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GS-1 > Medieval History and Travellers > Flashcards

Medieval History and Travellers Flashcards

1
Q

Foreign travellers that arrived in India in:

BCE?

A
  1. Megasthenes-3rd cent BC- Greek ambassador- Chandragupta Maurya
  2. Deimachos- 3rd-4th cent BC- Greek ambassador-Bindusara-replaced Megasthenes
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2
Q

Foreign travellers that arrived in India in:

0-1000 AD?

A
  1. Ptolemy- 130AD
  2. Fa-Hien- 405 AD- Chinese Buddhist monk- Chandragupta II
  3. Hiuen Tsang- 630 AD- Chinese Buddhist monk- Harshavardhana
  4. I-Tsing- 670AD- Chinese traveller
  5. Al-Masudi- 950 AD- Arab traveller
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3
Q

Foreign travellers that arrived in India in:

1000-1200AD?

A

Al Beruni- 1025 AD- muslim scholar- Mahmud Ghazni

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4
Q

Foreign travellers that arrived in India in:

1200-1400 AD?

A
  1. Marco polo- 1292 AD- Venetian traveller- Pandyan ruler of Madurai, Madvarman, Klshekhara
  2. Ibn Batuta- 1333 AD- Morrish traveller- muhammed bin Tughluq
  3. Shihabuddin al Umari- 1350AD
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5
Q

Foreign travellers that arrived in India in:

1400-1600 AD?

A
  1. Nicolo Conti- 1420- Venetian traveller- Devraya I of Sangam Dynasty of Vijayanagar empire
  2. Abdur razzaq- 1440AD- Persian ambassador of Shahrukh of Timurid dynasty to Calicut- Devraya II of Sangam dynasty of Vijaynagar Empire
  3. Athanasius Niktin- 1470- Russian merchnat- visited capital of Vijaynagara emire, Hampi and wrote about it
  4. Duarte Barbosa- 1500- Portugese
  5. Domingo Paes- 1520- Portugese traveller- Krishnadeva Raya of Vijaynagara empire
  6. Fernao Nuniz- 1535- Portugese merchant- Achyutdeva Raya of Tuluv dynasty of vijayanagar Empire
  7. Antonio Monserrate- 1536-Spanish- Akbar’s court
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6
Q

Foreign travellers that arrived in India in:

1600-1800 AD?

A
  1. Peter Mundy- 1600-England
  2. William Hawkins- 1608- Ambassador of James I, king of England
  3. Sir Thomas Roe- 1615- Ambassador of James I, king of England
  4. Mahmud Wali Balkhi- 1626
  5. John Albert de Mandesto- 1640- German traveller
  6. Jean Baptiste Tavernier- 1640- Visited India 6 times in the reign of Shahjahan and Aurangzeb
  7. Nicolao Manucci- 1650- got service at the court of Dara Shikoh.
  8. Francois Bernier- 1656- Aurangzeb
  9. Giovanni Careri: 1690
  10. Joseph Tieffenthaler- 1710- missionary
  11. Robert Montgomery Martin- 1800AD
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7
Q

Megasthenes?

A
  1. 302-298 BC
  2. Greek ethnographer & ambassador of Seleucus Nicator, who visited in the court of Chandragupta Maurya. Chandragupta was known to the Greeks as Sandrocottus.
  3. Wrote an interesting book Indica. descibed the following:
    1. India is a quadrilateral-shaped country, bounded by the ocean on the southern and the eastern side.
    2. has many large and navigable rivers, which arise in the mountains on its northern border.
    3. Gold, silver, copper and iron are abundant on Indian soil. Besides tin and other metals are used for making a number of tools, weapons, ornaments, and other articles.
    4. India has very fertile plains, and irrigation is practiced widely. The main crops include rice, millet, a crop called bosporum, other cereals, pulses and other food plants. There are two crop cycles per year, since rain falls in both summer and winter. During winter, wheat is sown.
    5. A law, prescribed by ancient Indian philosophers, bans slavery. The law treats everyone equally, but allows the property to be unevenly distributed.
    6. population of India is divided into 7 hereditary castes: Philosophers, farmers, herders, artisans, Overseers,Councillors and Assessors and military.
    7. No famines have ever occurred in India
    8. India has no foreign colony, and Indians have not established any colonies outside India
    9. foreigners are treated well. Special officers are appointed to ensure that no foreigner is harmed, and judges hand out harsh punishment to those who take unfair advantage of the foreigners.
    10. Indians are of above average stature, because of abundant food, fine water and pure air. They are well-skilled in art
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8
Q

Ptolemy?

A

130 AD

Wrote “Geography of India” which gives the description of Ancient India.

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9
Q

Fa-Hien?

A
  1. 405-411 AD
  2. Chinese Buddhist monk
  3. Came to India in the reign of Chandragupta II Vikramaditya. Does not mention Nalanda uni since it was created by Chandragupta II’s son- Kumaragupta I
  4. Visited the birth place of Buddha, Lumbini, Peshawar, Taxila, Mathura, Kannauj, Sravsti, Kapilavastu, Sarnath as well as Ceylon
  5. His Travelogue “Records of Buddhist Kingdoms”. His primary aim was to visit the Buddhist religious places and to take with him the copies of the Buddhist religious texts.
  6. As his main interest was religion, we know nothing about the political condition of India from his account. He did not mention even the name of Chandra Gupta II .However, his account helps us to know something about the social and religious condition of that period.
  7. It is inferred that the administration of the Guptas was liberal, the people enjoyed economic prosperity and the burden of taxes on them was not heavy.
  8. There were a few quarrels or disputes and the people rarely felt the necessity to approach the judiciary. Mostly, corporal punishment was avoided.
  9. government servants were paid in cash and they were barred from taking presents or bribery from the people.
  10. Monasteries, Sanghas, temples and their property and other religious endow­ments were free from government taxes.
  11. Buddhism and Hinduism were the most popular religions at that time. Buddhism was more popular in Punjab, Bengal and the region around Mathura. emperor worshipped Vishnu but he was tolerant to other faiths.
  12. Fa-hien lived in Pataliputra for nearly three years and studied the Sanskrit language. He described that there were separate Sanghas both of the Hinayana and Mahayana sects, which provided education to students gathered from all parts of India. The Palace of Emperor Asoka also existed at that time, about which Fa-hien remarked that “it might have been built not by men but by gods’. Fa-hien was also very much impressed by chariot-processions here.
  13. According to him India had trade relations with China, countries of south-east Asia and western Asia as well as with Europe. On its western sea-coast, India had ports like Cambay, Sopara and Baroach while on its eastern coast Tamralipti was a famous port from w here Fa-hien went to Sri Lanka on an Indian ship.
  14. mentions Chandragupta II as first Gupta to issue silver coins. also issued Gold coins for big transactions, whereas smaller transactions done by barter and cowries (shells)
  15. Gangetic valley: “Land of Brahminism”, practice of untouchability
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10
Q

Hiuen Tsang?

A
  1. 630-645 AD
  2. Chinese Buddhist- Mahayana monk- “Prince of pilgrim”
  3. Visited India during the reign of Harshavardhana. accepted as the best available source of knowing the administrative, social and cultural condition of India at that time. However, his account of India is not entirely dependable and unbiased
  4. Book is “Si-Yu-Ki or the records of western world”
  5. He remained at the University of Nalanda for about five years. Nalanda gave 3 Buddhism courses- theravada, Mahayana and Vajrayana; visited South India as well, as far as Kanchi.
  6. Harsha called a religious assembly at Kannauj to honour him. Hiuen Tsang presided over that assembly. He also mentions Allahabad Buddhist conference
  7. City life of INdia: houses were of varied types and were constructed with wood, bricks and dung. The city-streets were circular and dirty. Many old cities were in ruins while new cities had grown up.
  8. Prayag was an important city while the importance of Pataliputra was replaced by Kannauj, described by him as a beautiful city. Sravasti and Kapilvastu had lost their religious importance. Instead, Nalanda and Valabhi were the centres of Buddhist learning.
  9. Indians used cotton, silk and wool for their garments and these were of varied types. mostly veg and beef was banned
  10. also mentions sati system and caste system; executioners and scavengers lived outside the city acc to Manusmriti; Purdah system as well but not in higher castes
  11. He described Indians as lovers of education, literature and fine arts.
  12. Mostly the education was religious and was provided orally. Many texts were put in writing and their script was Sanskrit.
  13. According to him, Harsha used to spend 3/4th of the state-income for religious purposes.
  14. He, however, described that travelling was not very much safe at that time.
  15. main source of income of the state was land-revenue which formed 1/6th of the produce. Hiuen Tsang described that Harsha divided his income into four parts. One part of it was spent on administrative routine of the state; the second part of it was distributed among government employees; the third of it was given to scholars; and the fourth part of it was given in charity to Brahamanas and the Buddhist monks.
  16. He described Harsha as a perfect HInayana Buddhist (shaivite early in his life). He agreed that Hinduism was more widely popular in India at that time as compared to Buddhism.
  17. wrote that India had a brisk trade with foreign countries and there were prosperous city- ports on its sea-coast both in the East and the West. India exported cloth, sandal­wood, medicinal herbs, ivory, pearls, spices etc. to foreign countries and imported gold, silver and horses.
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11
Q

Al Masudi?

A

957AD

Al Masudi, an Arab writer, visited India in the 9th century A.D. during the reign of Mihira Bhoja of Kanauj.

given account of India in his book Muruj ul Zehab

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12
Q

Al Berauni?

A
  1. 1024AD
  2. He was a Persian scholar, but came from Uzbekistan. Came along with Mahmud Ghazni during one of his Indian raids.
  3. poly-linguist: Syriac, Arabic, Persian, hebrew and Sanskrit; was also familiar with Greek works of PLato and others from their Arabic translations
  4. First Muslim Scholar to study India also known as founder of Indology.
  5. Wrote “ Tahqiq-i-Hind/Kitab-ul-Hind.
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13
Q

Kitab ul HInd?

