Media industries

Question 1

Ownership effects

Curran and Seaton: Their 3 main concepts

Media industry

Answer 1

1. Media concentration: The media is controlled by a small number of companies primarily driven by the logic of profit and power.
2. Effects of concentration on media content: Media Concentration generally limits variety, creativity and quality.
3. Diverse ownership creates diverse products: More socially diverse patterns of ownership help to create the conditions for more varied and adventurous media productions.

Question 2

Ownership effects

Curran and Seaton: Media Deregulation

Media industry

Answer 2

The process of relaxing ownership rules like the number of stations a single television or radio owner can possess in the same market, and whether or not a single corporation can be allowed this.

Critics of it say it can give too much power to individuals who own too many forms of mass media and will limit the audience’s viewpoints

Question 3

Ownership effects

Curran and Seaton - The Broadcasting Act

Media industry

Answer 3

The Broadcasting Act 1990. The aim of the Act was to liberalise and deregulate the British broadcasting industry by promoting competition; ITV, in particular, had earlier been described by Margaret Thatcher as “the last bastion of restrictive practices”

Broadcasting was made, financed and controlled by the public, for the public. Neither commercial nor state-owned, free from political interference and pressure from commercial forces.

Question 4

Ownership effects

Curran and Seaton: set up in 2011 The Media Reform Coalition is committed to:

Media industry

Answer 4

• Supporting media pluralism
• Defending ethical journalism
• Protecting investigative and local journalism.

Question 5

Ownership effects

Curran and Seaton: What is The Media Reform Coalition?

Media industry

Answer 5

The Media Reform Coalition is a campaign organization established in September 2011 to unite civil society groups, academics, and media advocates in addressing issues related to media regulation, ownership, and democracy, particularly in the wake of the phone hacking scandal and the proposed communications legislation.

Question 6

Ownership effects

Curran and Seaton: What does Curran argue about the result of media concentration?

Media industry

Answer 6

Media concentration has led to an increase in proprietor power. As Curran argues, media owners control the content and flow of news, either directly or indirectly.

Proprietor power= The influence and control that media owners (proprietors) have over the media outlets they own.

Question 7

Ownership effects

Curran and seaton: direct control

Media industry

Answer 7

Curran suggests that proprietor owners often censor news content that conflicts with their political views or broader business interests.

Generally, large conglomerates that own news outlets also have significant investments in various other industries worldwide, such as banking, engineering, oil, and transport.

This interconnectedness can influence the type of news coverage they promote/suppress to protect their broader business and political agendas.

Question 8

Ownership effects

Curran and seaton: indirect control

Media industry

Answer 8

Refers to the subtle ways in which media owners influence content without directly intervening in editorial decisions.

E.g, media proprietors might shape content indirectly by selecting editors or journalists who share their views, creating financial pressures that impact editorial choices, or prioritizing stories that align with their business or political goals.

Question 9

Ownership effects

Curran and seaton: media globalisation

Media industry

Answer 9

Production, distribution and consumption of media products on a global scale

Question 10

Ownership effects

Curran and seaton: Why do media producers overwhelmingly target ABC1 audiences?

Media industry

Answer 10

Advertising encourages media broadcasters to create content that targets the ABC1 demographics—audiences with higher income levels who can afford to purchase the products that advertisers want to sell. This focus on affluent viewers influences the type of content produced, often prioritizing programs that appeal to this financially capable group in order to attract more advertising revenue.

Question 11

Ownership effects

Curran and seaton: The Rise of Media Conglomerates

Media industry

Answer 11

C&S argue that high costs and risks in the media industry have caused media companies to join together into big, powerful groups. These groups control many parts of the business, like production and distribution, to reduce risks and increase profits.

Question 12

Ownership effects

Curran and seaton: What are subsidiaries?

Media industry

Answer 12

Small companies that work underneath big companies

Question 13

Ownership effects

Curran and seaton: What is vertical integration?

