MCAT Biology Flashcards
(500 cards)
1
Q
Peptide Hormones of anterior Pituitary (testies of the brain)
A
Porlactin (sparta), hGH (growth, lipid & carb. metabolism), beta-endorphin (nno pain!), Adrenocorticotropic hormone (secretion of the gluco- mineralo- & sex-coticoids),
2
Q
Glycoprotein Hormones of anterior Pituitary (testies of the brain)
A
TSH (stim. Thyroid hormoes), FSH (Growth of sex, Red Week d3 & primary spermatocytosis, acts with LH), Lutenizing H (Leydig cells - Testosterone, Red week),
3
Q
prolactin. (peptide)
A
300 Functions (sparticus!) Pituitary. Peptide hormone. Stim. Milk production & Reg. Immune function. Cell Cycle growth- differentation - antiapoptotic
4
Q
Testosterone. Source?
A
Testes.
5
Q
epinephrine. Function?
A
sympathetic stress response
6
Q
Prolactin. Source?
A
Anterior Pituitary
7
Q
Glucocorticoids. Source?
A
Adrenal Cortex. Steroid. Metabloism of Glucose
8
Q
Oxytocin. Action?
A
milk letdown, uteral contractions
9
Q
somatostatin
A
delta cells of pancreas, stomach, intestine. Inhibit hGH, inhibit TSH - suppress gastrointestional hormones
10
Q
hGrowth Hormone. Source?
A
Anterior Pituitary
11
Q
aldosterone
A
mineralocorticoid, secreted in the adrenal cortex, acts on distal convoluted tubule of kidney to promote sodium-potassium exchange
12
Q
glucagon
A
peptide hormone. Pancreas, alpha cells. More blood glucose!
13
Q
progesterone (steroid). Action?
A
Menstration, pregnancy, embryogenesis. Mineralcort. Recept. Antagonist - Sperm homing signal (ca++, CatSper)
14
Q
T3, T4
A
Tyrosine-based. Follicular cells of thyroid - Iodine required (goitre). Increase basal metabolic rate! Protein sysn. & long bone growth
15
Q
Thyroid Hormones (T4, T3). Source?
A
Thyroid
16
Q
Atrial Natriuretic Factor
A
Powerful vasodilator (peptide); secreted byatrial myocytes; targets kidney and increases urination to decrease blood pressure. Reduce H20, Na+, K+, Adipose on circulatory system
17
Q
glycogen
A
multibranched polysaccharide polymer that serves a storage form of glucose
18
Q
estrogen (steroid)
A
Secreted in the follicle, prevents maturation of more than one follicle at a time
19
Q
calcitonin (peptide)
A
Parafollicular cells of the thyroid, reduces blood calcium concentration, inhibits the normal process of bone resorption, inhibits renal tubular cell reabsorption of Ca2+
20
Q
what increases blood [glucose]?
A
glucagon, epinepherin, cortisol
21
Q
ADH
A
Retain and Constrict! Water absorption by kidney - collecting duct & distal convoluted tubule; increased blood pressure (always digging holes aquaporin-CD channels)
22
Q
Oxytocin. (peptide)
A
Stimulates uterine contractions during labor, milk secretion during lactation.
23
Q
Mineralocorticoids. (steroid)
A
Salt and Water balanceIncreases water absorption in kidneys
24
Q
parathyroid hormone (peptide)
A
produced in parathyroid glands in responce to low blood calcium, increases bone resorption and consequent calcium release, increases intestinal calcium uptake, and promotes calcium reuptake at the kidney
25
Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) (peptide)
released by hypothalamus. Stress response. Stimulates the pituitary to secrete ACTH - metabolism & parturition (pregancy)
26
what regulates [Ca++]?
parathyroid hormone (PTH) and calcitonin
27
hGH
Growth of nearly all cells (human growth hormone)
28
Thyroid Hormones (T4, T3). Action?
Stimulates metabolic activity.
29
How do peptide hormones act?
via secondary messengers.
30
luteinizing hormone (LH)
secreted by the anterior pituitary, stimulates the growth follicle, surge causes ovulation
31
epinephrine (amino acid derivative)
adrenal medulla. Sympathetic stress response (rapid). Heart rate, blood vessel & air passage diameter, metabolic shift
32
Estrogens
Growth of mother sex organs; causes LH surge
33
Melatonin. Action?
Unclear in humans... thought to have possible roles in circadian rhythms, as antioxidant, in immune system.
34
PP: oxytocin (peptide)
targets the breast to influence milk letdown. Also targets the uterus to influence contractions
35
FLAT PEG?
Fsh, Lh, Acth, Tsh, Pro, End, Gh.
36
Source?
Anterior Pituitary
37
3 effects of aldosterone
1. to increase urinary excretion of potassium 2.to increase interstitial sodium concentration 3. to increase water conservation
38
AP: luteinizing hormone (LH) (peptide and gonadotropic)
effects ovary and ovulation.effects testes and testosterone synthesis
39
How do steroid hormones act?
via a hormone/receptor binding to DNA.
40
EP- glucagon (alpha cells secrete) (peptide)
increase blood glucose and decrease glycogen and fat storage
41
melatonin
pineal, unclear to humans
42
thyroid hormone
thyroid, stimulates metabolic activity
43
lutenizing hormone
anterior pituitary, stimulates testosterone release in males and ovulation in females
44
mineralcorticoids
adrenal cortex, increase water reabsorption in kidneys
45
Testosterone
TESTES: male characteristics; spermatogenesis
46
insulin
pancreaslowers blood glucose and storage of glycogen
47
erythropoiletin
kidneystimulates bone marrow to increase production of erythrocytes
48
atrial natriuretic hormone
heartinvolved in osmoregulation
49
Thymosin
THYMUS: is involved in T-cell development during childhood.
50
Milk production and letdown
Oxytocin and Prolactin
51
Regulation of Ca
Parathyroid hormone and Calcitonin
52
Regulation of blood glucose
Insulin and Glucagon
53
follicle stimulating hormone
anterior pituitarystimulates follicle stimulation in femalesspermatogenisis in males
54
thyroid stimulating hormone
anterior pituitarystimulates the release of thyroid hormones from thyroid
55
Regulation of [Ca2+]
Parathyroid hormone and Calcitonin
56
Growth hormone
anterior pituitary; Promotes bone and muscle growth; inhibits uptake of glucose by some cells; Stimulates breakdown of fatty acids; Stimulated by GHRH and inhibited by somatostatin
57
Adrenocorticotropic hormone
ANTERIOR PITUITARY -> ADRENAL GLAND: increases growth and secretory activity of adrenal cortex
58
Erythropoeitin
KIDNEY -> BONE MARROW: increases RBC synthesis
59
epinephrine and norepinephrine
adrenal medullaincrease blood glucose level and heart rate
60
Luteinizing hormone
ANTERIOR PITUITARY -> OVARY/ TESTES: ovulation or testosterone synthesis
61
atrial natriuretic peptide
heart; involved in osmoregulation and vasodilation
62
Atrial natriuretic factor
HEART -> KIDNEY: increases urination to decrease blood pressure
63
Hormones that increase blood [glucose]
Glucagon (polypeptide derivative), Epinepherine (amino acid derivative), Cortisol (steroid / glucocorticoid)
64
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
ANTERIOR PITUITARY -> ADRENAL GLAND: increases growth and secretory activity of adrenal cortex
65
Thyroid hormones (T3, T4)
thyroid; Necessary for growth and neurological development in children; Increase rate of cellular respiration and rate of protein and fatty acid synthesis/degradation; High levels inhibit TRH and TSH
66
Atrial natriuretic factor (ANF)
HEART -> KIDNEY: increases urination to decrease blood pressure
67
Releasing and Inhibiting Factors (peptides)
Gland: HypothalamusTarget: Anterior pituitaryEffect: Modify activity
68
Growth Hormone (GH) (peptide)
Gland: Anterior pituitaryTarget: N/AEffect: INCREASE bone & muscle growth & cell turnover rate
69
Prolactin (peptide)
Gland: Anterior pituitaryTarget: Mammary glandsEffect: Milk production
70
Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH) (peptide)
Gland: Anterior pituitaryTarget: ThyroidEffect: Tropic; INCREASE synthesis & release of TH
71
Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH) (peptide)
Gland: Anterior pituitaryTarget: Adrenal glandEffect: INCREASE growth & secretory activity of adrenal cortex
72
Luteinizing Hormone (LH) (peptide)
Gland: Anterior pituitaryTarget: Ovary / TestesEffect: Ovulation / Testosterone synthesis; gonadotropic
73
Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) (peptide)
Gland: Anterior pituitaryTarget: Ovary / TestesEffect: Follicle development / Spermatogenesis
74
Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH/vasopressin) (peptide)
Gland: Hypothalamus / Posterior pituitaryTarget: KidneyEffect: Water retention
75
Oxytocin (peptide)
Gland: Posterior pituitaryTarget: Uterus / BreastEffect: Contraction / Milk ejection
76
Thyroid Hormone (TH, thyroxine) (amino acid deriv.)