A

by Al-Berauni

  1. It is divided into 80 chapters on subjects like religion and philosophy, festivals. astronomy, alchemy, manners and customs, weight and measures, social life etc.
  2. extensively quotes from Sasnkrit literature like Patanjali, Gita, Puranas, Samkhya philosophy etc.
  3. began each chapter with a question, followed by Sanskrit descriptions and concluding with comparison with other cultures
  4. It is one of the most important discussion on India sciences, religion and society; elaborates on HIndu-muslim enmity and its possible reasons
  5. mentions rigid caste str-
    • Chatur varna system and its origin and untouchability, which he disapproves of;
    • based his understanding from brahmanical texts but ground situation was not as rigid
    • he lists 8 antyaja castes below Shudras, not aprt of chatur varna; but were included in economic network
    • names unctocuhable castes;
    • discusses concept of moksha that can be attainable by all castes;
    • mentions similar divisions in other societies;
    • notices fast degradation of vaishyas into shudras and the alliance of brahmanas and kshatriyas;
  6. describes aversion to long distance travel leading to a closed society.
  7. mentions social evil like child marriage, sati, low position of women and widows.
  8. he enlists all important festivals
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14
Q

literary contributions of Al Birauni?

A
  1. Kitab ul HInd
  2. took Aryabhata’s teachings to west and translated Euclid’s work to Sanskrit and Patanjali’s work on Grammar into Arabictook Aryabhata’s teachings to west and translated Euclid’s work to Sanskrit and Patanjali’s work on Grammar into Arabic
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15
Q

Marco polo?

A
  1. Venetian traveller
  2. 1292AD- during reign of Pandyan ruler of Madurai, Madverman Kulshekhara and Rudramadevi of Kakatiyas
  3. describes naked people, of all status; bare minimum clothing, even by king
  4. describes King being covered with jewelleries; calls the Pandyan Kingdom as “The Richest and most splendid province in the World”
  5. widespread chewing of betel leaves
  6. high stds of sanitation like bathing twice, personal drinking vessel, using right hand only for eating
  7. describes Jainas and their non-violent ways of life
  8. describes Sati
  9. temple monasteries have both male and female deities
  10. There is practice that some parents present their girl child to idol which they entertain a great devotion.[Devaradiyar practice]
  11. horse trade was important
  12. Kings practised polygamy
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16
Q

Ibn Batuta: intro?

A
  1. Moroccan traveller, born in Tangier; Dar al-Islam is the area inside the black border was made by Ibn Battuta, as he mainly travelled to those countries which had a Muslim rule.
  2. 1333 AD- during reign of Muhammed Bin Tughluq; appointed as qazi
  3. book: “Rehla” written in Arabic
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17
Q

observation by Ibn battuta in Rehla?

A
  1. describes : coconut and Paan
  2. wrote about Qutb complex and Quwat al Islam mosque
  3. noted about the long famine which lasted for about seven year from 1335 AD, which killed many people near Delhi, and during this time the Sultan was busy in attacking the rebellions. describes plight of people during transfer of capital to Daulatabad
  4. Raziya sultan rode on horseback, no purdah
  5. provides useful info abt Tughluq admin, esp espionage and communication as well as credit system. he mentions postal system by horse and human runners
  6. provides info on slavery, caste system, sati system, trade incl import of horses
  7. does not mention token coins as he arrived after it was done away with
  8. says that travelling was not much safe; he was attacked by Hindu robbers-> hindu-Muslim discord
  9. found the cities densely populated and prosperous- crowded streets, colorful markets. markets also had mosques and temples as well as places for dancers and singers
  10. describes city of Delhi. its 28 gates esp Budaun darwaza as the greatest
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18
Q

other places visited by Ibn Battuta?

A

also visited Calicut, Bengal, Assam, Maldives and Ceylon on his way to China as an ambassador to Mongul court from the Sultan. also gives account of Vijaynagara empire

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19
Q

Nicolo Conti?

A
  • venetian traveller
  • 1420 AD- during rule of Devraya I of Sangam dynasty of Vijaynagara empir
  • refers to the prevalence of slavery and Sati
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20
Q

william Finch?

A

came with William hawkins in 1608 at surat

gave the earliest english language account of Kashmir, as well as trade routes connecting PJ and eastern Turkistan and western China

visited Ayodhya bet 1608 and 1611 and did not find any building of importance of Islamic origin. He is cited in SC’s Ayodhya verdict

refers Ram chandra as Ranichand, mentions Ramkot or fort of rama

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21
Q

sir Thomas Roe?

A
  • visited India during the reign of Jahangir in 1615.
  • He came to seek protection for an English factory at Surat.
  • His “Journal of the Mission to the Mughal Empire” is a treasured contribution to the history of India.
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22
Q

Francois Bernier?

A
  1. 1656 AD
  2. He was a French physician and traveller.
  3. He visited India during the reign of Shah Jahan.
  4. He was physician to Prince Dara Shikoh and later was attached to Danishmand Khan, an Armenian noble at the court of Aurangzeb
  5. ‘Travels in the Mughal Empire’ was written by Francois Bernier. compared INdia and europe. found situation in India bleak
  6. Mughals owned all land and distributed among nobles
  7. no pvt property unlike Europe- disastrous consequences coz sons won’t inherit and so won’t develop
  8. NO middle class, only rich and poor; this was not true as 15% of pop lived in towns, higher than in Europe
  9. talks of Karkhanas (only detailed record of Karkhanas) and sati system
  10. says that vast quantities of world’s precious metal flowed into India, as manufacturers were exported in exchange for gold and silver; notes existence of a prosperous merchnat community engaged in long distance exchange
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23
Q

Giovanni Careri?

A

Italian traveller

passed through India c. 1690

provides a graphic account about the way silver travelled across the globe to reach India. It also gives us an idea of the phenomenal amounts of cash and commodity transactions in seventeenth-century India.

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24
Q

Joseph Tieffenthaler?

A
  1. 1710-1785 AD
  2. was a Italian missionary
  3. book: Description Historique et Geographique De l’Inde
  4. commissioned at famous observatory of Sawai Jai singh, Raja of Jaipur and later at the Jesuit college in Agra that built with the patronage of Akbar
  5. said to have lived in Awadh, where Ayodhya is located
  6. cited by SC in Ayodhya judgement: ““Emperor Aurengzeb got the fortress called Ramcot demolished and got a Muslim temple, with triple domes, constructed at the same place. Others say that it was constructed by ‘Babor’. “
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25
Q

Robert Montgomery Martin?

A
  1. 1801 AD
  2. anglo-Irish author
  3. practiced medicine in Ceylon, east africa and Australia
  4. then worked in Kolkata where he helped found the paper “bengal Herald”
  5. wrote three volumed work- ‘History, Antiquities, Topography and statistics of Eastern India’
  6. was cited by SC in Ayodhya judgement
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26
Q

Which European traveller never returned to Europe and settled down in india?

A

manucci

17th century

Italian

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27
Q

Jean Baptiste Tavernier?

A

1640

was a jeweller- mentions diamond mines of deccan

Visited India 6 times in the reign of Shahjahan and Aurangzeb

comapred India and Ottoman empire

called varanasi the athens of India, was impresed by Bindu Madhavv temple in varanasi

mentions the houses bbuilt with brick or cut-stone

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28
Q

According to Chinese traveler Yuan Chwang (Hiuen Tsang). T/F:

  1. The roads and river-routes were completely immune from robbery.
  2. As regards punishment for offences, ordeals by fire, water and poison were the instruments for determining the innocence or guilt of a person.
  3. The tradesmen had to pay duties at ferries and barrier stations.
A
  1. F
  2. T
  3. T
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29
Q

Which one of the following statements is not correct? (CDS-2018-i)

  1. Al-Biruni identifies the Sufi doctrine of divine love as self-annihilation with parallel passages from Bhagavad Gita.
  2. According to Al-Biruni, Sufi theories of Soul were similar to those in Patanjali’s Yoga Sutra.
  3. The Hatha Yogic treatise Amrita Kunda had lasting impact on Sufism.
  4. Hujwiri’s conversation with the Yogis shows that he was impressed with their theory of the division of the human body.
A

D

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30
Q

first Jesuit mission to Mughal court?

A

first Jesuit mission reached the Mughal court at Fatehpur Sikri in 1580 and stayed for about two years

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31
Q

T/F:

  1. We don’t know whether Women also travelled to INdia in ancient and medieval times.
  2. We have no accounts of travel of women to India in ancient and medieval times.
A
  1. F; we know they travelled
  2. T
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32
Q

T/F: Sanskrit works on astronomy, mathematics and medicine had been translated into Arabic from the tenth century onwards.

A

F

8th century onwards

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33
Q

“HIndu” origin?

A
  1. term derived from an Old persian word, used c.6-5th centuries BCE, to refer to regions west of the river Sindhu.
  2. Arabs continued the Persian usage and called this region al Hind and its people Hindi
  3. later the turks referred to the people east of Indus as “HIndu”, their land as Hindustan and their language as HIndavi.
  4. NOne of these expressions indicated religious identity and religious connotations were developed much later
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34
Q

Which traveller becaeme sanyasi for some time in India?

A

Mahmud Balkhi in 1620s

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35
Q

Sheikh Ali Hazin?

A

came to North India in 1740s

was disappointed and even disgusted with India where they expected to receive a red carpet treatment

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36
Q

Creation and circulation of ideas about India in Europe?

A

writings of European travellers through printing and circulation of their books. for eg. Francois bernier’s accounts one of the firsts to be circulated wisely and painted India in a bad light.

Later after 1750, Indian like Shaikh Itisamuddin and Mirza Abu Talib visited europe and confronted this false image by producing their own version of matters

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37
Q

Who said: “so much is wrug from the peasants that even dry bread is scarcely left to fill their stomachs”

A

Pelsaert, a Dutch traveller

visited in 1710s-1720s

reported of widespread poverty

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38
Q

King of “beggars and Barbarians”?