Media industry

Answer 13

Where many large companies own subsidiaries that allow them to control all stages of production

Question 14

Ownership effects

Curran and seaton: What is horizontal integration? (HI)

Media industry

Answer 14

Occurs when conglomerates aquires subsidiaries that makes similar types of products or media outputs (AKA when there is a purchase of a competing companies within the same industry to lessen competition).

Question 15

Ownership effects

Curran and seaton: HI advantages

Media industry

Answer 15

. Production costs can be minimised
. HI aligned companies have the power and financial means to share resources that independant producers are simple unable to develop
. Big corporations that use HI are good at controlling the market due to their shared resources.

Question 16

Ownership effects

Curran and seaton: Vertical Integration (VI) advantages:

Media industry

Answer 16

Capturing Profits:
* Downstream: In-house production avoids distributor fees.
* Upstream: In-house distribution avoids content licensing costs.
Control Over Production Chain:
* Disney can time releases (e.g., Christmas premieres) and avoid internal competition.
Restricting Competitors:
* Disney can limit rival access to distribution platforms or charge them for access.
Cross-Media Synergies:
* Shared tech across divisions (e.g., Marvel TV uses Marvel Films’ tools).
* Story/character recycling (e.g., Star Wars → games, parks).
* Franchise success boosts theme park revenue (e.g., $7.78B in Q2 2023).

Question 17

Regulation

Livingstone and Lunt: What do regulators have to try to do?

Media industry

Answer 17

Balance protecting people with offering them choice

Question 18

Regulation

Livingstone and Lunt: Self-Regulation

Media industry

Answer 18

In the absence of state guidance, media producers are left to independently decide upon their own moral or ethical codes of production.

Question 19

Regulation

Livingstone and Lunt: Ofcom

Media industry

Answer 19

= regulate UK media
Main regulatory duties = address citizen needs while others address needs of consumers
Livingstone and Lunt studied 4 case studies of work of Ofcom

Question 20

Regulation

Livingstone and Lunt: How has technology made regulation harder?

Media industry

Answer 20

Downloading, streaming, etc, means that people can bypass controls, like age certificates on films + games

Question 21

Regulation

Livingstone and Lunt: Why is the internet hard to control?

Media industry

Answer 21

because it has billions of users

Question 21

Regulation

Livingstone and Lunt: What was the purpose of the Communications Act 2003 and how did it impact UK television?

Media industry

Answer 21

• Aimed to modernise UK regulation and boost global media competitiveness.
• Promoted independent production by requiring BBC and Channel 4 to commission from smaller companies.
• Encouraged commercially viable content, but led to reduced civic-minded programming.

Question 22

Regulation

Livingstone and Lunt: How did the creation of Ofcom change UK media regulation?

Media industry

Answer 22

Ofcom replaced BSC and ITC, reducing public service broadcasting standards.
Focus shifted to consumer interests over citizen interests.
Lack of accountability and civic engagement in new regulatory structures.

Question 23

Regulation

Livingstone and Lunt: What are the key concerns regulated by UK media bodies (e.g. Ofcom, ASA, IPSO)?

Media industry

Answer 23

• Protection of under-18s: Limits on violence, sex, bad language (e.g. BBFC, PEGI, Ofcom post-watershed rules).
• Accuracy: ASA & IPSO tackle misleading ads and reporting.
• Privacy: Rules against secret recordings and intrusive photos (Ofcom & IPSO guidelines).

Question 24

# Regulation What criticisms do Livingstone and Lunt raise about UK media regulators? | Media industry

Answer 24

* Regulators often staffed by industry insiders → potential bias. * Codes of practice (which is what they abide by) viewed as too lenient, prioritising vulnerable groups over broad civic responsibility.

