Media Flashcards
(116 cards)
0
Q
What does social learning theory (SLT) suggest how media influences anti social behaviour?
A
People learn anti social behaviours by observing and imitating models.
1
Q
What are the 3 theories explaining how media influences antisocial behaviour?
A
- Social Learning Theory
- Desensitisation
- cognitive Priming
2
Q
Who are people most likely to imitate?
A
People are most likely to imitate models they admire, see as successful or who get positively reinforced for their actions.
3
Q
Two studies that support SLT
A
- Bandura’s Bobo Doll study
2. Parke et al- Young offenders
4
Q
Characteristics of the participants in Bandura’s Bobo Doll study. (3)
A
- 36 boys and 36 girls
- Aged 3-6 years old
- Stanford university Nursery
5
Q
Procedure of Bobo Doll Study (3+)
A
- Lab Experiment
- All participants pre-tested for aggression
- 24 shown aggressive model
24 shown non-aggressive model
24 shown no model
6
Q
Findings of Bobo Doll study (1)
A
Those who observed the aggressive model imitated the same aggressive behaviours they observed.
7
Q
Conclusion of Bobo Doll Study. (1)
A
Specific anti-social behaviours can be learned and can lead to an increase in aggressive tendencies.
8
Q
Evaluative points for Bandura’s Bobo Doll study.
(6 negative)
(1 positive)
A
1P. Well executed and does show the possibility of anti social behaviours being learned.
1N. Small sample size- lowers external validity
2N. 3-6 year olds- lowers external validity
3N. Stanford uni nursery- lowers external validity
4N. Lab experiment- low ecological validity
5N. Aggression may be innate- lowers internal validity
6N. Unethical- not protected from harm
9
Q
Participants involved in Parke et al’s study? (2)
A
- Young offenders
2. Living in an institution
10
Q
Procedure of Parke et al’s study. (5+)
A
- Field experiment
- Independent groups design
- Normal TV services was terminated
- One group of participants watched aggressive TV programmes only
Other group watched non-aggressive TV programmes only - Institution staff observed and recorded the behaviour of the Young offenders.
11
Q
Finding in Parke et al’s study. (1)
A
Parke et al found that those who watched the aggressive TV programmes acted in a more aggressive way themselves.
12
Q
Parke et al’s conclusion. (1)
A
Anti social behaviour can be learned and imitated by the people who observe the behaviours.
13
Q
Evaluative points for Parke et al’s study. (8 neg)
1 pos
A
Positive: 1. field experiment- higher ecological validity
Negative: 1. Young offenders- may already have been aggressive- lower internal validity
2. Young- lowers external validity
3. Offenders- lowers external validity
4. Institution- lowers external validity
5. Staff- bias/ subjective/ uneducated/ no time
6. Unethical- not protected from harm
7. Independent groups- individual differences
8. Demand characteristics
14
Q
What is the name of the study used to contradict SLT? (1)
A
St. Helena study
15
Q
Participants in St. Helena study (1)
A
Those living in St. Helena at the time of the study
16
Q
Procedure of the St. Helena study (2)
A
- Field experiment
2. Anti-social behaviour was measured through peer and teacher comments before and after the introduction to T.V.
17
Q
Findings and conclusion of St. Helena study. (2)
A
Findings: They found that there was no rise in aggressive, anti-social behaviour, however, a small increase in prosocial behaviour was recorded.
Conclusion: Not everyone imitates the behaviours they observe in the media, especially anti-social behaviours.
18
Q
Evaluative points for the St. Helena study. (3 neg) (3 pos)
A
Positive: 1. Shows that findings from one study can’t be generalised worldwide.
- Field experiment used- increase ecological validity
- Real life- high in mundane realism
Negative: 1. St. Helena- can’t be generalised- lowers external validity
- Peer + teacher comments- bias
- There might have not been an interest in TV- lowers internal validity
19
Q
How does cognitive priming explain how media influences anti-social behaviour?