Gland: ThyroidTarget: N/AEffect: Child: physical & mental developmentAdult: INCREASE metabolic rate & temp
77
Calcitonin (peptide)
Gland: Thyroid / Thyroid cellsTarget: Bone / KidneyEffect: LOWERS [Ca2+] via 1) into bone, 2) decrease reabsorb. by gut, 3) excrete in urineInhibits osteoclast activity
78
Parathyroid Hormone (PTH) (peptide)
Gland: ParathyroidsTarget: Bone / Kidney / Small intestineEffect: Raises [Ca2+] via OPPOSITE of calcitonin
79
Thymosin (children only) (peptide)
Gland: ThymusTarget: N/AEffect: T cell development during childhood
80
Epinephrine (modified amino acid)
Gland: Adrenal medullaTarget: N/AEffect: Sympathetic stress response (rapid)
81
Cortisol ("glucocorticoid") (steroid)
Gland: Adrenal cortexTarget: N/AEffect: Long-term stress response; INCREASE blood glucose & protein catabolism; DECREASE inflammation & immunity; etc.
82
Aldosterone ("mineralcorticoid") (steroid)
Gland: Adrenal cortexTarget: KidneyEffect: INCREASE [Na+] reabsorption to inc. blood pressure
83
Sex Steroids
Gland: Adrenal cortexTarget: N/AEffect: Only impor. when adrenal tumor overproduces these, causing masculinization or feminization
84
Insulin (via β cells) (peptide)
Gland: Endocrine pancrease (islets of Langerhans)Target: N/AEffect: DECREASE blood glucose; INCREASE glycogen & fat storage
85
Glucagon (via α cells) (peptide)
Gland: Endocrine pancreas (islets of Langerhans)Target: N/AEffect: INCREASE blood glucose; DECREASE glycogen & fat storage
86
Somatostatin (via SS-δ cells) (peptide)
Gland: Endocrine pancreas (islets of Langerhans)Target: N/AEffect: INHIBITS many digestive processes
87
Testosterone (steroid)
Glands: TestesTarget: N/AEffect: Male characteristics, spermatogenesis
88
Estrogen (steroid)
Gland: Ovaries / PlacentaTarget: N/AEffect: Female characteristics, endometrial growth, ossify the epiphyseal plate
89
Progesterone (steroid)
Gland: Ovaries / PlacentaTarget: N/AEffect: Endometrial maturation, pregnancy
90
Atrial Natriuretic Factor (ANF) (peptide)
Gland: HeartTarget: KidneyEffect: INCREASE urination to dec. blood pressure
91
Erythropoietin (peptide)
Gland: KidneyTarget: Bone marrowEffect: INCREASE RBC synthesis when blood O2 falls
92
PTH (hormone)
Bone: Stimulate osteoclast activityKidneys: INCREASE reabsorb. of [Ca2+]; stim. vitamin D -> calcitrolGut: Indirectly INCREASE [Ca2+] absorbtion
93
Calcitriol
Kidneys: INCREASE reabsorb. of phosphorusGut: INCREASE rabsorb of [Ca2+]
94
Diastereoisomers
Nonidentical sugars within same family (both are ketoses/aldoses and have same number of carbons)
95
Conversion of Fischer projection to Hawthorne projection
Any group on right points down; any group on left points up
96
Reducing sugar
Any monosaccharide with hemiacetal ring (-OH on C-1)
97
Alpha anomer
Has the OH group of the C-1 trans to CH2OH substituent (pointing down)
98
D configurations
Positive rotations; hydroxyl group of the highest number chiral center on the right
99
Henderson-Hasselbalch Equation
pH = pKa + log ((conjugate base) / (conjugate acid))
100
pH = pI
Titration curve is vertical; added equal amounts of amino acid and base
101
Prosthetic groups
Major roles in determining protein function; lipids in lipoproteins; carbs in glycoproteins; nucleic acids in nucleoproteins
102
Aldose
Aldehyde sugar; gluceraldehyde is simplest
103
Beta anomer
Has the OH group of the C-1 cis to CH2OH substituent (pointing up)
104
Mutarotation
Spontaenous opening and reformation of hemiacetal rings when exposed to water; alpha or beta anomer can be formed
105
pH = pKa
Solution is in a buffer zone; titration curve is horizontal; deprotonated and protonated species in equal concentrations; buffering capacity max
106
Amino acid properties
All optically active due to chiral alpha carbon (except glycine); all L-enantiomers; drawn with amino group on left; all have S configurations (except cysteine); exist as internal salts in neutral pH
107
Aldonic acids
Oxidized aldoses; when hemiacetal ring is in open chain aldehyde form it is oxidized to carboxylic acid
108
Amphoteric
Species that act as both a base and an acid depending on the environment
109
Furanose rings
Five membered rings formed from five carbon aldoses or six carbon ketoses
110
Glycoside
Acetal formed as a result of alcohol combining with hemiacetal monosaccharide in acidic conditions
111
Tollen's reagent
Reduction of Ag+ to form metallic silver; detects presence of reducing sugar
112
Sugar enantiomers
Same sugars in different optical familes (D-glucose and L-glucose)
113
Pyranose Rings
Six membered rings; formed from six carbon aldoses or seven carbon ketoses
114
Anomers
Cyclic stereoisomers that differ about the new chiral carbon
115
Glycosidic linkage
C-O bond between alcohol and hemiacetal monosaccharide formed under acidic conditions; most common glycosidic linkage between two monosaccharides between 1' and 4' positions
116
Epimers
Diastereomers that differ at only one chiral center
117
Anomeric carbon
Carbon that becomes chiral in a sugar ring; carbon attached both to the oxygen in the ring and a hydroxide group
118
Polysaccharides
Cellulose, starch and glycogen; composition of D-glucose monosaccharides linked by 1,4'-beta-glycosidic bonds
119
Benedict's reagent
Indicates presence of reducing sugar; red precipitate of Cu2O
120
Alpha carbon in Amino acid
Between amine and carbonyl group; chiral except in glycine;
121
Ketose
Ketone sugar; dihydroxyacetone is simplest
122
Denaturation
Melting; destroys tertiary structure of protein
123
Conjugated proteins
Function from covalently attached molecules called prosthetic groups
124
Enthalpy (H)
The sum of the internal energy of the system plus the product of the pressure of the gas in the system and it's volume: ΔH=ΔΕ-PΔV H=total energy of the system; E= bond energy of products or reactants in a system; P=pressure; V=volume
125
ATP
Adenosine Triphosphate - considered the most important potential energy storage molecule in cells. Stores energy in the ester bonds between it's phosphate groups.
126
Gibbs Free Energy ΔG=ΔH-TΔS
This is a practical way to discuss thermodynamics. A change in available energy is equal to the change in enthalpy (total energy of the system) plus the product of absolute temperature (Kelvin) and change in Entropy.
127
Celsius to Kelvin conversion:
K=C+273
128
Entropy (S)
A measure of disorder or randomness.
129
Exergonic Reaction
Energy outward, proceeds with a net release of free (available energy). Because chemical mixture loses free energy, G decreases and G is negative for exergonic reactions. These are spontaneous reactions.
130
Endergonic Reaction
Is a reaction that absorbs free energy from it's surroundings. This reaction essentially stores free energy in molecules (G Increases) ΔG=positive. Endergonic reactions are nonspontaneous.
131
A cell does 3 main kinds of work:
Chemical work - pushing of endergonic reactions that would not occur spontaneously. Transport Work - pumping of substances across membranes against direction of spon. movement. Mechanical Work - beating of cilia, contractions of muscle cells, movement of chromosomes during cellular reproduction.
132
Spontaneous Processes
ΔGs own without outside help it must increase the entropy of the universe.
133
Is the trend of the universe more towards entropy or order?
Entropy. Think of room of people moving around giving off heat (this adding to the entropy of the universe).
134
The rate determining step in a reaction sequence is:
The step with the highest activation energy.
135
For a system to put out heat:
There must be a temperature difference that results in the heat flowing from a warmer location to a cooler one.
136
ΔG (change in "free"/available energy)
G=the portion of a system's energy that can perform work when temperature and pressure are uniform throughout the system, as in a living cell.
137
First law of thermodynamics
States that energy of the universe is constant, energy can only be transferred and transformed, but never created or destroyed. Implies that when energy of a system decreases, the energy of the rest of the universe must increase.