Question 25

# Regulation Livingstone and Lunt: What was the 2012 Leveson Inquiry and what did it reveal about UK press practices? | Media industry

Answer 25

* Triggered by phone hacking scandals involving celebrities and crime victims. * Found newspapers prioritized sensationalism over ethics and individual rights. * Recommended an independent press watchdog, free from industry control and backed by law.

Question 26

# Regulation Livingstone and Lunt: What is IPSO and why has it been criticised? | Media industry

Answer 26

* Formed in 2014 as a "compromise" watchdog after Leveson inquiry phone hacking scandal. * Can fine outlets up to £1M for editorial breaches, but has never issued a fine. Leading to some people being critical of its practises. * Membership of IPSO is voluntary. With some Major outlets like The Guardian and Financial Times, who opted out of it, in favour of their own tougher codes of conduct via self-regulation.

Question 27

# Regulation Key Influences for self-regulation in media: | Media industry

Answer 27

* Regulator codes (e.g. Ofcom, IPSO). * Audience expectations and cultural norms. * Advertiser needs to protect brand alignment. * Institutional obligations e.g. BBC/Channel 4 must serve public interest under license agreements.

Question 28

# Regulation What do Livingstone and Lunt argue about regulation in the globalised media age? | Media industry

Answer 28

* Globalisation weakens national regulation (e.g. UK’s Ofcom). * Rapid online expansion makes regulation hard to anticipate. * Platforms like Meta, Google, and TikTok host user-generated content, which is hard to check. * Algorithms help filter content but are still limited in sophistication.

Question 29

# Regulation Livingstone and Lunt: Barriers to Effective Digital Media Regulation | Media industry

Answer 29

**Jurisdiction limits**: Tech companies (e.g. Netflix in the Netherlands) operate outside UK regulation. Weak on-demand rules: UK guidelines (e.g. Ofcom's ODPS) are vague and less strict than for domestic TV. **Decentralisation**: Internet’s structure makes comprehensive control almost impossible. **Anonymity**: Hard to trace and act against harmful anonymous content.

Question 30

# Regulation Livingstone and Lunt: Why has digital content been hard to regulate in the UK? | Media industry

Answer 30

* The Communications Act 2003 didn’t address online media. * UK governments have hesitated to introduce strong online regulation. * The ASA tries to police online ads and influencer content (since 2018), but: -* Can't monitor all posts due to high volume. -* Has limited power over global platforms outside UK jurisdiction.

Question 31

# Regulation Livingstone and Lunt: What does the Online Safety Bill 2023 aim to do? | Media industry

Answer 31

* Gives Ofcom powers to regulate the online sector. Forces platforms to: -* Remove illegal/harmful content and prevent its posting. -* Block children’s access to harmful/sexual content. -* Enforce strict age limits for social media sign-ups.

Question 32

# Regulation Livingstone and Lunt: How does the BBC approach self-regulation? | Media industry ## Footnote (For TV and radio)

Answer 32

* BBC products show a civic-minded, citizen-based ethos. * Strong commitment to public service content.

Question 33

# Regulation Livingstone and Lunt: Self-Regulation and Channel 4's approach | Media industry ## Footnote (For TV and radio)

Answer 33

Originally a public service broadcaster. Budget limits + advertising reliance have shifted focus toward entertainment over civic content. Shows signs of a consumer-based agenda.

Question 34

# Regulation Livingstone and Lunt: Global Competition and its effect on UK Broadcasting and its regulations | Media industry ## Footnote (For TV and radio)

Answer 34

* Weak UK regulation allows global media producers to dominate viewership. * UK lacks strong protections for domestic content. * EU enforces a 30% local content quota on streaming platforms, UK does not.

Question 35

# Regulation Livingstone and Lunt: Weak Press Regulation & Broadsheet Self-Regulation | Media industry ## Footnote (For newspaper and magazines)

Answer 35

* The Communications Act 2003 excluded newspapers from Ofcom's remit. * IPSO, created after Leveson, is criticized for failing to uphold citizen-based news values. * In response, broadsheet newspapers often use their own editorial codes to maintain civic responsibility and journalistic standards.