A
Cognitive priming suggests that when people watch aggressive acts in the media, they store scripts in their memories (schema’s) to use at a later date. They are now ‘primed’ to act aggressively in similar situations.
20
Q
Study to support cognitive priming theory. (1)
A
Josephson’s hockey players
21
Q
Participants involved in Josephson’s hockey players study. (1)
A
Hockey players
22
Q
Procedure of Josephson’s hockey players study. (3)
A
- Lab experiment
- All players were deliberately frustrated
- They were shown either an aggressive or non-aggressive movie, where the character held a walkie-talkie
23
Q
Finding of Josephson’s hockey players study. (1)
A
When playing a game of hockey, where the referee was holding a walkie-talkie, those players who watched the aggressive movie did, in fact, act more aggressively.
24
Evaluative points for Josephson's hockey players study. (2)
1. Hockey players- can't be generalised- lacks external validity
2. Demand characteristics- may have acted in the way they believed they was supposed to act to please the experimenter- lowers internal validity.
25
How does desensitisation explain how media influences anti-social behaviour?
Desensitisation suggests that the more violence a child watches the more desensitised they become and, therefore, the more likely they are to act violently.
26
What study criticises the desensitisation theory? (1)
Belson's teenage boys
27
Participants involved in Belson's study? (1)
1. 1500 teenage boys
28
Date of Belson's teenage boys study? (1)
1. 1978
29
Findings of Belson's teenage boy study? (1)
1. No evidence that high exposure to TV violence would desensitise the boys into acting more violent.
30
Conclusion of Belson's teenage boys study?
Exposure to TV violence has no affect on the likeliness of someone acting violent through being desensitised.
31
Evaluative points of Belson's teenage boy study. (3 neg) (1 pos)
N1. Only used teenage boys- can't be generalised
N2. Unethical- potentially could have caused harm
N3. Outdated (1978)- TV has changed- can't be generalised
P1. Large sample size- increase generalisability
32
Desensitisation- what are the differences between genders?
Large scale studies have found greater desensitisation effects in males than in female.
33
Using violent TV to justify a child's behaviour.
Violence on TV may be used to justify a child's bad behaviour, relieving their guild, leading them to potentially act violently themselves. This especially happens when the person committing the violent act on TV does not get punished (superheroes).
34
Singer et al.- cathartic effect- findings (1)
1. Singer et al found that violence on TV has a cathartic effect and makes the viewer less likely to be violent.
35
Overall evaluation of the studies regarding media influence of anti social behaviour (4)
1. Gender bias- mainly used boys
2. Unethical- often studies do not fully protect participants from harm
3. Age bias- studies mainly used children or young teens
4. Results are correlational- no cause and effect distinguished
36
Explanations of how media influences pro-social behaviour. (2)
1. Social learning theory- people observe and imitate the behaviours they see in the media
2. Parental mediation- parents explain what's right and wrong
37
Support for social learning theory (pro-social). (1)
Poulo's Lassie Study
38
Participants in Poulo's Lassie Experiement. (1)
1. Children
39
Procedure of Poulo's Lassie Study. (2)
1. Independent groups design
2. Both groups were shown an episode of Lassie. One group was shown a scene where the dog is helped. The other group were shown a scene where the dog is played with.
40
Findings of Poulo's Lassie Study. (1)
1. Those who watched the scene where the dog was helped were subsequently more likely to help puppies in distress, compared to those who watched the other scene.
41
Evaluative points for Poulo's Lassie Study. (3 neg)
1. Independent groups design- individual differences were not taken into consideration- lowers internal validity
2. Lab experiment- demand characteristics- lowers internal validity
3. Only uses children- can't be generalised- lowers external validity
42
What do studies show about imitation of behaviours? (Age + findings)
Piaget found that children under the age of 11 can only copy behaviours exactly(concrete steps), so they won't use a certain behaviour if it doesn't match the situation perfectly.
