Mutz & Amir-Homayoun (2017), one aspect of REM sleep that might lead to the lack of insight, metacognition and memory during dreams?
Decreased activity in executive areas in the PFC
55
What oscillations can be seen on an EEG during non-REM sleep (Mutz & Amir-Homayoun (2017))?
Low Freq.-High Amp.
56
Which of the nonREM sleep stage is most associated with dreaming?
N1
57
According to Mutz & Amir-Homayoun (2017), what happens later at night when comparing REM and NREM sleep?
They become more similar
58
Where do Mutz & Amir-Homayoun (2017) see the potential for research in lucid dreaming?
It might be used to investigate the neural correlates of secondary consciousness.
59
Is there consciousness during REM sleep dreams according to Mutz & Amir-Homayoun (2017)?
Yes, primary consciousness
60
What is the main subject of Libet's 1985 article?
Readiness Potentials
61
What was the aim behind Libet's experiment?
Comparing the onset times of the conscious intention to act and the associated cerebral processes
62
Which confounders of previous experiments on voluntary action has Libet addressed?
- When action is repeated, it may become automatic and thus have different neural underpinnings - Voluntary will cannot be constrained by time limits - Subjects in previous experiments were urged to not blink before making the voluntary action, which limits the validity of the voluntary action.
63
What was asked of participants of Libet's experiment?
They simply had to flex their hand whenever they felt the urge to do so. Afterwards, they were asked, when this urge first arose.
64
How did participants in Libet's experiment indicate when they first felt the urge to act?
They had to indicate where a revolving spot of light was on a clock face
65
According to Libet, there are two types of RPs, what are they and when do they occur?
- Type I RP: Planned action; 1050ms before motor action | - Type II RP: Spontaneous act; 550ms before motor action
66
Next to the difference between RP and motor EMG there was another time difference that Libet investigated. What was this?
The difference between when participants indicated to have felt the urge to act (using the clock face) and the motor EMG. This difference was on average 200ms.
67
What is the main conclusion from Libet's article?
That voluntary acts are generally preceded by unconscious cerebral initiation, that begins before the individual has consciously made the choice to act.
68
How could unconscious cerebral activity preceding action add to theories of consciousness according to Libet?
The hypothesis is proposed, that it takes a certain time of mental activity in order to elicit conscious experience of cognition.
69
Despite his findings, Libet is not supporting determinism. How does he reason that people can still have conscious control?
He proposes, that acts initiated in the unconscious can then be consciously vetoed.
70
Where would the veto fit in the timeline, according to Libet?
The brain sends out the final motor potential at about 10-50ms before the motor EMG happens. As an intention becomes consciously reportable at about -200ms, this leaves about 150ms for conscious control of the decision.
71
What is some evidence for the existence of a veto as described by Libet?
- Introspective reports by subjects | - When explicitly asked to veto an action, the EEG looked different
72
According to Soon et al., RPs appear primarily from the SMA. Why is this a fact that leads them to doubt whether decision originate from here?
It is a location for late-stage motor planning
73
What is a point of criticism of Soon et al. against Libet's original study?
If the RP is truly associated with the action it precedes is not clear.
74
Describe the modified Libet experiment that Soon et al. conducted.
Participants focused at a stream of letters on a screen while being able to freely press either a left or right button as soon as they felt the urge to. After pressing the button, they were asked which letter was showing as they made the decision. This adds the dimension of content of action to the Libet experiment.
75
What were the findings in Soon et al.'s study and what conclusions can we draw?
- Whether the subject was going to choose left or right was predicted by activity in the frontopolar cortex and the parietal cortex - Recordings from the pre-SMA and the SMA could predict timings of the button push up to 5s before the fact - > Findings support that the frontopolar cortex is where the actual decision is made, while the precuneus (parietal lobe) stores the decision until it becomes aware - > The preparatory time period in high-level control regions is longer than previously imagined. The time period is actually too long to be explained by inaccuracies of measurements when it comes to brain signal and intention
76
Summarize the basic argument for the impossibility of moral responsibility as described by Strawson (1993)
We cannot truly be responsible for our actions, because nothing can be the cause of itself (Casa sui), which would be the case for some mental processes, if one was morally responsible.
77
Which step does Strawson say to be the most attacked one of the basic argument?
The second: That you have to be responsible of the way you are to be responsible of your actions
78
Why does Strawson say that determinism is not falsifiable?
So far, every other philosophical theory about free will just changes the "thing" that is the cause of its own existence, which in itself is not possible according to him.

Consciousness (12 decks)

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