138
Second law of thermodynamics
States that the entropy of the universe tends to increase. For a process to occur spontaneously it must increase the entropy of the universe.
139
2 types of energy
Heat energy - movement of molecules. Potential Energy - energy stored in chemical bonds.
140
Exothermic Reactions
Reactions with a negative ΔH, these reactions liberate heat. Most metabolic reactions are exothermic (this is how homeothermic organisms such as mammals maintain a constant body temperature.)
141
Endothermic Reactions:
Reactions with a positive ΔH require an input of heat and are called endothermic.
142
Equilibrium
The point where the rate of reaction in one direction equals the rate of reaction in the other.
143
Anaphase
sister chromatids separate
144
apoenzymes
enzymes without their cofactors
145
Golgi Apparatus
#NAME?
146
Perioxysomes
are ubiquitous organelles in eukaryotes that participate in the metabolism of fatty acids and other metabolites. They have enzymes that rid the cell of toxic peroxides.
147
Genes
Coding regions of genetic material
148
Coarse Adjustment Knob
Focuses the image
149
Chloroplasts
Contain chlorophyll and are responsible for the generation of energy using water, carbon dioxide and sunlight
150
autoradiography
2nd technique (among microscopy, ¢rifugation to examine cells) uses radioactive molecules to trace. use to study protein synthesis: labeling amino acids with radioactive isotopes. used to study mech of DNA & RNA synthesis
151
hydrogenosomes
is a membrane-bound organelle of ciliates, trichomonads and fungi which produces molecular hydrogen and ATP. This organelle is thought to have most likely evolved from mitochondria.
152
cisterna
comprises a flattened membrane disk which makes up the Golgi apparatus.
153
Budding
equal replication followed by unequal cytokinesis
154
Endocytosis
process whereby the cellular membrane invaginates and engulfs material into the cell
155
Endothermic reaction
one that requires energy input
156
Histones
Organizing proteins that wind linear DNA
157
Spindle fibers
made from microtubules; radiates outward from centrioles
158
oxygen
final electron acceptor in the electron transport chain, resulting in the formation of a water molecule
159
Metaphase
chromosomes align at the equatorial plate, which is equidistant to the two poles of the spindle fibers
160
Centrifugation
3rd method for examining cells (microscopy&autoradiography) Spinning down test tubes at high speeds to fractionate cells based on density
161
Prokaryotes
-Simplest of all organisms -Include all bacteria -Cell wall does not enclose any membrane-bound organelles-Genetic material is contained in a single circular molecule of DNA reproduction
162
Cajal body
are spherical sub-organelles found in the nucleus of proliferative cells like tumor cells, or metabolically active cells like neurons. In such cells they are bound to the nucleolus by coilin proteins.
163
axoneme
is the inner cytoskeletal structure of eukaryotic cilia or flagella.
164
microfilament
are the thinnest filaments of the cytoskeleton found in the cytoplasm of all eukaryotic cells. These linear polymers of actin subunits are flexible and relatively strong.
165
plastid
are major organelles found in plants and algae responsible for photosynthesis, storage of products like starch and for the synthesis of many classes of molecules such as fatty acids and terpenes.
166
38 ATP
Prokaryotic ATP production per glucose molecule
167
Chymotrypsin
Cleaves peptide bonds around the amino acids phenylalanine, tryptophan, and tyrosine in a variety of polypeptides
168
Enzyme-substrate complex
Complex between the enzyme and substrate
169
Noncompetitive inhibition
inhibitor binding to an allosteric site instead of the active site, which induces a change in enzyme conformation
170
Diaphragm
Controls the amount of light passing through the specimen which is important for image control
171
Nucleolus
Subsection of the nucleus where the ribosomal RNA is synthesized
172
nuclear lamina
is a dense fibrillar network composed of intermediate filaments made of lamin that lines the inner surface of the nuclear envelope in animal cells.
173
actin
is the protein which serves as the monomeric subunit of microfilaments, one of the three major components of the cytoskeleton, and of thin filaments which are part of the contractile apparatus in muscle cells.
174
Carbohydrates
sugar polymers that can be broken down during digestion and then stored in the liver for later use in a polysaccharide form
175
Cell division
Process whereby a cell replicates its DNA, doubles its organelles and cytoplasm and then splits into 2 daughter cells
176
phase contrast microscope
permits the study of living cells
177
Cytoskeleton
Made of 3 types of proteins: actin filaments, intermediate filaments and microtubules
178
Induced fit theory (stress ball)
enzyme fits the substrate
179
tubulin
is one of several members of a small family of globular proteins. The most common members this family are the proteins which makes up microtubules.
180
undulipodium
is a general term for a 9+2 organelle containing a microtubule array such as eukaryotic flagella and cilia.
181
Interphase
Consists of the G1, S, G2 and M phases
182
G2 phase (postsynthetic gap)
final stage before cell division; quality control; make sure that there are enough organelles and cytoplasm to make two new daughter cells
183
Active Transport
net movement of a solute against its concentration gradient; requires energy
184
2 types of cofactors
-small metal ions -small organic groups
185
Endoplasmic reticulum (shipping department)
-Responsible for proper production and sorting of materials from the cell -Two types: smooth and rough
186
Cell Theory
1. All living things are composed of cells2. The cell is the basic functional unit of life3. Cells arise only from preexisting cells4. Cells carry genetic info in the form of DNA
187
Facilitated Diffusion (Passive transport)
simple diffusion for molecules that need help
188
CoQ10
a vitamin that is found in the inner mitochondrial membrane of the cell and helps make ATP
189
Effects of pH
Enzymes function properly when this is optimal
190
topogenic sequence
is a segment of a protein that ensures it acquires the proper orientation during its insertion into the endoplasmic reticulum.
191
Binary Fission
seen in bacteria, this is a type of asexual production in which a single DNA molecule attaches itself to the cell membrane and duplicates itself to while the cell itself grows in size; the cell then invaginates or pinches inward to create two identical daughter cells; results in two cells of equal size
192
Nucleus (city hall and public library)
**commonly tested on MCAT-Control center of the cell
193
Allosteric sites
the active site is present as well as at least one other site that can regulate the availability of the active site
194
nuclear export signal
is a short amino acid sequence of 5-6 hydrophobic residues in a protein that targets it for transport from the cell nucleus to the cytoplasm through the nuclear pore complex.
195
3 key phases in cellular respiration
1. pyruvate decarboxylation 2. citric acid cycle 3. electron transport chain
196
Telencephalon
The cerebral hemispheres.
197
Replication
The duplication of DNA
198
M-line
The center of the sarcomere
199
Lipoprotein
Large conglomerations of proteins, fats, and cholesterol that transport lipids in the bloodstream. (chylomicrons are a type of lipoprotein).
200
MHC
Major Histocompatability complex, a set of proteins found on the plasma membranes of cells that help display antigen to T cells. MHC I is found on all cells and displays bits of proteins from within the cell; this allows T cells to monitor cell contents and if abnormal peptides are displayed on the surface, the cell is destroyed by killer T cells. MHC II is found only on macrophages and B cells. This class of MHC allows these cells (known as antigen presenting cells) to display bitts of "eaten" (phagocytosed or internalized) proteins on their surface, allowing the activation of helper Ts --> thus further activating immune response.
201
ENZYME-SUBSTRATE COMPLEX
enzyme bound to substrate
202
Lamellae
Concentric circles of bony matrix which surround the Haversian canal
203
LH
stimulates ovulation and estrogen in females and testosterone secretion in males
204
Operator
A specific DNA nucleotide sequence where transcriptional regulatory proteins can bind.
205
Phosphofructokinase
The enzyme that catalyzes the phosphorylation of fructose-6-phosphate to form fructose-1-6-bisphosphate in the third step of glycolysis. This is the main regulatory step of glycolysis. PFK is feedback-inhibited by ATP.
206
Submucosa
The layer of connective tissue directly under the mucosa of an open body cavity.
207
Each nucleotide contains one nitrogenous base that is either a ______ or _______
purine, pyrimidine
208
Macrophage
A large, non-sepcific, phagocytic cell of the immune syste. Macrophages frequently leave the bloodstream to crawl around in the tissues and perform 'clean up' duties, such as ingesting dead cells or cellular debris at an injury site, or pathogens.
209
Amphipathic
The characteristics of amolecule that has both polar (hydrophilic) and non-polar hydrophobic) regions, e.g. phospholipids, bile, etc.
210
FADH2
The reduced from (carries electrons) of FAD (flavin adenine dinucleotide). this is the other main electron carrier in cellular respiration (NADH is the most common).
211
Spermatogenesis
Sperm production; occurs in human males on a daily basis from puberty until death. Spermatogenesis results in the production of four mature gametes (sperm) from a single precursor cell (spermatogonium). For maximum sperm viability, spermatogenesis requires cooler temperatures and adequate testosterone.