43
Overall evaluation of SLT for pro social behaviour. (2 neg)
1. Studies have shown that media has less of an effect than exposure to real life models, so studies lack external validity.
2. There's a lack of research into the effects of media on different age groups- studies lack generalisability
44
What is parental mediation and how are pro-social behaviours most likely to be imitated? (2)
1. For most children the effects of TV are mediated by a parent (co-viewer) who discusses ambiguous or disturbing messages and behaviours.
2. Pro-social behaviours are most likely to be imitated when a parent discusses how the messages and behaviours are important.
45
Name the study that supports parental mediation. (1)
1. Johnson & Ettema's freestyles study
46
Who were the participants in Johnson + Ettema's Freestyles study? (2)
1. Large scale study
| 2. Children aged between 9 and 12 years
47
What was the procedure involved in Johnson + Ettema's Freestyles study? (3)
1. Field experiment
2. Over 13 weeks
3. Children were shown episodes of Freestyles- a show aimed to reduce sex-role stereotypes
48
Findings of Johnson and Ettema's Freestyles study? (1)
Johnson and Ettema found that overall the children did behave less stereotypically, particularly when afterwards they took part in teacher led discussions
49
Evaluation of Johnson & Ettema's study (1 neg 3 pos)
1. Only used children aged between 9 and 12- lacks generalisability- lowers external validity
1. Field experiment- higher ecological validity than if it was in a lab
2. Large scale- increase generalisability
3. Over 13 weeks- not just one episode- increases internal validity
50
Name the study that contradicts parental mediation. (1)
Rubenstein & Sprafkin- psychiatric study
51
Participants in Rubenstein & Sprafkin's psychiatric study. (2)
1. Adolescents
| 2. Hospitalised for psychiatric problems
52
Findings in Rubenstein and Sprafkin's psychiatric study. (1)
1. After post-viewing discussions, the participants were less likely to act in an altruistic manner
53
Conclusion of Rubenstein and Sprafkin's psychiatric study (1)
Rubenstein and Sprafkin concluded that parental mediation does not work for all ages, especially adolescents as they want to act independently.
54
Evaluation of Rubenstein and Sprafkin's study (2)
1. Use of adolescents- can't generalise to other ages
| 2. Psychiatric patients- can't be generalised to others
55
What is Sesame Street and what did its study find? (2)
1. Sesame Street is a TV show with prosocial aims and also reinforced prosocial messages
2. However, studies showed that children from a higher socioeconomic background benefited most from the show (more parental mediation)
56
What has research shown about the age of a child and the ability to understand pro-social behaviours?(1)
Research has shown that the skills needed for the acquisition for pro-social behaviour (compassion, empathy etc) are developed throughout childhood, so younger children should be least effected by pro-social portrayals in the media.
57
Who is most affected by pro-social viewing and who is least affected? (2) (Mares Meta-analysis)
1. Primary school children were most affected by pro-social viewing
2. Adolescents were least affected by pro-social viewing (thought to be due to them wanting to act independently)
58
Who came up with the three effects of pro-social viewing and what are these effects? (1+3)
1. Mares performed a meta-analysis on research conducted between 1966 and 1995 and found these three main effects
1. Altruism
2. Self-control
3. Positive interaction with others
59
What does altruism mean?
Altruism means to share and offer help etc. If you share/ offer help you are acting altruistically
60
Name the two studies that support altruism being an effect of pro-social viewing. (2)
1. Mare's Meta-analysis
| 2. Poulo's Lassie study
61
What did Mare's meta-analysis find about altruism being and effect of pro-social viewing? (1)
1. Mare's conducted a meta-analysis and found that the children exposed to pro-social content acting more altruistically
62
What did Poulo's Lassie study find about altruism being an effect of pro-social viewing? (1)
1. The children who watched the episode of Lassie where the dog was helped were subsequently more likely to help puppies in distress.