A

this is how Francois Bernier saw rule under Mughal empire

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39
Q

T/F:

  1. none of the Mughal official documents suggest that the state was the sole owner of land.
  2. European accounts of Mughal rule describes crown ownership of all land.
A
  1. T; For instance, Abu’l Fazl, the sixteenth-century official chronicler of Akbar’s reign, describes the land revenue as “remunerations of sovereignty”, a claim made by the ruler on his subjects for the protection he provided rather than as rent on land that he owned
  2. T; eg. francois Bernier. It is possible that European travellers regarded such claims as rent because land revenue demands were often very high. However, this was actually not a rent or even a land tax, but a tax on
    the crop
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40
Q

idea of oriental despotism was argued by?

A

Montesquieu

Bernier’s descriptions influenced Western theorists from the eighteenth century onwards. The French philosopher Montesquieu, for instance, used
this account to develop the idea of oriental despotism, according to which rulers in Asia (the Orient or the East) enjoyed absolute authority over their subjects, who were kept in conditions of subjugation and poverty, arguing that all land belonged to the king and that private property was non-existent.

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41
Q

Asiatic mode of production?

A
  1. by karl Marx
  2. developed Montesquieu’s idea of Oriental despotism
  3. He argued that in India (and other Asian countries), before colonialism, surplus was appropriated by the state. This led to the emergence of a society that was composed of a large number of autonomous and (internally) egalitarian village communities. The imperial court presided over these village communities, respecting their autonomy as long as the flow of surplus was unimpeded. This was regarded as a stagnant system.
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42
Q

Who described Mughal cities as ‘camp towns’?

A

Francois Bernier

by which he meant towns that owed their existence, and depended for their survival, on the imperial camp. He believed that these came into existence when the imperial court moved in and rapidly declined when it moved out. He
suggested that they did not have viable social and economic foundations but were dependent on imperial patronage.

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43
Q

what were “Mahajans” and “seth” in Mughal times?

A

Merchants often had strong community or kin ties,
and were organised into their own caste-cumoccupational
bodies. In western India these groups
were called mahajans, and their chief, the sheth.

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44
Q

Manikkavachkar?

A

9th cent Tamil poet

wrote Tiruvasakam, a book of Shaiva hymns

wrote 8th volume of Tirumurai, key religious text of Tamil Language Shaiva Siddhanta

lived in Madurai

NOT counted among 63 nayanars

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45
Q

“Great” and “Little” traditions?

A
  1. terms coined by a sociologist named Robert Redfield in 20th century to descrive cultural practices of peasant societies
  2. peasants’ ritual and customs were of two types:
    1. ones that emanated from dominant social catgories like priests and rulers- “Great” practices
    2. local practices that did not necessarily correspon with those of great tradition. these were referred to as little tradition
  3. Both these traditions changed with time
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46
Q

characteristic feature of religion in early medieval period- 8th century CE?

A
  1. Perhaps the most striking feature of this phase is the increasing visibility of a wide range of gods and goddesses in sculpture as well as in texts.
  2. continued and even extended worship of the major deities – Vishnu, Shiva and
  3. the goddess – each of whom was visualised in a variety of forms.
  4. integration of cults: through two processes:
  • disseminating Brahamnical ideas by composition, compilation and reservation of Puranic texts in simple Sanskrit verse, explicitly meant to be accessible to women and Shudras, who were generally excluded from Vedic learning
  • Brahmanas accepting and reworking the beliefs and practices of these and other social categories. eg. form of Jagannath, a form of Vishnus, in Puri is very different from earlier depictions. Similarly, goddesses, often simply in the form of a stone smeared with ochre, were adopted into Puranic traditions by providing them with an identity as a wife of the principal male deities. Another example is adoption of tantric practices and Puranic texts that placed central emphasis on Vishnu, shiva instead of Agni, INdra etc.
  1. This ‘corruption’ of Vedic hinduism also led to conflicts with puritans as well as among supporters of deities.
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47
Q

T/F: Devotional worship had a long history of almost a thousand years before the advent of Bhakti period.

A

T

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48
Q

saguna and nirguna?

A
  1. historians of religion often classify bhakti traditions into two broad categories: saguna (with attributes) and nirguna (without attributes).
  2. The former included traditions that focused on the worship of specific deities such as Shiva, Vishnu and his avatars (incarnations) and forms of the goddess or Devi, all often conceptualised in anthropomorphic forms.
  3. Nirguna bhakti on the other hand was worship of an abstract form of god.
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49
Q

T/F: early Bhakti movements was led by Nayanars and alvars.

A

T

around 6th century CE

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50
Q

BHakti tradition: intro?

A

originated in the seventh-century in Tamil, South India (now parts of Tamil Nadu and Kerala), and spread northwards. It swept over east and north India from the 15th century onwards, reached its peak between the 15th and 17th century CE.

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51
Q
  1. Alvars?
  2. Nayanars?

About them?

A
  1. Vishnu
  2. shiva

As per the tradition, there were 12 Alwars and 63 Nayanars

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52
Q

Bhakti tradition: attitude towards caste?

A

Some historians suggest that the Alvars and Nayanars initiated a movement of protest against the caste system and the dominance of Brahmanas or at least attempted to reform the system

bhaktas hailed from diverse social backgrounds ranging from Brahmanas to artisans and cultivators and even from castes considered “untouchable” like Pulaiyars and Panars. evidenced by composition of an Alvar, Tondaradippodi and a Nayanar, Appar

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53
Q

Bhakti tradition: important texts?

A
  1. their compositions were as important as the Vedas
  2. one of the major anthologies of compositions by the Alvars, the Nalayira
    Divyaprabandham, was frequently described as the Tamil Veda, thus claiming that the text was as significant as the four Vedas in Sanskrit that were cherished by the Brahmanas.
  3. by 10th century, compositions of 12 Alvars were compiled in an anthology known as Nalayira Divyaprabandham (‘4000 sacred compositions’)
  4. Chola kings introduced the singing of Tamil hymns in temples under royal patronage, and organised them into a text called Tevaram
  5. poems of Appar, Sambandar and Sundarar form Tevaram, a collection that was compiled and classified in 10th century on the basis of music of songs. tevaram is a collection of first seven volumes of Tirumurai (Saiva Devotional poetry)
  6. compositions of Nayanars often spoke in opposition to Buddhism and Jainism
  7. Scriptures of the Bhakti movement include the Bhagavad Gita, Bhagavata Purana and Padma Purana
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54
Q

Bhakti tradition: status of women?

A
  1. one of the most striking features of these traditions was the presence of women.
  2. compositions of Andal, only woman Alvar, were widely sung (and continue to be sung to date). Andal saw herself as the beloved of Vishnu; her verses express her love for the deity.
  3. Karaikkal Ammaiyar, a devotee of Shiva, one of 3 women nayanar, adopted the path of extreme asceticism in order to attain her goal. Her compositions were preserved within the Nayanar tradition.
  4. These women renounced their social obligations, but did not join an alternative order or become nuns.
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55
Q

Bhakti tradition: relations with the state?

A
  1. While Buddhism and Jainism had been prevalent in this region for several centuries, drawing support from merchant and artisan communities, Bhakti traditions received occasional royal patronage. competitions between different religious traditions for royal patronage
  2. Chola kings often attempted to claim divine support and proclaim their own power and status by building splendid temples. powerful Chola rulers (ninth to thirteenth centuries) supported Brahmanical and bhakti traditions, making land grants and constructing temples for Vishnu and Shiva. eg. temples at Chidambaram, Thanjavur and Gangaikondacholapuram
  3. some of the most spectacular representations of Shiva in bronze sculpture were produced. Clearly, the visions of the Nayanars inspired artists.
  4. These kings also introduced the singing of Tamil Shaiva hymns in the temples under royal patronage, taking the initiative to collect and organise them into a text (Tevaram).
  5. Chola ruler Parantaka I had consecrated metal images of Appar, Sambandar and Sundarar in a Shiva temple. These were carried in processions during the festivals of these saints
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56
Q

Virashaiva tradition?

A
  1. 12th century- new movement in KN- led by a Brahmana, Basavanna, a minster in court of a Kalachuri ruler.
  2. His followers were known as Virashaivas or Lingayats (weare of Linga)
  3. we know about them from vachanas composed in Kannada by elders
  4. worship Shiva in the form of Linga, men usually wear a small linga in a silver case on a loop strung over the left shoulder
  5. jangama or wandering monks are revered
  6. questioned the theory of rebirth; they believe that on death the devotee will be united with Shiva and will not return to this world. Therefore, they do not practice funerary rites such as cremation, as prescribed in Dharmshastras, instead they bury their dead
  7. very critical of useless rituals
  8. challenged the idea of caste and ‘pollution’- made them popular among the marginalised
  9. also encouraged other practices frowned upon by Dharamshastras like post puverty marriage and widow remarriage
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57
Q

T/F: Bhagvat purana was a product of bhakti tradition.

A

T

many ideas of Tamil bhakts, esp vaishnavas, were incorporated within sanskritic tradition, culminating in composition of Bhagvat Purana

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58
Q

Bhakti traditions in MH?

A
  1. Gnanadeva was the founder of Bhakti movement in MH in 13th century. AKA Sant Dnyaneshwar. he wrote Gnaneshwari, a commentary of Bhagvad Gita
  2. Namadeva: 16th cent. opposed idol worship and dominance of priests, criticized the caste system.
  3. Eknath was a prominent Marathi saint and a religious poet of Varkari Sampradaya. He is known as a bridge between his predecessors Dnyaneshwarand Namdev and the later Tukaram and Ramdas.
  4. Tukaram: contemporary of Shivaji in 17th cent; Abhanga (devotional poetry) and kirtans; devoted to Vitthala; creditedwith creating a background for Maratha nationalism
  5. women like Sakkubai and the family of Chokhamela, who belonged to the “untouchable” Mahar caste.
  6. This regional tradition of bhakti focused on the Vitthala (a form of Vishnu) temple in Pandharpur, as well as on the notion of a personal god residing in the hearts of all people.
  7. These saint-poets rejected all forms of ritualism, outward display of piety and social differences based on birth.
  8. It is regarded as a humanist idea, as they insisted that bhakti lay in sharing others’ pain.
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59
Q

Samarth Ramdas?