212
Serum
Plasma with the *clotting factors removed*. Serum is often used in diagnostic tests because it does not clot.
213
Microfilament
The cytoskeleton filaments with the smallest diameter. Microfilaments are composed of the contractile protein actin. They are dynamic filaments, constantly beig made and broken down as needed, and are responsible for events such as pseudopod formation and cytokenesis during mitosis.
214
Kin selection
Organisms behave altruistically if they are closely related to successfully reproducing organisms
215
Atria
Thin walled chambers of the heart (blood is received in these)
216
Endoskeleton
Skeleton which is internal to the organism, supporting framework of animals
217
AUG
List the coding sequence for start codon
218
Natural selection
The mechanism described by Charles Darwin that drives evolution. Through mutation, some organisms possess genes that make them better adapted to their environment. These organisms survive and reproduce more than those that do not possess the beneficial genes, thus these genes are passed on to offspring, making the offspring better adapted. Over time, these genes (and the organisms that possess them) become more abundant, and the less beneficial genes (and the organisms that possess them) become less abundant.
219
Formed elements
The cellular elements of blood; erythrocytes, leukocytes, and platelets.
220
Endotoxin
A normal component of the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria. Endotoxins produce extreme immune reactions (septic shock), particularly when many of them enter the circulation at once.
221
Prolactin
A hormone secreted by the anterior pituitary that tarets the mammary glands stimulating them to produce breastmilk.
222
Krebs cycle
The third stage of cellular respiration, in which acetyl-CoA is combined with oxaloacetate to form citric acid. The citric acid is then decarboxylated twice and isomerized to recreate oxaloacetate. In the process, 3 molecules of NADH, 1 molecule of FADH2, and 1 molecule of GTP are formed (per acetyl-CoA)
223
Sister chromatid
Identical copies of a chromosome, produced during DNA replication and held together at the centromere Sister chromatids are separated during anaphase of mitosis.
224
Testcross
A genetic cross between an organism displaying a recessive phenotype (homozygous recessive) and an organism displaying a dominant phenotype (for whic the genotype is unknown), done to determine the unknown genotype.
225
Tetanus
when the frequency of stimulation is very fast and individual contractions fuse and the muscle smoothly and fully contracts
226
Jejunum
The middle (approximtely 40%) of the small intestine.
227
Reflex arc
A relatively direct connection between a sensory neuron and a motor neuron that allows an extremely rapid response to a stimulus, often without conscious brain involvement.
228
Orgasm
A function of the reproductive system controlled by the sympathetic nervous system. In males, organs includes emission and ejaculation; in females it is mainly a series of rhythmic contraction of the pelvic floor muscles and the uterus.
229
Diffusion
The movement of a particle (the solute) in a solution from its region of high concentration to its region of low concentration ( or down it concentration gradient).
230
Centromere
A structure near the middle of eukaryotic chromosomes to which the fibers of the mitotic spindle attach during cell division.
231
Chromosome
A single piece of double-stranded DNA; part of the genome of an organism. Prokaryotes have circular chromosomes and eukaryotes have linear chromosomes.
232
Acetyl-CoA
The first substrate in teh Krebs cycle, produced primarily from the oxidation of pyruvate by the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex, however acetyl-CoA is also produced during fatty acid oxidation and protein catabolism.
233
5' cap
a methylated guanine nucleotide added to the 5' end of eukaryotic mRNA. The cap is necessary to initiate translation of mRNA
234
Binary fission
An asexual method of bacterial reproduction that serves only to increase the size of the population; ther is no introduciton of gnetic diversity. THe bacterium simply grows in size until it has doubled its cellular components, then it replicates its genone and splits into two.
235
Darwin's Natural Selection Theory
Organisms produce offspring; variations may be inheritable and if have survival advantage will be favorable; increase in these traits through natural selection
236
ZYMOGEN; PROENZYME
enzymes in their inactive form; irreversible changed by other enzymes or environmental changes
237
Latent period
Initial period of the simple twitch (time between reaching threshold and onset of contraction); followed by contraction period and relaxation period
238
b-glucose
a anomer of glucose where the hydroxyl group and the methoxy groups are on the same side (cis). Only bacteria break down beta linkages.
239
Mitosis
The phase of the cell cycle during which the replicated genome is divided. Mitosis has four phases (prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase) and includes cytokinesis (the physical splitting of the cell into two new cells).
240
Endocrine system
A systme of ductless glands taht secrete chemical messengers (into) the blood - has to be into the blood.
241
Oval window
The membrane that separates the middle ear from the inner ear.
242
Loose connective tissue
Connective tissue that lacks great amount of collagen or elastic fibers (hence, loose), e.g., adipose tissue and areolar (general connective) tissue.
243
Leukocyte
A type of white blood cell; leukocytes are either B or T cells and are involved in disease defense.
244
Secondary immune response
A subsequent immune response to previously encountered antigen that results in antibody production and T cell activation. The secondary immune response is mediated by memory cells (produced during the primary immune respone) and is much faster and stronger than the rpimary response, typicaly taking only a dya or less. THis is not long enough for the infection to become established, and symptoms do not appear, thus the person is said to be "immune" to that particular antigen.
245
Testes
The primary male sex organ. The testes are suspended outside the body cavity in the scrotum and have two functions (1) produce sperm, and (2) secrete testosterone.
246
At what age do first molars appear?
6-7 years
247
Cytosine
One of the four aromatic bases found in DNA and RNA. Cytosine is a pyrimidine; it pairs with guanine.
248
Artery
A blood vessel that carries blood away from the heart chambers. Arteries have muscular walls to regulate blood flow and are typically high-pressure vessles.
249
Bohr effect
The tendency of certain factors to stablize the hemoglobin in the tense conformation, thus reducing its affinity for oxygen and enhancing the relase of oxygen to the tissues. The factors include increased PCO2, increase temperature, increased bisphosphoglycerate (BPG), and decreased pH. Note that the Bohr effect shifts the oxy-hemolobin saturation curve to the right.
250
Crossing over
The exchange of DNA between paired homologus chromosomes (tetrads) during *prophase I* of meiosis.
251
Erythropoietin
A hormone produced and released by the kidney that stimulates the production of red blood cells by the bone marrow.
252
Nucleolus
A region within the nucleus where rRNA is transribed and ribosomes are partially assembled.
253
Mutualism
A form of symbiosis in which both organisms involved benefit from the association.
254
Trophoblast
The outer ring of cells of a blastocyst. The trophoblast takes part in the formation of the placenta.
255
Enteric nervous system
The nervous system of the gastrointestinal tract. It controls secretion and motility within teh Gi tract, and is linked to the central nervous system.
256
LIPID (6)
any biological molecules that has low solubility in water and high solubility in nonpolar organic solvents: Phospholipids, Glycolipids, Fatty Acids, Triacyglycerols, Steroids, Terpenes
257
Citric acid cycle
Series of 8 reactions that extracts energy from Acetyl-CoA by combining with oxaloacetate, regenerating oxaloacetate in the process. Produces 6 NADH, 2 ATP, 2 FADH2 from 2 Pyruvate
258
frameshift mutation
result of deletion or insertion in the DNA that is not a multiple of 3.
259
Frontal Plane
A vertical plane that passes from side to side; it is at right angles to the midsagittal plane and cuts the specimen into anterior and posterior components
260
Gastrulation
the division of the inner cell mass of a blastocyst (developing embryo) into the three primary germ layers. Gastrulation occurs during weeks 2-4 of gestation.
261
Plasma cell
An activated B cell that is secreting antibody.
262
Luteinizing Hormone (LH)
A tropic hormone produced by the anterior pituitary gland that targets the gonads. In females LH triggers ovulation and the development of a corpus luteum during the menstrual cycle; in males, LH stimulates the production and release of testosteron.
263
Rule of multiplication
A statistical rule stating that the probability of two independent events occuring together is the product of their individual probabilities.
264
Transition mutation
A point mutation in which a pyrimidine is susbstituted for a pyrimidine, or a purine is substituted for a purine.
265
Upsteam
Toward the 5' end of an Rna transcript (the 5' end of the DNA coding strand). The promoter and start sites are upstream.
266
Anterioir pituitary gland
Also known as the adenohypophysis, the anterior pituitary is made of gland tissue and makes and secretes six different homrones: FSH, LH, ACTH, prolactin, TSH, and growth hormone. The anterior pituitary is controlled b yreleasing and inhibiting factors from the hypothalamus.
267
Tropic hormone
A hormone tha tcontrols the release of another hormone.
268
Epididymis
A long, coiled duct on the outside of the testis in which sperm mature.