Question 36

# Regulation Livingstone and Lunt: Online Content & Extremism, Weak Regulation and Its Challenges & Responses | Media industry ## Footnote (For online content)

Answer 36

* **Weak Regulation:** The Communications Act 2003 didn’t address internet media, leaving social platforms underregulated. * **Online Extremism & Fake News:** Lack of citizen-focused regulation has enabled harmful content to spread. * **Protecting Vulnerable Users:** The 2023 Online Safety Bill holds platforms accountable, especially for protecting children from harmful content. * **Influencer Regulation:** The ASA monitors online advertising, requiring influencers to disclose paid promotions. * **Global Jurisdiction Limits:** Most content is hosted by global tech giants (e.g., Google, Meta) outside UK control. * UK struggles to pass effective laws due to the scale and international nature of these platforms.

Question 37

# Regulation Livingstone and Lunt: How are film and gaming content regulated to protect vulnerable audiences? | Media industry

Answer 37

* BBFC (film) and GRA (games) serve advisory roles to help parents understand content. * PEGI classifications (applied by the GRA) are intended to limit children’s exposure to harmful content. * However, PEGI has had limited success in preventing underage access to problematic games.

Question 38

# Regulation Livingstone and Lunt: What is citizen-based regulation in media? | Media industry

Answer 38

* Encourages media to serve a civic role. * Aims to foster content that contributes to the social and cultural health of society. * Promotes citizen interests over pure commercial goals.

Question 39

# Regulation Livingstone and Lunt: Consumer-Based Regulation | Media industry

Answer 39

* Media makers are given maximum freedom to produce content. * Assumes audiences can choose what to consume. * Regulation is based on consumer preference, not civic responsibility.

Question 40

# Regulation Livingstone and Lunt: What does Sonia Livingstone say about digital literacy? | Media industry

Answer 40

* Audiences must be well-informed about online content. * They should be able to critically evaluate digital material. * Digital literacy is vital for navigating unregulated or misleading content.

Question 41

# The culture industry What are cultural industries according to David Hesmondhalgh?

Answer 41

* Economic sectors focused on the production, reproduction, storage, and distribution of cultural goods. * Operate on industrial and commercial terms, not just for cultural development. * Engage with large-scale media content, often protected by intellectual property rights. ## Footnote Examples: film, music, TV, publishing.

Question 42

# The culture industry Hesmondhalgh’s Key Concepts:

Answer 42

* Maximising profits and minimising risk * The effect of the internet revolution are difficult to diagnose

Question 43

# The culture industry Hesmondhalgh: Media as a Commercial Production

Answer 43

* Media products are shaped by their economic context. Created primarily for profit (or audience retention in public service contexts). * Commercial needs outweigh creativity in production decisions. * Media operates like any business, prioritising revenue over artistic goals.

Question 44

# The culture industry Why does Hesmondhalgh describe the media industry as high-risk?

Answer 44

* Media industries face uncertainty in predicting audience responses. * High production costs with no guaranteed success. * Mass competition, so constant pressure to balance risk and innovation while still aiming for commercial return. ## Footnote He argues that risk minimisation plays a crucial role in directing the design and marketing of media content.

Question 45

# The culture industry What's Hesmondhalgh first main concept?

Answer 45

Concept 1: Maximising Profits and Minimising Risks

Question 46

# The culture industry What does Hesmondhalgh say about the commercial nature of the media industry?

Answer 46

He argues that it follows a “winner takes all” model — a few big hits (like Top Gun: Maverick in 2022) dominate profits, while most products fail to break even.

Question 47

# The culture industry What data supports Hesmondhalgh’s point about disproportionate profits in film?

Answer 47

In 2022, the top 20 films made over 67% of UK box office revenue, while UK independent films made up just 7.9% with only Belfast surpassing £10 million.