A

● Samarth Ramdas was also known as Sant (saint) Ramdas or Ramdas Swami.
● He was an Indian Marathi Hindu saint, poet, philosopher, writer and spiritual master.
● He was a devotee of Hindu deities Rama and Hanuman. He was previously famous as Narayan.
● He was born at Jamb, which is a village in present-day Jalna district of Maharashtra.
● His literary works include Karunashtakas, Dasbodh, Yuddhakand, Sunderkand, Poorvarambh, Antarbhav, Chaturthman, Aatmaaram, Panchman, Panchsamasi, Manpanchak, Janaswabhawgosavi, etc.
● Ramdas served an inspiration for several Indian thinkers, historians and social reformers from 19th and 20th-century, including Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Rajwade, Keshav Hedgewar, and Ramchandra Ranade

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60
Q

important leaders of Bhakti movement?

A
  1. Namadeva (16th cent) and Ramananda (14th cent) (Maharashtra and Allahabad) – Both of them taught the concept of bhakti to all the four varnas and disregarded the ban on people of different castes cooking together and sharing meals.
  2. Sankara (8th cent, Kerala) and Ramanuja (11th cent, TN) – The propounders of Advaita (non-duality) and vishishta adwaitha (qualified non-duality) respectively. They believed god to be nirguna parabrahma and satguna parabrahma respectively.
  3. Vallabhacharya (15th-16th cent) – propounder of shuddha adwaitha or pure non-duality.
  4. Chaitanya (Bengal) (16th cent) – relied on the use of music, dance and bhajans to get in touch with God. ‘love’ was the watchword of the chaitanya cult.
  5. Kabir (15th cent) – was a disciple of Ramananda, and was raised by a Muslim weaver. He stood for doing away with all the unnecessary customs and rituals in both religions and bringing union between these religions.
  6. Guru Nanak (15th cent).
  7. Nimbarkacharya (12th-13th cent) – gave concept of bhed-abheda i.e. humans are both different and non-different from Isvara. Nimarka sampradaya aka Hamsa sampradaya is one of the four Vaiṣṇava Sampradāyas
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61
Q

Guru Nanak?

A
  • born in Talvandi near Lahore.
  • The most famous teachings attributed to Guru Nanak are that there is only one God, and that all human beings can have direct access to God with no need of ritualsor priests.
  • His most radical social teachings denounced the caste system and taught that everyone is equal, regardless of caste or gender.
  • He introduced the concept of god- that is ‘Vahiguru’, an entity that is shapeless, timeless, omnipresent and invisible. Other names for God in the Sikh faith are Akaal Purkh and Nirankar.
  • Guru Granth Sahib, the holiest book of the Sikhs, contains 974 poetic hymns composed by Guru Nanak.
  • Guru Nanak Dev, along with his companion Bhai Mardana,travelled far and wide during the 15th and 16th centuries.From Mecca to Haridwar, from Sylhet to Mount Kailash, Guru Nanak visited hundreds of interfaith sites related to Hinduism, Islam, Buddhism, and Jainism throughout his journeys (also called udaasis).
  • Later his travels were documented in texts called ‘janamsakhis’.
  • These sites are now spread across nine nations as per current geographical divisions — India, Pakistan, Iran, Iraq, China (Tibet), Bangladesh, Saudi Arabia, Sri Lanka, and Afghanistan.
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62
Q

Nathpanthis, Siddhas, and Yogis?

A
  1. Criticised the ritual and other aspects of conventional religion and the social order, using simple, logical arguments.
  2. They advocated renunciation of the world.
  3. To them, the path to salvation lay in meditation on the formless Ultimate Reality and the realization of oneness with it.
  4. To achieve this they advocated intense training of the mind and body through practices like yogasanas, breathing exercises and meditation.
  5. These groups became particularly popular among “low” castes. many of them were artisans, like weavers.
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63
Q

T/F: word ‘Bhakti’ is not used in Vedic and Upanishads.

A

F

last of three epilogue verses of the Shvetashvatara Upanishad uses the word, widely cited as among the earliest mentions of “the love of God”

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64
Q

Madhavacharya?

A
  1. He ranks with Sankaracharya and Ramanuja as one of the three principal philosophers of the Vedanta system.
  2. Madhava is from Kannada region whose preaching prevailed in the 13th Century.
  3. He preached doctrine of dvaita (dualism) and was the chief proponent of dvaita school of vedanta.
  4. His philosophy was that the world is not an illusion but a reality. God, soul, matter is unique in nature.
  5. According to him, the final aim of man is the direct perception of Hari which leads to Moksha or eternal bliss.
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65
Q

BHakti traditions that thh following were associated with:

  1. Vallabhacharya
  2. Nimbarka
A
  1. shuddh advait/Vaishnavism in GJ/established pushti sect
  2. bhed-abheda or chit-achita
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66
Q

Surdas was disciple of ? when? his contri?

A

Vallabhacharya

16th cent

  1. popularized Krishna cult in Northern India, devotional songs for Krishna in Brij BHasha
  2. The book Sur Sagar is traditionally attributed to Surdas. However, many of the poems in the book seem to be written by later poets in Sur’s name. The Sur Sagar in its present form focuses on descriptions of Krishna as a lovable child, written from the gopis’ perspective.
  3. Sur also composed the Sur Saravali and Sahitya Lahari.
  4. Sur’s compositions are also found in the Guru Granth Sahib
  5. Surdas is considered foremost among Ashtachaps, the eight disciples pf Vallbhacharya
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67
Q

Ramananda?

A
  1. born at Allahabad in 14th cent, he was the first great Bhakti saint of North India
  2. He was inspired by Ramanujacharya.
  3. He was a worshipper of Rama and believed in two great principles, namely as perfect love for god and human brotherhood.
  4. Later he founded his own sect and preached his principles in Hindi at Banaras and Agra.
  5. Ramananda was the first to employ the vernacular medium to spread his ideas.
  6. He opposed the caste system and chose his disciples from all sections of society irrespective of caste.
  7. Kabir was the most famous disciple of Ramananda. others were Raidasa-a cobbler, Sena-a barber, Dhanna-a Jat peasant, Sadhana- a butcher, Narahari-a goldsmith and Pipa- a Rajput prince
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68
Q

Chaitanya?

A

1485-1535

  1. Born at Navadwip in Bengal, his original name was Vishwambhar Mishra. He was responsible for the popularity of Vaishnavism in Bengal through his Kirtans.
  2. He began the Achintayabhedabhedavada School of theology.
  3. He preached the religion of intense faith in one Supreme Being whom he called Krishna or Hari.
  4. He believed that a devotee can feel the presence of God through song and dance and love and devotion.
  5. He adored Krishna and Radha and attempted to spiritualise their lives in Vrindavan. He settled permanently at Puri where he died.
  6. After his death, his followers systematised his teachings and organised themselves into a sect called Gaudiya Vaishanavism.
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69
Q

Namadeva?

A

In the 16th Century, Namadeva preached the gospel of love.

He opposed idol worship and the dominance of priests.

He criticized the Caste System.

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70
Q

shankardeva?

A
  1. In the late 15th century, Shankaradeva emerged as one of the leading proponents of Vaishnavism in Assam.
  2. His teachings, often known as the Bhagavati dharma because they were based on the Bhagavad Gita and the Bhagavata Purana, focused on absolute surrender to the supreme deity, in this case Vishnu.
  3. He emphasised the need for naam kirtan, recitation of the names of the lord in sat sanga or congregations of pious devotees.
  4. He also encouraged the establishment of satra or monasteries for the transmission of spiritual knowledge, and naam ghar or prayer halls. Many of these institutions and practices continue to flourish in the region.
  5. His major compositions include the Kirtana-ghosha.
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71
Q

Mirabai?

A
  1. 15th-16th centuries
  2. perhaps the best-known woman poet within the bhakti tradition.
  3. According to these, she was a Rajput princess from Merta in Marwar who was married against her wishes to a prince of the Sisodia clan of Mewar, RJ
  4. According to some traditions, her preceptor was Raidas, a leather worker. This would indicate her defiance of the norms of caste society
  5. Mirabai did not attract a sect or group of followers
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72
Q

T/F: During the time Bhakti tradition was gaining ground in South INdia, historians have found sporadic evidence of some changes like the movements of the Alvars and Nayanars

A

F

historians have not
found evidence of anything resembling the compositions
of the Alvars and Nayanars till the fourteenth century.

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73
Q

Reasons for absence of Bhakti traditions in North India until 14th cent?

A
  1. stronghold of Rajput states early on who gave patronage to Brahmins. no attempt was made to challenge them.
  2. some sects like Naths, Yogis and Siddhas did have some clout but no royal patronage.
  3. arrival of Delhi sultanate and sufi tradition
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74
Q

what do you mean by ‘zimmi’?

A
  • for people who followed revealed scriptures, such as the Jews and Christians, and lived under Muslim rulership.
  • They paid a tax called jizya and gained the right to be protected by Muslims.
  • In India this status was extended to Hindus as well.
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75
Q

ginan?

A

one of indigenous literary genres through which Khojas, a branch of Ismailis (a Shia sect) sought to communicate and disseminate ideas derived from Quran.

these were devotional poems in Punjabi, Multani, Sindhi, Kachchi, Hindi and Gujarati, sung in special ragas during daily prayer meetings

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76
Q

Shah Hamadan mosque?