269
Functional synctium
A tissue in which the cytoplasms of the cells are connected by gap junctions, allowing the cells to function as a unit. Cardiac and smooth muscle tissues are examples of functional synctiums.
270
Sertolli cells
Cells that form the walls of the seminiferous tubules and help in spermatogenesis Sertoli cells are also called susenacular cells.
271
POSITIVE COOPERATIVITY
when the first substrate binds to the enzyme and makes a conformational change allowing substrates to bind more easily
272
Macula densa
The cells of the distal tubule at the juxtaglomerular apparatus. They are receptors that monitor filtrate osmolarity as a means of regulatin filtration rate. If a drop is osmolarity is sensed, the macula densa dilates the afferent arteriole (to increase the blood pressure in the glomerulus and thus increase filtration) and stimulates the juxtaglomerular cells to secrete renin (to raise systemic blood pressure).
273
Loop of Henle
The loop of the nephron that dips downward into the renal medulla. The loop of Henle sets up a concentration gradient in the kidney such that from the cortex to the renal pelvis osmolarity increases. The descending limb of the loop of Henle is permeable to water, but not to sodium whereas the ascending limb is permeable to sodium, but not to water (and in fact, actively transports sodium out of the filtrate).
274
Which teeth do children lack?
premolars and one set of molars
275
Organ of Corti
The structure in the cochlea of the inner ear made up of the basilar membrane, the auditory hair cells, and the tectorial membrane. The Organ of Corti is the site where auditory sensation is detected and transduced to action potentials.
276
Nodes of Ranvier
Gaps in the myelin sheath of the axons of peripheral neruons. Action potentials can 'hump' from node to node, thus increasing the speed of conduction (saltatory conduction).
277
How can nucleotides be designated?
The letter code plus the letter code for the number of phosphates
278
Estrogen
SteroidGland: Ovaries/placentaTarget/Effect: female characteristics, endometrial growth
279
anaphase I
separates homologues
280
Progesterone
SteroidGland: Ovaries/placentaT/E: endometrial secretion, pregnancy
281
The start codon is...
AUG
282
Sex Steroids
SteroidGland: Adrenal CortexTarget/Effect: not normally important, but an adrenal tumor can overproduce these, causing masculinization or feminization
283
Cortisol
The principal glucocorticoid secreted from teh adrenal cortex. This steroid hormone is released ruing stress, causing increased blood glucose levels and reducing inflammation. The latter effect has led to a clinical use of cortisol as an anti-inflammatory agent.
284
Villi
(Singular:villus). Folds of the intestinal mucosa that project into the lumen of the intestine; vili serve to increase the surface area of the intestine for absorption.
285
hCG
Human Chorionic Gonadotropin, a hormone secreted by the trophoblast cells of a blasocyst (i.e. developing embryo) that prolongs the life of the corpus luteum, and thus increases the duration and amount of secreted progesterone. This helps to maintain the uterine lining so that menstruation does not occur. The presence of hCG in the blood or urine of a woman is used as a positive indicator of pregnancy.
286
G0
nongrowing state, causes differences in length of cell cycle
287
Glycogenolysis
a term for glycogen breakdown.
288
What is a Fillial Generation?
Progeny
289
Osteoclast
A phagocytic-like bone cell that breaks down bone matrix to release calcium and phosphate into the bloodstream.
290
Operator
A specific DNA nucleotide sequence where transcriptional regulatory proteins can bind.
291
Catalase
The primary enzyme in peroxisomes; catalse catalyzes the hydrolysis of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) into water and oxygen.
292
Sarcomere
The unit of muscle contraction. Sarcomeres are bounded by Z lins, to which thin filaments attach. Thick filaments are found in the center of the sarcomere, overlapped by thin filaments over one another during contraction reduces the distance between Z lines, shortening the sarcomere.
293
Intron
A nucleotide sequence that intervenes between protein-coding sequences. In DNA, these intervening sequences typically contain **regulatory sequences, however, in RNA they are simply spliced out to form the mature (translated) transcript.
294
Shine-Dalgarno sequence
The prokaryotic ribosome-binding site on mRNA, found 10 nucleotides 5' to the start codon.
295
Regulation of gene expression occurs at the level of...
transcription
296
histones
dna wrap around these globular proteins
297
lipid
biological molecule that has low solubility in water
298
telophase I
nuclear envelope may reform, cytokinesis may happen (if happens => secondary spermatocytes/oocytes, in female one of oocytes is first polar body and degenerates)
299
Glycolysis
anaerobic splitting of a glucose molecule into 2 pyruvic acid molecules, producing 2 net ATP and 2 NADH molecules. First step in cellular respiration.
300
Follicle Stimuating Hormone (FSH)
PeptideGland: Ant. Pit.Target/Effect: ovary/follicle development, testes/spermatogenesis
301
Yeast
Asexual reproduction occurs by budding (small cell pinches from larger one)Unicellular fungus
302
tight junctions
membranes of neighboring cells are attached and the cells are bound together so tightly that no material can pass between the cells or travel past the junction- forming a total barrier to transport and diffusion
303
Exclusion
The removal ( and usually the activation) of a viral genome from its host's genome.
304
Natural selection
The mechanism described by Charles Darwin that drives evolution. Through mutation, some organisms possess genes that make them better adapted to their environment. These organisms survive and reproduce more than those that do not possess the beneficial genes, thus these genes are passed on to offspring, making the offspring better adapted. Over time, these genes (and the organisms that possess them) become more abundant, and the less beneficial genes (and the organisms that possess them) become less abundant.
305
Flagella
A long, whip-like filament that helps in cell motility. Many bacteria are flagellated, and sperm are flagellated.
306
Fibrinogen
A blood protein essential to blood clotting. The conversion of fibrinogen to its active form (fibrin) is among the final steps in clot formation, and is triggered by thrombin.
307
Cilia
A hair-like structure on teh cell surface composed of microtubules ina '9+2' arrangement (nine pairs of microtubles surrounding 2 single microtubules in the center). Teh microtubules are conneted with a contractile protien called dynein. Cilia beat in a repetitive sweeping motion, which helps to move substances along the surface of the cell. They are particularly important in the respiratory system, where they sweep mucus out of the trachea and up to the mouth and nose.
308
Vagal tone
The constant inhibition provided to the heart by the vagus nerve. Vagal tone reduces the intrinsic firing rate of teh SA node from 120 beats/minute to around 80 beats/minute.
309
Cecum
The first part of the large intestine.
310
Tight junction
Also called occluding junctions, tight junctions form a seal between cells that prevents the movement of substances across the cell layer, except by diffusion through the cell membranes themselves. Tight junctions are found between the epithelial cells lining the intestines and between the cells forming the capillaries in the brain (the blood-brain barrier).
311
Tropomyosin
A helical protein that winds around actin helices in skeletal and cardiac muscle cells to form the thin filament of the sarcomere. In the absence of Ca2+, tropomyosin covers the myosin-binding sites on actin and prevents muscle contraction. When calcium is present, a conformation change in tropomyosin occurs so that the myosin-binding sites are exposed and muscle contraction can occur.
312
Induction
The process by which neighboring cells can influence the determination (and subsequent differentiation) of a cell.
313
Receptor-mediated endocytosis
A highly specific cellular uptake mechanism. The molecule to be taken up must bind to cell surface receptor found in a clathrin-coated pit.
314
Retina
The innermost layer of the eyeball. The retina is made up of a layer of photoreceptors, a layer of bipolar cells, and a layer of ganglion cells.
315
Primase
An RNA polymerase that creates a primer (made of RNA) initiate DNa replication. DNA pol binds to the primer and elongates it.
316
Liver
The largest organ in the abdominal cavity. The liver has many roles, including procesing of carbohydrates and fats, synthesis of urea, production of blood proteins, production of bile, recycling heme, and storage of vitamins.
317
Prophase
The first phase of mitosis. During prophase the replicated chromosomes condense, the spindle is formed, and the nuclear envelope breaks apart into vessicles.
318
Homozygous
A genotype in which two identical alleles are possessed for a given gene. The allelles can both be dominant (homozygous dominant) or both be recessive (homozygous recessive)
319
Oxaloacetate
A four-carbon molecule that binds with the two-carbon acetyl unit of acetyl-CoA to form citric acid in the first step of the Krebs cycle.
320
Heterozygous
A genotype in which two different alleles are possessed for a given gene.
321
Amylase
An enzyme that digests starch into disaccharides. Amylase is secreted by salivary glands and by the pancreas.
322
Analogous structures
Physical structures in two different organism that have funcitonal similarity due to their evoluntion in a common environment, but have different underlying structure. Analogous structures arise from convergent evolution.