Question 48

# The culture industry Why is predicting a media hit so difficult, according to Hesmondhalgh?

Answer 48

* Audience tastes constantly change * Media relies heavily on unpredictable publicity * Media products are usually “one-off” purchases, giving limited return on massive investment.

Question 49

# The culture industry Hesmondhalgh: How does the culture industry manage risk in such an uncertain market?

Answer 49

By overproducing content — creating many products in the hope that a few become successful. This strategy spreads risk across multiple investments

Question 50

# The culture industry Hesmondhalgh: Why can only large media companies sustain overproduction?

Answer 50

Because they have the resources to: * Finance multiple expensive projects at once * Absorb losses from failed products * Continue searching for profitable hits

Question 51

# The culture industry Hesmondhalgh: How is the media industry different from other industries in terms of consumption?

Answer 51

Media products (films, TV, music) are mostly consumed once, unlike other goods. This limits revenue and adds risk, as profit depends on initial success.

Question 52

# The culture industry Why do media companies expand, according to Hesmondhalgh?

Answer 52

To cope with the risks of overproduction by increasing control, efficiency, and profitability through mergers and acquisitions.

Question 53

# The culture industry Hesmondhalgh: What is multi-sector integration?

Answer 53

When companies expand across different cultural sectors to allow for cross-promotion and brand extension across platforms and products. ## Footnote E.g,: Disney making films, soundtracks, toys, and theme park experiences from the same intellectual property.

Question 54

# The culture industry Hesmondhalgh: What is the strategic purpose behind all three integration types? (HI, VI and Multi-sector integration) ## Footnote Recap: HI - When a media company acquires other companies within the same sector to increase market share, reduce costs, and avoid brand competition. VI - When a company controls all stages of production, distribution, and marketing — reducing costs and increasing control over its products. Multi-sector integration - When companies expand across different cultural sectors to allow for cross-promotion and brand extension across platforms and products. e.g disney making films, toys and amusement parks

Answer 54

To minimise risk, maximise profitability, and create synergies between brands and products in a saturated, unpredictable media market.

Question 55

# The culture industry Who are “symbol creators” in Hesmondhalgh’s theory?

Answer 55

They are creative workers (e.g. writers, directors, designers) who traditionally enjoy more artistic autonomy than workers in other industries.

Question 56

# The culture industry Hesmondhalgh: How is the autonomy of symbol creators changing?

Answer 56

Creativity is increasingly secondary to marketing and branding. Creative decisions are being shaped by business priorities, especially in large conglomerates.

Question 57

# The culture industry What does Hesmondhalgh say about recent trends in media acquisitions (obtaining assets)?

Answer 57

Major conglomerates now focus on acquiring brand-driven content, such as Disney’s purchase of Marvel (2009) and Lucasfilm (2012), to reduce commercial risk.

Question 58

# The culture industry Hesmondhalgh: How did Disney use Marvel and Lucasfilm to support Disney+?

Answer 58

Disney repurposed these established brands to produce content like The Mandalorian and Ms. Marvel, targeting inherited fanbases to minimise risk on their streaming platform.

Question 59

# The culture industry Hesmondhalgh: What role does data play in shaping modern media production?

Answer 59

Platforms like Netflix and Amazon use granular audience data to: * Decide which content gets commissioned * Identify popular genres, stars, and formats * Even determine when to cancel a show

Question 60

# The culture industry What key shift does Hesmondhalgh identify in the media industry?

Answer 60

A growing integration of commerce and creativity, where audience data and marketing priorities guide creative output more than artistic intention.

Question 61

# The culture industry Hesmondhalgh: How does this trend relate to the broader culture industry? ## Footnote mention Curran and seaton

Answer 61

It reflects a system where economic logic dominates cultural production, consistent with the ideas of Curran & Seaton, who argue media is shaped by patterns of ownership and profit motives.