A
  1. The Shah Hamadan mosque in Srinagar, on the banks of the Jhelum, is often regarded as the “jewel in the crown” of all the existing mosques of Kashmir.
  2. By Sultan Shah Of Kashmir
  3. Built in 1395, it is one of the best examples of Kashmiri wooden architecture. Noticeable features: spire and the beautifully carved eaves. It is decorated with papier mache, absence of dome
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77
Q

changes in societies after arrival of Delhi Sultanate: names for communities?

A
  1. Sanskrit texts and inscriptions dating between the eighth and fourteenth centuries point out that the term musalman or Muslim was virtually never used
  2. Instead, people were occasionally identified in terms of the region from which they came. So, the Turkish rulers were designated as Turushka, Tajika were people from Tajikistan and Parashika were people from Persia.
  3. Sometimes, terms used for other peoples were applied to the new migrants. For instance, the Turks and Afghans were referred to as Shakas and Yavanas (term used for Greeks traditionally)
  4. A more general term for these migrant communities was mlechchha, indicating that they did not observe the norms of caste society and spoke languages that were not derived from Sanskrit. Such terms sometimes had a derogatory connotation, but they rarely denoted a distinct religious community of Muslims
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78
Q

T/F: origin of Sufism was a response and revolt against growing materialism of the Caliphate as a religious and political institution.

A

T

They were critical of the dogmatic definitions and
scholastic methods of interpreting the Qur’an and sunna
(traditions of the Prophet) adopted by theologians.
Instead, they laid emphasis on seeking salvation
through intense devotion and love for God by following
His commands, and by following the example of the
Prophet Muhammad whom they regarded as a perfect
human being. The sufis thus sought an interpretation
of the Qur’an on the basis of their personal experience.

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79
Q

Sufism in India: intro?

A
  1. 10th cent
  2. core concept: darikh i Duniya/Wahad ul Wahjud meaning ‘Universal brotherhood’
  3. outwardly rejected religion and emphasized love and devotion to God and compassion towards all fellow human beings
  4. Sufis organized in 12 silsilas. 4 prominent ones in india: Chishtis, Suhrawardis, Qadris and Nasqabandi order
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80
Q

ba-shari‘a sufis: Institutional growth of Sufi as organisation?

A
  1. By the eleventh century Sufism evolved into a welldeveloped movement with a body of literature on Quranic studies and sufi practices.
  2. khanqah was the centre of social life
  3. sufis began to organise communities around the hospice or khanqah (gatherings of a Sufi brotherhood) (Persian) controlled by a teaching master known as shaikh (in Arabic), pir or murshid (in Persian).
  4. He enrolled disciples (murids) and appointed a successor (khalifa).
  5. He established rules for spiritual conduct and interaction between inmates as well as between laypersons and the master.
  6. Sufi silsilas began to crystallise in different parts of the Islamic world around the twelfth century. silsila referred to a continuous link between master and disciple, stretching as an unbroken spiritual genealogy to the Prophet Muhammad. It was through this channel that spiritual power and blessings were transmitted to devotees
  7. Special rituals of initiation were developed in which initiates took an oath of allegiance, wore a patched garment, and shaved their hair.
  8. When the shaikh died, his tomb-shrine (dargah) became the centre of devotion for his followers. This encouraged the practice of pilgrimage or ziyarat to his grave, particularly on his death anniversary or urs. This was because people believed that in death saints were united with
    God, and were thus closer to Him than when living.
  9. Thus evolved the cult of the shaikh revered as wali.
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81
Q

Sufism: outside the khanqah?

A
  1. Some mystics initiated movements based on a radical interpretation of sufi ideals.
  2. Many scorned the khanqah and took to mendicancy and observed celibacy.
  3. They ignored rituals and observed extreme forms of asceticism.
  4. They were known by different names – Qalandars, Madaris, Malangs, Haidaris, etc.
  5. Because of their deliberate defiance of the shari‘a they were often referred to as be-shari‘a, in contrast to the ba-shari‘a sufis who complied with it.
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82
Q

Chishtis?

A
  1. Of the groups of sufis who migrated to India in the late 12th century, the Chishtis were the most influential because they adapted successfully to the local environment and adopted several features of Indian devotional traditions.
  2. named after their place of origin, in this case the town of Chisht in central Afghanistan. Most other silsilas were named after the founder’s name
  3. established in India by Khwaja muinuddin Chishti in 1192, after death of Prithviraj Chauhan
  4. another prominent saint was Khwaja Qutubuddin bakhtiyar Kaki who organized work in delhi and contemporary ruler Iltutmish was deeply devoted to him.
  5. Nizamuddin Auliya adopted yogic exercises, so much so that yogis called him ‘sidh’ or perfect
  6. Baba Farid was one of the first known Punjabi poets, and a saint of Chishti order. He is also one of the 15 Sikh bhagats in sikhism and his selected works are included in Guru Granth Sahib.
  7. order declined after death of Nasiruddinn Chirag-i-Delhi in 14th cent
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83
Q

Sufism and Yoga?

A
  1. Nizamuddin Auliya adopted yogic exercises, so much so that yogis called him ‘sidh’ or perfect
  2. The Hatha yogic treatise Amritakunda,which had been translated into Arabic andPersian in the thritheenth century, had a lastingeffect on Sufism
  3. Shaikh Nasiruddin Chiragh-i-Dehlve observed that controlled greathing is theessence of Sufism
  4. Yogic postures and breath controlbecome an integral part of Chistiya Sufic practice,and controlled breathing was incomporatedfinally as a vital aspect in all the Sufi ordersexcept the Indian Naqshbandiyyas
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84
Q

Chishti khanqah?

A
  1. features:
    1. jama’at khana- a big hall for inmates to live and pray
    2. Sheikh lived in a small room on the roof
    3. open kitchen-langar
    4. futuh- unasked for charity
  2. practices included:
    1. bowing before the shaikh
    2. offering water to visitors
    3. shaving the heads of initiates
    4. yogic exercises
  3. these apractices represent efforts to assimilate local practices
  4. eg. Shaikh Nizamuddin’s hospice (c. 14th century) on the banks of the river Yamuna in Ghiyaspur, on the outskirts of what was then the city of Delhi.
  5. visitors to Shaikh nizamuddin included poets such as Amir Hasan Sijzi and Amir Khusrau and court historian Ziyauddin Barani
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85
Q

Major teachers of Chishti silsila?

A
  1. Shaikh Muinuddin Sijzi/Chishti- born 1235- Dargah at Ajmer
  2. Khwaja Qutubuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki- born 1235- dargah at delhi
  3. Shaikh Fariuddin Ganj-i-Shakar- born 1265- dargah at Ajodhan (Pakistan)
  4. Shaikh Nizamuddin Auliya- born 1325- dargah at delhi
  5. Shaikh Nasiruddin Chirag -i -delhi - Born 1356- dargah at delhi
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86
Q

Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti?

A
  1. established Chishti order in India in 1192; most revered Chishti shrine
  2. popularly known as “Gharib Nawaz” (comforter of the poor).
  3. disciple of Khwaja Usman haruni
  4. earliest textual references to Khwaja Muinuddin’s dargah date to the fourteenth century. One of the earlies Sufi saint to have settled at ajmer
  5. It was evidently popular because of the austerity and piety of its Shaikh, the greatness of his spiritual successors, and the patronage of royal visitors.
  6. Muhammed Bin tughluq was the first Sultan to visit the shrine, although the construction to house the tomb was funded by Sultan Ghiyasuddin Khalji of malwa
  7. Since the shrine was located on the trade route linking Delhi and Gujarat, it attracted a lot of travellers.
  8. By the sixteenth century the shrine had become very popular; it was visited by Akbar 14 times to seek blessings for new conquests, fulfilment of vows, and the birth of sons. He also had a mosque constructed within the compound of the dargah
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87
Q

Qawwali?

A
  1. Also part of ziyarat is the use of music and dance including mystical chants performed by specially trained musicians or qawwals to evoke divine ecstasy.
  2. The sufis remember God either by reciting the zikr (the Divine Names) or evoking His Presence through sama‘ (literally, “audition”) or performance of mystical music.
  3. Sama‘ was integral to the Chishtis, and exemplified interaction with indigenous devotional traditions.
  4. Amir Khusrau ,disciple of Shaikh Nizamuddin Auliya, gave a unique form to the Chishti sama‘ by introducing the qaul (Arabic word meaning “saying”), a hymn sung at the opening or closing of qawwali. This was followed by sufi poetry in Persian, Hindavi or Urdu, and sometimes using words from all of these languages. Qawwals (those who sing these songs) at the shrine of Shaikh Nizamuddin Auliya always start their recital with the qaul.
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88
Q

al Hujwiri?

A

In 1039 Abu’l Hasan al Hujwiri, a native of Hujwir near Ghazni in Afghanistan, was forced to cross the Indus as a captive of the invading Turkish army. He settled in Lahore and wrote a book in Persian called the Kashful- Mahjub (Unveiling of the Veiled) to explain the meaning of tasawwuf, and those who practised it, that is, the sufi.

Hujwiri died in 1073 and was buried in Lahore. The grandson of Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni constructed a tomb over his grave, and this tomb-shrine became a site of pilgrimage for his devotees, especially on his death anniversary. Even today Hujwiri is revered as Data Ganj Bakhsh or “Giver who bestows treasures” and his mausoleum is called Data Darbar or “Court of the Giver”.

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89
Q

Amir Khusrau was a disciple of whic sufi saint? about Amir Khusrau?

A

Shaikh Nizamuddin Auliya

  • 1253-1326
  • witnessed Delhi sulatns from balban to Muhammad Bin Tughluq
  • called as ‘father of qawwali’ and ‘parrot of India’
  • introduced Ghazal style to India
  • called India ‘paradise on earth’
  • mentioned in Siyarul Aulia
  • authored large no. of poetic works, in various poetic forms and created a new style of Persian called sabaq-i-Hindi
  • took pride in being Indian, showing tendency of Turk ruling class for cultural rapproachment with Indians
  • Praised Hindi; Hindi work Khaliq Bari
  • was an accomplished musician; invented Sitar and tabla; introduced many Perso-Arabic ragas like aiman, ghora, sanam etc; given the title of “nayak” of both theory and practice of music
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90
Q

Munis al Arwah: who wrote it? what was it about?