63
Name the two studies that support that self-control as being an effect of pro-social viewing? (2)
1. Mare's Meta-analysis
| 2. Frederick & Stein's Mister Rogers' Neighbourhood study
64
What did Mare's meta-analysis find about self-control being an effect of pro-social viewing.
Mares found that when exposed to a TV model with good self-control, children also exhibited this behaviour
65
Who were the participants involved in Frederick and Stein's Mister Rogers Neighbourhood study? (1)
1. 4 year olds
66
What was the procedure of Frederick and Stein's Mister Rogers' Neighbourhood study? (2)
1. Independent groups
2. One group shown an episode of Mister Rogers' Neighbourhood and the other group was shown a more aggressive programme such as Spider-Man
67
What were the findings of Frederick and Stein's Mister Rogers' Neighbourhood study? (1)
Those who were shown the episode of Mister Rogers' Neighbourhood study had better task perseverance and obedience to rules, compared to those who watched the more aggressive TV show.
68
Evaluation of Frederick and Stein's Mister Rogers' Neighbourhood study. (4)
1. Use of 4 year olds- can't be generalised- lowers external validity
2. Independent groups- individual differences- lowers internal validity
3. Lab experiment- demand characteristics- lowers internal validity
4. Unethical- other group shown aggressive TV show could have caused harm
69
What study supports that positive interaction with others is an effect of pro-social viewing? (1)
1. Frederick & Stein's Mister Rogers' Neighbourhood study
70
What did Frederick and Stein's Mister Rogers' Neighbourhood study show that supports that's positive interaction with others is an effect of pro-social viewing? (1)
1. When watching the children in the playground after the study, they found that those who watched the episode of Mister Rogers' Neighbourhood study behaved more positively towards others.
71
Name(3) + date(2) the studies that show a positive effect of video games.
1. Kestenbaum & Weinstein(1985) - calming effect
2. Osswald- lemmings study
3. Schie & Wiegman(1997) - intelligence study
72
Participants involved in Kestenbaum & Weinstein's calling effect study? (1+)
1. Adolescent males
73
Procedure of Kestenbaum and Weinstein's calming effect study (1)
1. Participants played video games for long periods of time
74
Findings of Kestenbaum & Weinstein's calling effect study (1)
1. Video games had a calling effect on the participants as it offered an outlet for aggression through the competition in the game
75
Evaluation of Kestenbaum & Weinstein's calming effect study(2)
1. Males- gender bias
| 2. Adolescents- bias sample
76
Participants in Osswald's Lemmings study (1)
1. Pupils
77
Procedure of Osswald's Lemmings study(2)
1. Independent groups design
| 2. Half played the pro-social game Lemmings Nd the other half played an aggressive game
78
Findings of Osswald's Lemmings study (2)
1. 67% of participants who played Lemmings helped a teacher pick up pencils
2. Only 28% of the participants who played the aggressive game helped the teacher
79
Evaluation of Osswald's Lemmings study (3)
1. Independent groups- individual differences
2. Pupils- bias sample
3. Possibility of being unethical
80
Who were the participants involved in Schie and Weigman's Increased intelligence study(3)
1. 346 children
2. Year 7 + 8
3. From the Nertherlands
81
Procedure of Schie and Wiegman's increased intelligence study (2)
1. Researchers assessed participants game playing habits
| 2. Participants were then observed in free play after game playing
82
Findings of Schie and Wiegman's Increased Intelligence study (2)
1. No relationship between time spent game playing and levels of aggression
2. Positive correlation between time spent game playing and intelligence
83
Evaluation is Schie and Wiegman's Increased Intelligence study (4)
1. Year 7 and 8- bias sample
2. Netherlands- culturally bias
3. Correlational- no cause and effect
4. Outdated- games have changed
84
Name the studies for the negative effects of video games(2)
Carnagey- physicological arousal- sweat or no sweat
Anderson & bushman- meta-analysis- 5 variables
85
Method of Carnagey's physiological arousal experiment (3+)
1. Participants are asked about their normal game playing habits
2. Randomly allocated into one of two conditions:
- experimental condition- 20 minutes playing a violent video game
- control condition- 20 minutes playing a non-violent game
3. Participants were then shown a video of realistic crime while their heart rate and galvanic skin response was monitored.