323
5' cap
a methylated guanine nucleotide added to the 5' end of eukaryotic mRNA. The cap is necessary to initiate translation of mRNA
324
competitive inhibitors
compete with substrate, looks alike, decrease affinity, overcome with more substrate conc
325
nondisjunction
when chromosome does not split during anaphase I or II (if does not split in anaphase I, one cell have 2 extra chromatids, and other missing chromosome) (if does not split in anaphase II, one cell have one extra chromatid and one cell lacking one)
326
denatured
protein unfolded due to pH or temp
327
NADH
the reduced form of NAD+ (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide). Most common electron carrier in cellular respiration.
328
Somatostatin (SS-gamma cells secrete
PeptideGland: Endocrine Pancreas (SS-gamma cells)Target/Effect: Inhibits many digestive processes
329
What is penetrance?
Percentage of individuals in population carrying allele and actually express its associated phenotype.
330
Division
Plants and Fungi are separated into divisions, not phyla
331
Thermoreceptor
A receptor that responds to changes in temperature.
332
Myofibril
A string of sarcomeres with a skeletal muscle cell (hence smaller than myofiber). Each muscle cell contains hundreds of myofibirils.
333
Myofiber
A skeletal muscle cell, also known as a muscle fiber. Skeletal muscle cells are formed from the fusion of many smaller cells (during development) consequently they are very long and are multinucleate.
334
Lactic acid
Produced in muscle cells from the reduction of pyruvate (under anaerobic conditions) to regenerate NAD+ so that glycolysis can continue. A rise in lactic acid usually accompanies an increase in physical activity.
335
Ligand
The specific molecule that binds to a receptor.
336
Large intestine
The final phase of the digestive tract, also called the colon. The primary funcion of the large intestine is to reabsorb water and to store the feces.
337
Signal sequence
A short sequence of amino aids, usually found at the N-terminus of a protein being translated, that directs the ribosome and its associated mRNa to the membranes of the rough ER where trasnlation will be completed. Signal sequences are found on membrane-boudn proteins, secreted proteins, and proteins destined for other organelles.
338
Secretory phase
The third phase of the uterin (endometrial) cycle, during which the rebuilt endometrium is enhanced with glycogen and lipid stores. The secretory phase is primarily under the controll of progestone and estrogen (secreted from the copus luteum during this time period), adn typically lasts from day 15 to day 28 of the menstrual cycle.
339
Systolic pressure
The pressure measured in the arteries during contraction of the ventricles (during systole).
340
Peripheral chemoreceptors
Receptors in the carotid arteries and the aorta that monitor blood pH to help regulate ventilation rate.
341
Aorta
The largest artery in teh body; the aorta carries oxygenated blood away from the left ventricle of the heart.
342
F1 generation
The first generation of offspring from a given genetic cross.
343
Creatine Phosphate
An energy storage molecule used by muscle tissue. The phosphate from creatine phosphate can be removed and attached to an ADP to generate ATP quickly.
344
Basement membrane
A layer of collagen fibers that separates epithelial tissue from connective tisse (example of epithelial cells in digestive tract) - they are actual connective tissue.
345
Gram-positive bacteria
Bacteria that have a thick peptido glycan cell wall, and no outer membrane. They stain very darkly (purple) in Gram stain.
346
primary transcript
RNA right after transcription from DNA => modified in 3 ways 1) addition of 5' GTP cap 2) removal of introns via snRNPs 3) addition of poly A tail
347
Reduction
to remove oxygen, add hydrogen, or add electrons to a molecule.
348
In pedigrees, how are affected individuals represented? Carriers?
Shaded, half shaded
349
Electrical Synapse
Found in cardiac and visceral smooth muscle cell - composed of gap junctions
350
Is exhalation active?
exhalation is usually PASSIVE but it can be ACTIVE (during strenuous activity, internal intercostal muscle contract)
351
Aqueous humor
A thin, watery fluid found in teh anterior segment of the eye (between the lens and the cornea). THe aqueous humor is constantly produced and drained, adn helps to bring nutrients to the lesn and corena, as well as to remove metabolic wastes
352
Law of Segregation
Mendels' first law. The Law of Segregation states that the two alleles of a given gene will be separate from one another during gamete formation (meiosis).
353
Portal systems
A system of blood vessels where the blood passes from arteries to capillaries to veins, then through a second set of capillaries, and then through a final set of veins. THere are two portal systems in the body, the hepatic portal system and the hypothalamic portal system.
354
A band
The band of the sarcomere that extends the full length of the thick filament. The A band includes regions of thick and thin filament overlap, as well as a region of thick filament only. A bands alternate with I bands to give skeletal and cardiac muscle a striated apperance. The A band does not shorten during muscle contraction.
355
Seondary active transport
Active transport that releies on an established concentration gradient, typically set up by a primary active transporter. Secondary active transport relies on ATP indirectly.
356
Haploid organism
An organism that has only a single copy of its genome in each of its cells. Haploid organisms possess no homolous chromosomes.
357
Distal convoluted tubule
The portion of the nephron tubule after the loop of Henle, but before teh collecting duct. Selective reabsorption and secretion occur here, most notably regulated reabsorption of water and sodium.
358
Anterioir pituitary gland
Also known as the adenohypophysis, the anterior pituitary is made of gland tissue and makes and secretes six different homrones: FSH, LH, ACTH, prolactin, TSH, and growth hormone. The anterior pituitary is controlled b yreleasing and inhibiting factors from the hypothalamus.
359
Reverse transcriptase
An enzyme that polymerizes a strand of DNA by reading an RNA template (an RNA dependent DNa polymerase); used by retrovirus in order to integrate their genome with the host cell genome.
360
Sinoatrial (SA) node
A region of specialized cardiac muscle cells in the right atrium of the heart that initiate the impules of heart contraction; for this reason the SA node is knownas the 'pacemaker' of the heart.
361
Obligate anaerobe
An organism that can only survive in the absence of oxygen (anaerobic metabolism); oxygen is toxic to obligate anaerobes.
362
Fertilization
The fusion of a sperm with an ovum during sexual reproduction. Fertilization typically occurs in the uterine tubes and requires capacitation of the sperm and relase of the acrosomal enzymes. Fertilization is a species-specific process, requiring binding of a sperm protein to an egg receptor.
363
Optic nerve
The nerve extending from the back of teh eyeball to teh brain that carries visual information. The ptic nerve is made up of the axons of the ganglion cells of the retina.
364
Maternal inheritance
Genes that are inherited only from the mother, such as mitochondrial genes (all organelles come only from the ovum).
365
Northern blotting is...
the same as Southern blotting except with RNA
366
primary spermatocyte/oocyte
right after S phase of interphase (in females, division arrested here until puberty) => just before ovulation, primary oocyte undergoes first mitotic division to become secondary oocyte => sperm compels into anaphase II
367
Iris
Colored Circle Portion of the eye that circle opening called pupil - made of circular and radial muscleIn dark environment, sympathetic nervous system contracts the iris which dilate the pupil and allow more light to enterin bright environment, parasympathetic nervous system contracts the circular muscle of the iris, constricting pupil and screening out light
368
Nodes of Raveir
Tiny gap between myelin - action potentials jumps from one node to next and is called saltatory conduction
369
Common bile duct
The duct that carries bile from the gallbladder and liver to the small intestine (duodenum).
370
Diploid organism
An organism that has two copies of its genome it each cell. The paired genomes are said to be homologous.
371
Sex-linked rait
A triat determined by a gen on either the X or Y chromosomes (the sex chromosomes).
372
Slow block to polyspermy
Also known as the cortical reaction, the slow block invovles an increase in intracellular [Ca2+] in the egg, which causes the release of cortical granules near the egg plasma membrane. This results in the hardening of the zona pellucida and its separation from the surface of the egg, preventing the entry of more than one sperm into the egg.
373
Fast block to polyspermy
The depolarization of the egg plasma membrane upon fertilization, designed to prevent the entry of more than one sperm into the egg.
374
function of an enzyme
globular protein that acts as a catalyst by lowering the activation energy and increasing the rate of the reaction; they are not consumed nor permanently altered by the reaction; they do not alter the equilibrium of the reaction
375
Motor (efferent) neurons
signal to muscle or gland – located ventrally – abdomen side of spinal cord
376
Long bones grow by which type of ossification?
endochondroal- (legs, arms)Cartilage first, then bone replaces the cartilage. vs intra= directly from cells NO cartilage template
377
When should a sex-linked gene be suspected in a pedigree?
When only males are affected
378
Cellular respiration equation
C6H12O6 + 6 O2 --> 6 CO2 + 6 H2O
379
During inhalation what are the events the occur?
1. the DIAPHRAM contracts and flattens out, increasing the side of the chest cavity.2. the EXTERNAL INTERCOSTAL MUSCLES contract... moving the rib cage UP and OUT
380
What are the units of recombination frequency?