A

by Jahanara, daughter of Shahjahan

biography of Shaikh Muinuddin Chishti

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91
Q

Who is being talked about in the following passage:

“In the month of Diwali the entire population of Delhi visits it and stays in tents around the spring tank for days. They take baths to obtain cures from chronic diseases. Muslims and Hindus pay visits in the same spirit. From morning till evening people come and also make themselves busy in merrymaking in the shade of the trees”

A

Nasiruddin Chirag-i-delhi

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92
Q

language and literature of chishtis?

A
  1. adopted in qawwalis
  2. In Delhi, those associated with the Chishti silsila conversed in Hindavi, the language of the people
  3. Other sufis such as Baba Farid composed verses in the local language, which were incorporated in the Guru Granth Sahib
  4. A different genre of sufi poetry was composed in and around the town of Bijapur. These were short poems in Dakhani (a variant of Urdu) attributed to Chishti sufis who lived in this region during the 17th and 18th centuries.
  5. It is likely that the sufis of this region were inspired by the pre-existing bhakti tradition of the Kannada vachanas of the Lingayats and the Marathi abhangs of the sants of Pandharpur.
  6. It is through this medium that Islam gradually gained a place in the villages of the Deccan.
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93
Q

literary tools of Sufis/chishtis?

A
  1. long poems or masnavis to express ideas of divine love using human love as an allegory eg. the prem-akhyan (love story) Padmavat composed by Malik Muhammad Jayasi revolved around the romance of Padmini and Ratansen, the king of Chittor.
  2. Other compositions were in the form of lurinama or lullabies and shadinama or wedding songs.
  3. A different genre of sufi poetry was composed in and around the town of Bijapur. These were short poems in Dakhani (a variant of Urdu) attributed to Chishti sufis who lived in this region during the 17th and 18th centuries.
  4. other literary tools were:
    1. Kashf ul Mahjub
    2. Malfuzat
    3. Maktubat
    4. Tazkiras
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94
Q

Kashf-ul-Mahjub?

A

by Ali bin Usman Hujwiri

Treatises or manuals dealing with sufi thought and practices

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95
Q

Malfuzat?

A
  1. (literally, “uttered”; conversations of sufi saints)
  2. An early text on malfuzat is the Fawa’id-al-Fu’ad, a collection of conversations of Shaikh Nizamuddin Auliya, compiled by Amir Hasan Sijzi Dehlavi, a noted Persian poet.
  3. compiled by different sufi silsilas with the permission of the shaikhs; these had obvious didactic purposes
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96
Q

Maktubat?

A

letters written by sufi masters, addressed to their disciples and associates –

While these tell us about the shaikh’s experience of religious truth that he wanted to share with others, they also reflect the life conditions of the recipients and are responses to their aspirations and difficulties, both spiritual and mundane.

The letters, known as Maktubat-i Imam Rabbani, of the noted seventeenth-century Naqshbandi Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi (d.1624), whose ideology is often contrasted with the liberal and non-sectarian views of Akbar, are amongst those most frequently discussed by scholars.

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97
Q

Tazkiras?

A
  1. biographical accounts of saints
  2. 14th-century Siyar-ul-Auliya of Mir Khwurd Kirmani was the first sufi tazkira written in India. It dealt principally with the Chishti saints.
  3. The most famous tazkira is the Akhbar-ul-Akhyar of Abdul Haqq Muhaddis Dehlavi (d. 1642)
  4. Many details are often implausible, full of elements of the fantastic
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98
Q

Nasqabandi order?

A
  1. founded by Bahibillah
  2. followers were very orthodox comapred to all other orders
  3. popularized in India by Babur who was deeply devoted to Naqshabandiya leader Khwaja Ubaidullah Ahrar
  4. one of the disciples of Khwaja was shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi (Haryana) who opposed all those practices and beliefs of Akbar and demanded re-imposition of Jizyah. shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi was known as Mujaddid or reformer
  5. later he was imprisoned by Jahangir for claiming a status beyong that of prophet
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99
Q

Qadri order?

A
  1. established by Niyammad ulla Qadiri
  2. introduced in India ovr babar period
  3. Dara Shikoh was a follower of this order
  4. lost its patronage during Aurangzeb’s rule
  5. a famous saint: Mian Mir
  6. Mian centres: GJ and MP
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100
Q

Suhrawardi order?

A
  1. entered iNdia at the same time as chishtis
  2. confined to PJ and multan
  3. established and popularised in India by Bahauddin Zakariya. He was called ‘Leader of Islam’ by Iltutmish
  4. most well known saints: Shaikh Shihabuddin Suhrawardi and Hamid ud din Nagori
  5. a treatise called Hamat, composed by Shaikh Fakhruddin Ibrahim Iraqi, is a cmmentary on the ‘unity of Being’. he was highly respected by Alauddin khilji and Muhammed bin Tughluq
  6. unlike Chishtis, they didn’t believe in living life in poverty. They accepted servics of state and held important posts mainly under Iltutmish
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101
Q

Other smaller sufi silsilas in India?

A
  1. Firdausia
    1. in Bihar and Bengal
  2. Kubrawiya
    1. by Syed Hamadani
    2. in Kashmir
  3. Shettari
    1. Shah Shettari
    2. UP and Parts of Deccan
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102
Q

T/F: sufis accepted unsolicited grants and donations from the political elites

A

T

A major feature of the Chishti tradition was austerity, including maintaining a distance from worldly power. However, this was by no means a situation of absolute isolation from political power.

Sultans in turn set up charitable trusts (auqaf ) as endowments for hospices and granted tax-free land (inam).

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103
Q

‘sultan-ul-mashaikh’ title was used for?

A

Nizamuddin Auliya

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104
Q

Sufis and state relation?

A
  1. A major feature of the Chishti tradition was austerity, including maintaining a distance from worldly power.
  2. However, this was by no means a situation of absolute isolation from political power.
  3. The sufis accepted unsolicited grants and donations from the political elites.
  4. The Sultans in turn set up charitable trusts (auqaf ) as endowments for hospices and granted tax-free land (inam).. These land grants could be passed on therey giving an economic base
  5. Chishtis accepted donations in cash and kind. Rather than accumulate donations, they preferred to use these fully on immediate requirements.
  6. All this enhanced the moral authority of the shaikhs
  7. Kings did not simply need to demonstrate their association with sufis; they also required legitimation from them
  8. Other sufis such as the Suhrawardi under the Delhi Sultans and the Naqshbandi under the Mughals were also associated with the state. However, the modes of their association were not the same as those of the Chishtis. In some cases, sufis accepted courtly offices.
  9. However, there were instances of conflict between the Sultans and the sufis. To assert their authority, both expected that certain rituals be performed such as prostration and kissing of the feet. sometimes, gifts were also rejected by Sufi saints like Nizamuddin Auliya
  10. dargah of Shaikh Salim Chishti (a direct descendant of Baba Farid) constructed in Fatehpur Sikri, Akbar’s capital, symbolised the bond between the Chishtis and the Mughal state.
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105
Q

Kabir compositions?

A

Verses ascribed to Kabir have been compiled in three distinct but overlapping traditions.

  1. The Kabir Bijak is preserved by the Kabirpanth (the path or sect of Kabir) in Varanasi and elsewhere in Uttar Pradesh;
  2. the Kabir Granthavali is associated with the Dadupanth in Rajasthan,
  3. other famous writings include ‘Sakhi Granth’, ‘Anurag Sagar’
  4. many of his compositions are found in the Adi Granth Sahib
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106
Q

who wrote in ulatbansi?

A

Kabir

ulatbansi (upside-down sayings), are written in a form in which everyday meanings are inverted. These hint at the difficulties of capturing the nature of the Ultimate Reality in words: expressions such as “the lotus which blooms without flower” or the “fire raging in the ocean” convey a sense of Kabir’s mystical experiences

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107
Q

Saint Kabir?

A
  1. Probably lived in the 15th-16th centuries.
  2. We get to know of his ideas from a vast collection of verses called sakhis and pads said to have been composed by him and sung by wandering bhajan singers.
  3. Some of these were later collected and preserved in the Guru Granth Sahib, Panch Vani, and Bijak.
  4. Kabir’s teachings were based on a complete, rejection of the major religious traditions and caste systems. He believed in a formless Supreme God and preached that the only path to salvation was through bhakti or devotion.
  5. The language of his poetry was simple which could even be understood by ordinary people.
  6. He sometimes used cryptic language, which was difficult to follow.
  7. He drew his followers from among both Hindus and Muslims.
  8. Ramananda is attributed as his teacher. However, the verses attributed to Kabir use the words guru and satguru, but do not mention the name of any specific preceptor
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108
Q

sources of teachings of Kabir?

A
  1. he described the Ultimate Reality as Allah, Khuda, Hazrat and Pir, derived from Islam and Sufism.
  2. He also used terms drawn from Vedantic traditions, alakh (the unseen), nirakar (formless), Brahman, Atman, etc
  3. Other terms with mystical connotations such as shabda (sound) or shunya (emptiness) were drawn from yogic traditions
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109
Q

T/F: baba Guru nanak Dev advocated a form of saguna bhakti.

A

F

For Baba Guru Nanak, the Absolute or “rab” had no gender or form

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110
Q

‘shabad’ is associated with?

A

Guru nanak dev

He proposed a simple way to connect to the Divine by remembering and repeating the Divine Name, expressing his ideas through hymns called “shabad ” in Punjabi

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111
Q

Adi granth Sahib: origin?