86
Findings of Carnagey's physiological arousal experiment (1)
1. Those who played the violent video game had a lower heart rate and galvanic skin response when watching the film compared to the participants in the control group
87
Conclusion of Carnagey's physiological arousal experiment (1)
1. Violent video games can cause desensitisation of psychological responses
88
Evaluation of Carnagey's physiological response experiment- sweat or no sweat (3)
1. independent groups- individual differences
2. Unethical
3. Lab experiment- lacks mundane realism
89
Procedure for bushman and Anderson's meta- analysis (1+ 5)
1. Conducted a meta-analysis looking at the effects of exposure to video games on 5 different variables:
- physiological arousal
- aggressive thoughts
- aggress behaviour
- aggressive moods
- pro-social behaviour
90
Findings of Anderson and Bushman's meta-analysis (1)
1. Found that all participants had increased levels of aggression after playing violent video game
91
Why do video games cause aggression? (3 + the names of those who come up which each theory)
1. Bi-directional model- Anderson and Gentile
2. Desensitisation- funk et al. Or Carnagey
3. Interactive media- Porter et al
92
According to Anderson and Gentile (Bi-directional model), how do games cause aggression? (1)
Anderson and Gentile argue that those who already have aggressive tendencies are more likely to select an aggressive game.
93
According to Funk or Carnagey (Desensitisation), how do video games cause aggression? (1) + what doesn't this theory fail to consider? (1)
1. Those who play games constantly are desensitised and therefore become less likely to be affected by real life violence.
2. However, this theory completely disregards the players intelligence and morals and also their ability to differentiate fictional violence and real-life violence.
94
According to Porter et al. (Interactive Media), how do video games cause aggression? (1)
1. Interactive violence is more likely to cause aggression because they convey messages that suggest violence is an acceptable way of dealing with irritants
95
In the Hovland Yale Model, what are the 3 factors that are used for persuasion and attitude change? (Baby formula) (3)
1. The Source
2. The Message
3. The Audience
96
What are the 2 approaches for persuasion and attitude change? (2)
1. Hovland Yale Model
| 2. Elaboration Likelihood Model
97
Hovland Yale Model- Characteristics of the source (3)
1. Expert
2. Credibility, status and attractiveness
3. Someone we like
98
Support for using an expert: INSKO- expert or non-expert (2)
1. Students generally said that 8 hours sleep is enough to maintain good health
2. They were more persuaded by an expert even when the experts opinion was drastically different to their own
99
Hovland Yale Model- characteristics for the message (3)
1. Two-sided, balanced argument- McGuire (Toothbrush)
2. Fear in the message- Lewis (Drink-driving campaigns)
3. Repeated exposure
100
Supporting evidence for needing a two-sided, balanced argument: McGuire- Toothbrush study (3 method + 1 finding)
1. Participants were asked for their opinions on whether you should brush your teeth after every meal
2. Half of the participants then listened to a two-sided, balanced argument about tooth brushing and the other half listened to a simple, one-sided argument
3. Two days later they all listened to an argument that criticised their beliefs
4. Found that those who heard the two-sided balanced argument were apposed to changing their options based on the new opinion, unlike the group who only heard the one-sided argument the first time.