1 map unit, which = 1% recombinant frequency
381
How are blood types an example of codominance?
IaIa or Iai give Type AIbIb or Ibi give Type Bii gives Type OBUTIaIb gives Type AB, which is a combination (NOT blend) or characteristics of A&B
382
Hypophysis
The pituitary gland.
383
recombinant DNA
spliced DNA
384
Chondrocyte
A mature, cartilage cell.
385
anaerobic respiration
respiration without oxygen
386
Erythropoietin
PeptideGland: KidneyT/E: Bone marrow/ Increase RBC synthesis
387
Semen
An alkaline, fructose-rich fluid produced by three different glands in the male reproductive tract and released during ejaculation. Semen is very nourishing for sperm.
388
Meninges
The protective, connective tissue wrapping of the central nervous system (the dura mater, arachnoid mater, and pia mater).
389
EPSP
Excitatory postsynaptic potential; a slight depolarization of a postsynaptic cell, bringing the membrane potential of that cell closer to the threshold for an action potential.
390
Phospholipid
The primary membrane lipid. Phospholipids consist of a glycerol molecule esterified to two fatty acid chains and a phosphate molecule. Additional, highly hyrohpilic groups are attached to the phosphate, making this molecule extremely amphipathic.
391
Kinase
An enzyme that phosphorylates something else. Kinases are frequently used in regulatory pathways, phosphorylating other enzymes.
392
Phenotype
The physical characterisitcs resulting from the genotype. Phenotypes are usually described as dominant or recessive.
393
operon
operator, promoter, genes => prokaryote
394
Enzyme
A physiological catalyst. Usually proteins although some RNAs have catalytic activity.
395
Glycoproteins
Carbohydrate portions protrude toward outside of cells
396
Microfilament
The cytoskeleton filaments with the smallest diameter. Microfilaments are composed of the contractile protein actin. They are dynamic filaments, constantly beig made and broken down as needed, and are responsible for events such as pseudopod formation and cytokenesis during mitosis.
397
Plasmid
A small, extrachromosomal (outside the genome), circular DNA molecule found in prokaryotes.
398
Edema
Swelling of tissues, sometimes caused by inflammation letting into many white blood cells (decreasing oncotic pressure at the end of the capillaries & not letting as much water back into capillaries & staying in tissues).
399
Intercalcated discs
The division between neighboring cardiac muscle cells. Intercalcated discs include gap junctions, which allow the cells to function as a unit.
400
Insulin
A peptide hormone produced and secreted by the Beta cells of the pancreas. Insulin targets cells in the body, especially the liver and muscle, and allows them to take glucose out of gthe blood (thus lowering blood glucose levels).
401
Innate immunity
General, non-specific protection to the body, including the skin (barrier), gastric acid, phagocytes, lysozyme, and complement.
402
Gametogenesis
The formation of haploid gametes (sperm or ova) via meiosis.
403
Submucosa
The layer of connective tissue directly under the mucosa of an open body cavity.
404
Substrate(s)
The reactants in an enzyme-catalyzed reaction. Substrate binds at the active site of an enzyme.
405
Acetylcholine (Ach)
The neurotransmitter used throughout the parasympathetic nervous system as well as the neuromuscular junction.
406
gene mutation
alteration of DNA nucleotide sequence
407
Krebs
before starting, pyruvate => acetyl CoA; produces 1 ATP, 3 NADH, 1 FADH2 (substrate level phosphorylation)
408
Phosphofructokinase (PFK)
enzyme that catalyzes the phosphorylation of fructose-6-phosphate to form fructose-1-6-biphosphate in third stepp of glycolysis. Main regulatory step in glycolysis. Feedback inhibited by ATP.
409
Endospore
Formed by some gram positive bacteria
410
Cell membrane is ______ly charged compared to the cytosol
positively
411
Tendon
Strong bands of connective tissue that connect skeletal muscle to bone.
412
Formed elements
The cellular elements of blood; erythrocytes, leukocytes, and platelets.
413
Facilitated diffusion
Movement of a hydrophilic molecuel across the plasma membrane of a cell, down its concentration gradient, through a channel, pore, or carrier molecule in the membrane. Because the hydrophilic nature of the molecule, it requires a special path through the lipid bilayer.
414
Urea
A waste product of protein dbreakdown, produced by the liver and relased into the bloodstream to be eliminated by the kidney.
415
Choroid
The darkly pigmented middle layer of the eyeball, found between teh sclera (outer layer) and the retina (inner layer).
416
Channel protein
An integral protein that selectively allows molecules across the plasma membrane. See also entries under 'ion channel', 'voltage-gated channel', and 'ligand-gated channel'.
417
Coccus
A bacteria having a round shape (plural = cocci)
418
Nucleus
An organelle bounded by a double membrane (double lipid bilayer) called the nuclear envelope. The nucleus contains the genome and is the site of replication and transcription.
419
T tubules
Also called transverse tubules, these are deep invaginations of the plasma membrane found in skeletal and cardiac muscle cells. These invaginations allow depolarization of the membrane to quickly penetrate to the interior of the cell.
420
Conjugation
A form of genetic recombination in bacteria in which plasmid and/or genomic DNA is transferred from one bacterium to the toher through a conjugation bridge.
421
Rectum
The final portion of the large intestine.
422
Repolarization
The return of membrane potential to normal resting values after a depolarization of hyperpolarization.
423
Lysozyme
An enzyme that lyses bacterial cell walls. Lysozyme is produced in the end stages of the lytic cycle so that new viral particles can escape their hosst; it is also found in human tears and human saliva.
424
Homologous structures
Physical structures in two different organisms that have structural similarity due to a common ancestor, but may have different functions. Homologous structures arise from divergent evolution.
425
Hematocrit
The percentage of wholeblood made up of erythrocytes The typical hematocrit value is between 40-45%.
426
Microvilli
Microscopic outward folds of the cells lining the small intestine; microvilli serve to increase the surface area of the small intestine for absorption.
427
Spleen
An abdominal organ that is considered part of the immune system. THe spleen has four functions: (1) it filters antigen from the blood (2) it is the site of B cell maturation, (3) it stors blood, and (4) it destroys old red blood cells.
428
Splicing
One type of eukaryotic mRNA processing in which introns are removed from the primary transcript and exons are ligated together. SPlicing of transcripts can be different in different tissues.
429
Spirochete
A bacterium having a spiral shape (plural = spirochetes)
430
Metaphase
The secon phase of mitosis. During metaphase chromosomes align at the center of the ell (the metaphase plate).
431
Oxidation
To attach oxygen, to remove hydrogen, or to remove electrons from a molecule.
432
Autosome
A chromosome that does not determine gender (is not a sex chromosome). Humans have two sex chromsomes and 22 autosomes.
433
glycolipids
same as phospholipids except have one or more carbohydrates attached to glycerol backbone
434
lyase
addition of one substrate to double bond
435
secondary structure
motifs like a-helix and b-pleated sheet
436
Releasing and Inhibiting Factors (Peptides)
Gland: HypothalamusTarget/Effect: anterior pituitary/modify activity
437
Bacterial Flagella
Long hollow rigid helical cylinder made from globular proteins called flagellin and is used for motion
438
All preganglion neurons of ANS and post ganglionic neurons of parasympathetic system – use _________ as a nerotransmiter
Acetyacholine
439
Thecal cells
A layer of cells surroudning the granulosa cells of the follicles in an ovary. Thecal cells help produce the estrogen secreted from the follicle during the first phase of the ovarian cycle.
440
Loose connective tissue
Connective tissue that lacks great amount of collagen or elastic fibers (hence, loose), e.g., adipose tissue and areolar (general connective) tissue.
441
Uterus
The muscular femal organ, in which a baby develops during pregnancy.
442
Thrombus
A blood clot that forms in an unbrokened blood vessel. Thrombi are dangerous they can break free and begin travelin in the bloodstream (become an embolus). Emboli ultimately become stuck in a small vessel and prevent adequate blood delivery to tissues beyond the sticking point, leading to tissue death. A brain embolism cna lead to stroke, a heart embolism to a heart attack, and a pulmonary embolism to respiratory failure.
443
Thin filament
In skeleta and cardiac muscle tissue, a filament composed of actin, tropomyosin, and troponin. Thin filaments are attached to teh Z lines of the sarcomers and slide over thick filaments during muscle contraction.
444
Leak channel
An ion channel that is constitutively open, allowing the movement of teh ion across the plasma membrane according to its concentration gradient.
445
Proprioreceptor
A receptor that responds to changes in body position, such as stretch on a tendon, or contraction of a muscle. These receptor allow us to be consciously aware of the position of our body parts.