A
  1. The fifth preceptor, Guru Arjan , compiled Baba Guru Nanak’s hymns along with those of his four successors and other religious poets like Baba Farid, Ravidas (also known as Raidas) and Kabir in the Adi Granth Sahib .
  2. These hymns, called “gurbani”, are composed in various languages.
  3. In the late seventeenth century the tenth preceptor, Guru Gobind Singh, included the compositions of the ninth guru, Guru Tegh Bahadur, and this scripture was called the Guru Granth Sahib.
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112
Q

The Sufi saint who was supposed to be the greatest musician of the age was

A) Mansur Din Hallaj

B) Al-Gajjali

C) Pir Bodhan

D) Rabia

A

C

Sufi saint, Pir Bodhan, is supposed to have been one of the great musicians of the age.

Rabia was one of the early Sufi; She was a woman mystic who lived around 8th cent.

Mansur bin Hallaj was another early Sufi who lived around 10th cent; was executed for heresy

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113
Q

Who wrote Haqaiq e Hindi?

A

Abdul Belgrami

was an eminent Sufi

an example of creations by Sufi saints in vernacular language

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114
Q

To whom did Sheikh Nizamuddin Auliya bestow the title of ‘Ain-i-Hind’ (Mirror of India)?

A

Sheikh Sirajuddin Usmani

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115
Q

Who among the following Sufi saints witnessed the rule of Seven Sultans of Delhi?

A) Shekh Ahmad Sirhindi

B) Shekh Nizamuddin Auliya

C) Baba Fareed

D) Khwaja Moinuddin Chisti

A

B

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116
Q

title Mehboob-i-Ilahi was given to?

A

Nizamuddin Auliya

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117
Q

Who among the following Sufis used to wear ladies dress?

A) Sheikh Moosa

B) Sheikh Hamiduddin Nagauri

C) Shah Daula Dariyai

D) Shah Muhammad Ghaus

A

A

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118
Q

Which Chisti Saint’s verses are quoted in the ‘Adigranth’ of the Sikhas?

A) Moinuddin Chisti

B) Bakhtiyar Kaki

C) Fariduddin

D) Nizamuddin Auliya

A

C

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119
Q

“Let no man ask a man’s sect or caste”. This statement has been given by?

A

Ramananda

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120
Q

Among the following, who was not a proponent of Bhakti cult?

A) Nagarjuna

B) Tukaram

C) Tyagaraja

D) Vallabhacharya

A

Nagarjuna

Nagarjuna (c. 150 - c. 250 CE) is widely considered one of the most important Mahayana philosophers. Rest three are Bhakti Cult.

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121
Q

chronological order of Ten Sikh gurus?

A
  1. Guru Nanak dev- 1469 to 1539
  2. Guru ANgad Dev- 1539 to 1552
  3. Guru amardas Sahib- 1552 to 1574
  4. Guru ram Das- 1574 to 1581
  5. Guru Arjan Dev- 1581 to 1606
  6. Guru har Govind Sahib- 1606 to 1644
  7. Guru Har rai sahib- 1644 to 1661
  8. Guru Har Krishan Sabha- 1661 to 1664
  9. Guru Teg Bahadur Singh 1664 to 1675
  10. Guru Gobind Singh- 1675to 1708
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122
Q

T/F: Guru Nanak dev was contemporary of Akbar.

A

F

of Babar

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123
Q

T/F: Guru Nank Dev was largely silent on status of women and rejected the path of renunciation.

A

F

He emphasized the equality of women and rejected the path of renunciation and he rejected the authority of the Vedas.

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124
Q

Guru Angad Dev/

A

Guru from 1539 to 1552

Guru Angad Dev, second of the 10 gurus, invented and introduced the Gurmukhi (written form of Punjabi) script.

He compiled the writings of Nanak Dev in Guru Granth Sahib in Gurmukhi Script.

Popularized and expanded the institution of Guru ka Langar which was started by Guru Nanak Dev.

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125
Q

Guru Amardas Sahib?

A

Guru from 1552 to 1574

Guru Amardas introduced the Anand Karaj marriage ceremony for the Sikhs, replacing the Hindu form.

He established Manji & Piri system of religious missions for men and women respectively.

He also completely abolished amongst the Sikhs, the custom of Sati and purdah system.

He was the contemporary of Mughal emperor - Akbar.

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126
Q

Guru ram das?

A

Guru from 1574 to 1581

Guru Ram Das, fourth of the 10 gurus, founded the city of Amritsar.

He started the construction of the famous Golden Temple at Amritsar, the holy city of the Sikhs.

He requested the Muslim Sufi, Mian Mir to lay the cornerstone of the Harmandir Sahib.

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127
Q

Guru Arjan dev?

A

Guru from 1581 to 1606

He compiled the Adi Granth, the scriptures of the Sikhs.

He completed construction of Sri Darbar Sahib also known as Golden Temple in Amritsar.

He founded the town of Tarn Taran Sahib near Goindwal Sahib.

He became the first great martyr in Sikh history when Emperor Jahangir ordered his execution. Thus, he was hailed as Shaheedan-de-Sartaj (The crown of martyrs).

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128
Q

Guru Har Gobind Sahib?

A

Guru from 1606 to 1644

He was the son of Guru Arjan Dev and was known as a “soldier saint”.

He organised a small army and became the first Guru to take up arms to defend the faith.

He waged wars against Mughal rulers Jahangir and Shah Jahan.

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129
Q

Guru Har Rai Sahib?

A

Guru from 1644 to 1661

Though he was a man of peace, he never disbanded the armed sikh warriors who were earlier maintained by Guru Har Gobind.

He gave shelter to Dara Shikoh, the eldest son of Mughal Ruler Shah Jahan, who was later persecuted by Aurangazeb.

He cautiously avoided conflict with Emperor Aurangzeb and devoted his efforts to missionary work.

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130
Q

Guru Har Krishan Sahib?

A

Guru from 1661 to 1664

Guru Har Krishan was the youngest of the Gurus. He was installed as Guru at the age of five. Thus called Bala Pir.

He was contemporary of Aurangazeb and summoned to Delhi by him under framed charges of anti-Islamic blasphemy.

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131
Q

Guru Tegh Bahadur Sahib?

A

Guru from 1665 to 1675

He established the town of Anandpur.

He opposed the forced conversion of the Hindu Kashmiri Pandits by Mughal ruler Aurangazeb and he was consequently persecuted for this in 1675. Gurdwara SisGanj Sahib in Chandni Chowk now stands on his execution site.

He was son Guru HarGobind, the 6th Guru

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132
Q

Who among the following considered Vedas as the revealed book?

  1. Sheikh Abdul Haqq
  2. Sheikh Nizamuddin Auliya
  3. Mirza Mazliar Jan-i-Jahan (Naqshbandiya)
  4. Sheikh Kalimuddin (Chistiya)
  5. Dara Shikoh
A

3 and 5

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133
Q

T/F:

  1. Guru Nanak was interested in all the major forms of contemporary religious beliefs and practices whether ‘Hindu’ or ‘Muslim’.
  2. He considered ritual reading of scriptures as waste of time
  3. During the last fifteen years of his life Guru Nanak settled at Kiratpur.
A
  1. F; denounced the Hindu customs and religious beliefs. His religion. Sikhism, was independent in even sense and did not have its roots in am other religion be it Hinduism or Mohammedan
  2. T
  3. F; at Kartarpur
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134
Q

Dadu Dayal?

A

Nirguna saint

founded the Brahma Sampradaya or Parabrahma Sampradaya

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135
Q

Ramanuja?

A

1060- 1120 AD

  1. earliest exponent of the Bhakti movement was Ramanuja who was appointed the successor of his teacher Yamunamuni.
  2. He travelled all over India and ultimately settled down at Srirangam.
  3. He established Vaishnavism on a sound foundation.
  4. He founded Visistadvaita Siddhanta or qualified monism and according to him, the way to salvation lies through Karma, Gyan and Bhakti.
  5. He wrote Sribasya and Gitabhasya.
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136
Q

Nimbarka?

A
  1. leader of the Bhakti movement
  2. a younger contemporary of Ramanuja
  3. worshipper of Krishna and Radha.
  4. He founded Dvaitadvaita or dualistic monism.
  5. He wrote Vedanta Parijata-saurabha, a commentary on Brahmasutras.
  6. He settled in Mathura.
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137
Q

Vallabhacharya ?

A

1480-1530 AD

  1. Born in Varanasi
  2. he propounded Suddhadvaita Vedanta (Pure non-dualism) and philosophy called Pustimarga (the path of grace)
  3. He founded a school called Rudra Sampradaya.
  4. He identified Brahman with Sri Krishna, characterised by Sat (Being), Cit (consciousness) and Ananda (bliss).
  5. According to him, salvation is through Sneha (deep rooted love for God).
  6. He was the author of a number of scholarly works in Sanskrit and Brajbhasa, the important being Subodhini and Siddhant Rahasya.
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138
Q

discovery of Hampi by?

A

in 1800 by an engineer and antiquarian named Colonel Colin Mackenzie, the first Surveyor General of India

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139
Q

Vijaynagara empire: foundation:

  1. by?
  2. when?
  3. people?
  4. contemporaries?
A
  1. by Harihara and bukka, Brothers, served under Vira Ballala III, Hoysala king
  2. in 1336
  3. included people of different languages and religions
  4. contemporaries: Sultans of deccan (called ashvapati by Vijaynagara traditions) and gajapti rulers of Odisha
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140
Q

another name of vijaynagara empire?

A

Karnataka samrajyamu

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141
Q

brihadeshvara temple?