101
Supporting evidence for fear in the message: Lewis- Drink-driving campaign (2 method + 1 findings)
1. Participants were shown two campaigns (one with fear, the other with humour) about drink-driving.
2. They were asked to fill out two questionnaires- one pre-exposure and one post-exposure.
3. Found that messages that used fear did change the opinions of the viewers in the short term, however, in the long term opinions were most likely to stay changed if the message was funny
102
The Hovland Yale Model- Audience factors (1+)
1. Intelligence levels: (Igartua- aids/HIV prevention)
Moderate- easy to persuade
Low- hard- didn't understand message
High- hard- confident with their opinionsh, process the information + discard simple, one-sided arguments
103
Study that criticises audience factors: Igartua- aids/HIV prevention campaigns (1 findings + 1 what findings show)
1. Found that the higher the quality of the entertainment, the more cognitive stimulation is induced and therefore positive attitude change is adopted.
2. This shows that audience factors, such as intelligence levels, are irrelevant if the quality of the message is high
104
Problems with The Hovland Yale Model (4)
1. It doesn't say why people change their attitudes and opinions, it just simply states how the process happens
2. It doesn't state which factor is most important
3. Majority of studies use self-assessed reports- subject to social desirability bias
4. Majority if research was conducted in labs- participants give undivided attention- lacks mundane realism- decrease external validity
105
Two parts of the Elaboration-likelihood Model (2) (names only)
1. Central route
| 2. Peripheral route
106
The Elaboration-likelihood model: The Central route (5)
1. Where the audience focuses on the content of the message
2. Works best when the message is personal
3. Strengthened when the message gives the audience something to analyse- need for cognition
4. Causes permanent attitude and opinion changes
5. People who are persuaded in this was are likely to discard any new, contradicting information
107
The Elaboration-likelihood model: The Peripheral Route (5)
1. Audience focuses on the context of the message
2. Not personal to the audience
3. For quick decision-making
4. Low need for cognition
5. Only causes a temporary change to attitudes and opinions
108
Support for Central route being best for people with high need for cognition: Vidrine- smoking campaigns (1 participants + method + 1 finding)
1. Students were shown either a fact based smoking campaign or and emotion based smoking campaign.
2. Found that those who had a high need for cognition were most influenced by the fact based campaign and vice versa.
109
Overall evaluation for Elaboration-likelihood model (2)
1. Individual difference are taken into consideration- understands that people have different needs for cognition
2. Shows that the central route is better at persuading people with high need for cognition and the peripheral route is better at persuading those with a low need for cognition.
110
Maltby's celebrity attitudes scale- the study
| 2 participants + 3 findings + 1 conclusion
Participants:
1. 372 people
2. Aged between 18 and 47 years old
Findings:
1. 15% were entertainment-social
2. 5% were intense-personal
3. 2% were borderline pathological
Conclusion:
1. Celebrity worshippers had lower levels of psychological well-being then those who are non-worshippers
111
What did Hey also find about those who were borderline pathological? (1)
1. Those who were borderline pathological also showed signs of depression and anxiety
112
Yue's study looking at the effects of celebrity worship (2003) (3 participants + 1 procedure + 2 findings)
Participants:
1. 833
2. Chinese
3. Teenagers
Procedure:
1. Telephone surveyed each teen
Findings:
1. Found that those who were celebrity worshippers had lower levels of work or study and had lower self-esteem
2. Also found that those who "worshipped" a key family member or a teacher had higher self-esteem and had more educational or work achievements
113
What did Phillip find about celeb suicide? (1)
1. Phillip found that when there was a high profile celebrity suicide the number of suicides among the general population increased
114
What type of celebrities are borderline pathological worshippers most likely to worship? (1)
1. Anti-social celebrities (Rebellious celebs) like Amy Winehouse
115
What are the characteristics of the two types of stalkers? (3 + 2)
1st type of stalker:
1. Has a love obsession with someone they have never met
2. Often suffers with delusional thought patterns
3. Unable to develop a 'normal' relationship, so they tend to live in a world of fantasy
2nd type of stalkers:
1. Most common type
2. Stems from a previous personal relationship that happened before the stalking behaviour began