446
Restriction endonuclease
A bacterial enzyme that recognizes a specific DNA nucleotide sequence and that cuts the double helix at a specific site within the sequence.
447
Replication bubbles
Multiple sites of replication found on large, linear eukaryotic linear eukaryotie chromosomes.
448
Osteon
The unit of combact bone, also called a Haversian system. Osteons are essentially long cylinders of bone; the hollow center is called the central canal, and is where blood vessels, nervs, and lymphatic vessels are found. Compact bone is laid down around the central canal in rings (lamellae).
449
Oval window
The membrane that separates the middle ear from the inner ear.
450
Parietal cells
Cells found in gastric glands that secrete hydrochloric acid (for hydrolysis of ingested food) and gastric intrinsic factor (for absorption of vitamin B-12).
451
Peptide bond
The bond formed between the carboxyl group of one amino acid and the amino group of another.
452
Polyspermy
The fertilization of an oocyte by more than one sperm. This occurs in some animals, but in humans, blocks to polyspermy exist (the fast block and the slow block) so that only a single sperm can penetrate the oocyte.
453
Appendix
A mass of lymphatic tissue at the befenning of the large intestine that helps trap ingested pathogens.
454
Follicle
A developing oocyte and all of its surrounding (supporting) cells.
455
Cell surface receptor
An integral membrane proteint hat binds extracellular signaling molecules, suchas hormones and peptides.
456
Active transport
The movement of molecules through the plasma membrane against their concentration gradients. Active transport requires input of cellular energy, often in the form of ATP. An example is the Na+/K+ ATPase in the plasma membrane of all cells.
457
insertion/deletion
if not multiple of 3 causes frameshift mutation
458
Competitive Inhibitor
an enzyme inhibitor that competes with substrate for binding at the active site of enzyme. When inhibitor is bound, no product can be made.
459
Define codominance.
When multiple alleles exist for a given gene and more than 1 is dominant.When 2 dominant alleles present, phenotype is result of simultaneous expression of both alleles.
460
somatic nervous system
primarily respond to external environment (sensory and motor functions)its motor only innervates muscle their cell bodies are located on ventral horns of spinal cord and use acetylcholine to synapse directly on effectors (muscle)
461
Microtubules
Contain protein tubulin13 of the filaments (tubulin is normally globular but is straightend to form microtubules) lie alongside each other to form a tubule (spiral appearance is due to two types of tubulin used (alpha and beta))Forms mitotic spindle, flagellum and cilium
462
Renal tubule
The portion of the nephron after the glomerulus and apsule; the region of the nephron where the filtrate is modified along its path to becoming urine.
463
Productive cycle
A life cycle of animal viruses in which the mature viral particles bud from the host cell, acquiring an envelope (a coating of lipid bilayer) in the process.
464
Proximal convoluted tubuel
The first portion of the nephron tubuel after the glomerulus. THe PCT is the site of most reabsorption; all filtered nutrients are reabsorbed here as well as most of the filtered water.
465
Prophase I
The first phase of meiosis I. During prophase I the replicated chromosomes condense, homologous chromsomes pair up, crossing over occurs between homologous chromosomes, the spindle is formed, and the nuclear envelope breaks apart into vesicles. Prophase I is the longest phase of meiosis.
466
Cortex
The outer layer of an organ, e.g. the renal cortex, the ovarian cortex, the adrenal cortex, etc.
467
Sertolli cells
Cells that form the walls of the seminiferous tubules and help in spermatogenesis Sertoli cells are also called susenacular cells.
468
Skeletal muscle
Muscle tissue that is attached to the bones. SKeletal muscle is striated multinucleate, and under voluntary control.
469
Auditory tube
The tube that connects the middle ear acity with the pharynx; also known as the Eustachian tube. Its fucntion is to equalize midle ear pressure with atmospheric pressure so that pressure on boths sides of the tympanic membrane is the same.
470
Retrovirus
A virus with an RNA genome (e.g. HIV) that undergoes a lysogenic life cycle in a host with a double stranded DNA genome. In order to integrate its genome with the host cell genome, the virus must first reverse trasncribe its RNA genome to DNA.
471
Allele
A version of a gene. For example, the gene may be for eye color, and the allels include those for brown eyes, those for blu e eyes, those green eyes, etc. At most, dploid organsims can posses only two alleles for a given gene, one on each of the two homologous chromosomes.
472
Vagus nerves
Cranial nerve pair X. The vagus nerves are very large mixed nerves (They carry both sensory input and motor input) that innervate virtually every visceral organ. They are especially important in transmitting parasympathetic input to the heart and digestive smooth muscle.
473
Integral membrane protein
A protein embedded in the lipid bilayer of a cell. These are typicallly cell surface receptors, channels, or pumps.
474
Pyruvate dehydrogenase complex
a group of three anzymes that decarboxylates pyruvate, creating an acetyl group and carbon dioxide. The acetyl group is then attached to coenzyme A to produce acetyl-CoA, a substrate in Krebs cycle. In the process, NAD+ is reduced to NADH. The second stage of cellular respication.
475
Fungal Growth Phase
Consists of tangled mass (called mycelium) of multiple branched threadlike structures called hyphaeHaploid life cycle predominates most of the timeHaploid spores give rise to new mycelia in sexual reproduction
476
Connective tissue
One of the four basic tissue types in the body (epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous). Connective tissue is a supportive tissue consisting of a relatively few cells scattered among a great deal of extracellular material (matrix), and includes adipose tissue (fat), bone, cartilage, the dermis of teh skin, tendons, ligaments, and blood.
477
Long bone
The most common class of bone in the body, long bones have a well-defined shaft (the diaphysis) and two well-defined ends (the epiphyses).
478
Ovarian cycle
The 28 days of the menstrual cycle as they apply to events in the ovary. The ovarian cycle has three subphases: the follicular phase, ovulation, and the luteal phase.
479
Epithelial tissue
One of the four basic tissue types in the body (epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous). Epithelial tissue is a lining and covering tissue (e.g. skin, the lining of the stomach and intestines, the lining of the urinary tract, etc. ) or a glandular tissue (e.g. the liver, the pancreas, the ovaries, etc.)
480
triacylglycerols (triglycerids, fats, oils)
have 3 carbon backbone called glycerol attached to three fatty acids
481
Ribosomes:
Prokaryotes - 30S and 50S - 70S combined
482
of subunits
Eukaryotes - 40S and 60S - 80S combined
483
Lymphatic system
A set of vessels in the body that runs alongside the vessels of the circulatory system. It is a one-way system, with lymphatic capillaries beginning at the tissues and ultimately emptying into the large veins near the heart. It serves to return excess tissue fluid (lymph) to the circulatory system, and filters the fluid through millions of white blood cells on its way back to the heart.
484
What is a dihybrid cross?
Cross where parents differ in 2 traits
485
If the F1 generation of a PP x pp cross is self-crossed, what will be the F2 genotypic and phenotypic ratios?
Genotype: 1:2:1 (1PP:2Pp:1pp)Phenotype: 3:1 (3 purple:1 white)
486
If gene X and gene Y have a recombinant frequency of 8%, and gene X and gene Z recombine 12% of the time, what are the possible distances between genes Y & Z?
4 or 20 map units
487
G Cell
Secretes gastrin
488
DNA polymerase
Removes nucleotidesautomatic proofreaderrepairs mismatch nucleotidesTherefore, DNA replication is fast and accurate
489
cortisol
made: adrenal cortexeffects: stimulates gluconeogenesis in liver, degrades adipose tissue for energy, diminishes immune response
490
NUCLEIC ACID
complex, high-molecular-weight biochemical macromolecule composed of nucleotide chains that convey genetic information like DNA and RNA
491
cellulose
glucose polymer w/beta linkages, found in plants. not digestable by animals.
492
glucagon
made: pancreaseffects: raise blood glucose levels, by promoting gluconeogenesis and glycogenolysis in liver. Also breaks down adipose tissue. (fat)
493
Progesterone
made: ovarieseffect: prepares and maintaines uterus for pregnancy
494
CONTROL PROTEINS
activate or inactivate enzymes
495
CONJUGATED PROTEINS
proteins with non-proteinaceous groups
496
Translation
Process of protein synthesis directed by mRNAnucleus -> cytosol (mRNA)anticodon (tRNA)makes ribosome (rRNA)
497
phospholipids
glycerol backbone, 2 fatty acids, phosphate group. Amphipathic and used to build membranes.
498
Placenta hormones
HCG, (Estrogens, Progesterone... in addition to ovaries).
499
pancreas
located near kidneyboth endo and exocrine gland.releases insulin and glucagon.
500
inflammation
dilation of blood vessels, increased capillary permeability, swelling of tissue cells, migration of macrophages and granulocytes to inflamed area. Impedes spread of infection.