A
  1. at Thanjavur, on the banks of Cauvery
  2. aka Raja Rajeswara temple aka Dakshina Meru
  3. dedicated to Shiva
  4. one of the best examples of the fully relalised Dravidian style of temple architecture built by Chola emperor Raja Raja Chola I ( 985-1014 AD) between 1003 AD and 1010 AD.
  5. several shrines added to the temple by most of the following rulers such as the Pandyas, the Vijayanagara rulers and the Marathas, too.
  6. consists of a pyramidal spire and is adorned with sculptures and paintings inside as well as outside.
  7. UNWHS
  8. also a part of “Great Living Chola Temples” along with the Brihadisvara Temple at Gangaikondacholapuram and the Airavatesvara Temple at Darasuram.
  9. one of the tallest temples in India, still remains an engineering mystery as it is completely made of granite and archaeologists still don’t know how the builders got such huge pieces of granite for construction at this height. the first all-granite temple in the world.
  10. apex structure on top of the temple is believed to be carved out of a single stone carving
  11. so designed that the Vimana does not cast a shadow at noon during any part of the year.
  12. Recently, the consecration (Kumbhabhishekam) ceremony was held at the Brihadisvara Temple after 23 years after the Madras HC settled an old argument over language of ritual. The court allowed the consecration to be performed in both Tamil and Sanskrit. It argued that there is nothing either in the Agamas (canonical texts) or in any other religious script to prohibit the chanting of Tamil mantras in the temples.
  13. It has seen only five kumbhabhishekam ceremonies so far, most recently in 1997. As per traditions it is done once in 12 years
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142
Q

brihadeshvara temple, Gangaikondacholapuram?

A
  1. Completed in 1035 AD by Rajendra Chola I, son of raja raja Chola I as a part of his new capital
  2. similar in design, and has a similar name, as the older 11th cent, Brihadeeswarar Temple about 70 km to the southwest in Thanjavur
  3. dedicated to shiva but also depicts other deities like Vishnu, Durga, Surya etc.
  4. part of UN-WHS- Great Living Chola temples
  5. near Kollidam river, within cauvery river delta
  6. There is a shrine for Shaiva saint and scholar Chandeshvara (one of the sixty-three Nayanars).
  7. The bronze sculptures of Bhogasakti and Subrahmanya are masterpieces of Chola metal icons.
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143
Q

Airavatesvara Temple?

A
  1. built by the Chola king Rajaraja II (1144-1173 CE)
  2. in Thanjavur
  3. dedicated to Shiva. It also displays Vaishnavism and Shaktism traditions as well as Nayannars
  4. third temple of UN-WHS Great Living Chola Temples
  5. much smaller in size as compared to the Brihadisvara temple at Thanjavur and Gangaikondacholapuram.
  6. The temple consists of a sanctum without a circumambulatory path and axial mandapas.
  7. The front mandapa is unique as it was conceptualized as a chariot with wheels.
  8. It has two sun dials namely morning and evening sun dials which can be seen as wheels of the chariot.
  9. The agra mandapa has “singing steps” that produce music as one walks on them
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144
Q

Chennakeshava temple?

A
  1. located in Belur near Hassan, KN
  2. built in 1250 during Hoysala king Vira Someshwara’s rule. hoysalas ruled in KN betn 1100 and 1320 AD
  3. one of the three best examples of Hoysala architecture along with Belur and Halebid temples; but it isn’t as much damaged as the other two
  4. dedicated to Vishnu
  5. on the banks of Kaveri
  6. 16 star pointed plan with a well designed shikhara bt a missing kalasa. tower starts with a topping roof which is also 16-star pointed and is followed by four tiers of square roofs, some of which still have their decorative kalasa
  7. This is a ekakuta plan (single shrine with a tower) with the temple raised on a platform called jagati.
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145
Q

kudirai chettis?

A

local communities of horse merchants in Vijaynagara empire

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146
Q

dynasties in Vijaynagara empire?

A
  1. Sangama dynasty- ruled till 1485- founded by Harihara and Bukka- greatest ruler Devaraya II
  2. Saluvas- military commanders- till 1503- founded by Saluva Narsimha
  3. Tuluva dynasty- till 1542- founded by Vir Narsimha
  4. Aravidu dynasty- till 1600s
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147
Q

Nagalapuram?

A

a suburban township near Vijayanagara called Nagalapuram was founded by Krishnadeva Raya, after his mother

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148
Q

Battle of Talikota?

A
  1. In 1565 Aliya Rama Raya, the chief minister of Vijayanagara, led the army into battle at Rakshasi-Tangadi (also known as Talikota), where his forces were routed by the combined armies of Bijapur, Ahmadnagar and Golconda.
  2. The victorious armies sacked the city of Vijayanagara.
  3. The city was totally abandoned within a few years. Now the focus of the empire shifted to the east where the Aravidu dynasty ruled from Penukonda and later from Chandragiri (near Tirupati)
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149
Q

Who was ‘establisher of Yavana kingdom’?

A

Krishnadeva Raya

although word ‘Yavana’ is Sanskrit for Greeks and other people who entered subcontinent from NW

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150
Q

amara nayaka system?

A
  1. a major political innovation of Vijaynagara empire.
  2. may have been derived from iqta system of Delhi sultanate
  3. amara-nayakas were military commanders who were given territories to govern by the raya.
  4. They collected taxes and other dues from peasants, craftspersons and traders in the area.
  5. They retained part of the revenue for personal use and for maintaining a stipulated contingent of horses and elephants. These contingents provided the Vijayanagara kings with an effective fighting force. Some of the revenue was also used for the maintenance of temples and irrigation works.
  6. amara-nayakas sent tribute to the king annually and personally appeared in the royal court with gifts to express their loyalty.
  7. Kings occasionally asserted their control over them by transferring them from one place to another.
  8. However, during the course of the seventeenth century, many of these nayakas established independent kingdoms. This hastened the collapse of the central imperial structure.
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151
Q

Vijaynagara kingdom: water resources?

A
  1. Tungabhadra river
  2. In almost all cases embankments were built along these streams to create reservoirs of varying sizes
  3. elaborate arrangements had to be made to store rainwater and conduct it to the city. eg.
    • water from Kamalapuram tank not only irrigated fields nearby but was also conducted through a channel to the “royal centre”
    • Hiriya canal: built by Sangame rayas, drew water from a dam across the Tungabhadra and irrigated the cultivated valley that separated the “sacred centre” from the “urban core”
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152
Q

Vijaynagara kingdom: fortification?

A
  1. seven lines of fort described by abdur Razzaq.
  2. These encircled not only the city but also its agricultural hinterland and forests. “ between the first, second and the third walls there are cultivated fields, gardens and houses serviced by elaborate network of canals”. This was done to prepare for any possible siege by invading armies.
  3. The outermost wall linked the hills surrounding the city. A second line of fortification went round the inner core of the urban complex, and a third line surrounded the royal centre, within which each set of major buildings was surrounded by its own high walls.
  4. elabortae gateways to enter the forts. arch on these gateways as well as he dome over the gate are regarded as typical features of the architecture introduced by the Turkish Sultans, referred as INdo-Islamic architecture
  5. No mortar or cementing agent was employed anywhere in the construction
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153
Q

Vijaynagara empire: urban architecture?

A
  1. evidence of rich traders’ dwellings
  2. other ordinary houses were thatched but still well built and arranged
  3. also the Muslim residential quarter. Tombs and mosques located here have distinctive functions, yet their architecture resembles that of the mandapas found in the temples of Hampi
  4. entire area was dotted with numerous shrines and small temples, pointing to the prevalence of a variety of cults
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154
Q

“Mahanavami Dibba” is associated with? features?

A

Vijaynagara empire, described by Domingo Paes

Located on one of the highest points in the city, the “mahanavami dibba” is a massive platform rising from a base of about 11,000 sq. ft to a height of 40 ft. There is evidence that it supported a wooden structure. The base of the platform is covered with relief carvings

might have been the house of rituals on Mahanavami, Dusshera etc.

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155
Q

T/F: no evidence of animal sacrifice in rituals of Vijaynagara empire.

A

F

ceremonies on occasions like Mahanavami, dusshera etc. included worship of the image, worship of the state horse, and the sacrifice of buffaloes and other animals. Dances, wrestling matches, and processions of caparisoned horses, elephants and chariots and soldiers, as well as ritual presentations before the king and his guests by the chief nayakas and subordinate kings

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156
Q

Lotus mahal?

A

*

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157
Q

Hazara Rama temple?

A

literally “thousand Ram” and refers to the multitude of relics depicting the reigning deity of the temple.

once the private temple of the kings and the royal family of Vijayanagara.

panels depicting the story of the epic Ramayana.

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158
Q

Harihara I?

A

In 1336 A.D. Harihara I became the ruler of Sangama Dynasty

He captured Mysore and Madurai.

In 1356 A.D. Bukka-I succeeded him

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159
Q

Krishnadeva Raya?

A
  1. 1509-1529 AD
  2. Tuluva dynasty
  3. According to Domingo Paes, a Portuguese traveller “Krishnadeva Raya was the most feared and perfect king there could possibly be”. kniwn as Andhra Bhoja
  4. He conquered Sivasamudram in 1510A.D and Raichur in 1512A.D. In 1523 A.D. he captured Orissa and Warangal
  5. His empire extended from the river Krishna in the north to River Cauvery in the south
  6. He developed the naval power understanding the vital role of overseas trade.
  7. He maintained friendly relations with the Portuguese and Arab traders.
  8. Ashtadiggajas: A group of eight scholars adorned his court
  9. Literary contributions of Krishnadeva Raya
  • He wrote Amuktamalyadam, a literary work in Telugu language which is considered one of the Panchakavyas of Telugu literature. He was conferred with the title Andhrabhoja for this.

He wrote other important or notable literature such as Madalasa Charitra, Ushaparinayam, Jambavati Kalyanam, Sakalakathasaram in Telugu language.

  1. He was responsible for developing and nurturing Carnatic musical tradition by providing shelter to musicians such as VyasaRaya, who was the propagator of Haridasa movement in Karnataka. He encouraged classical dance forms such like Bharatanatyam and Kuchipudi, which reached its height during the reign of Krishnadeva Raya.
  2. He built the Hazara Rama temple and the Vittalaswami temple. He also founded a new city called Nagalapuram.
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160
Q

Ashtadiggajas?

A

A group of eight scholars adorned his court and they were:

  1. Allasani Peddanna – the author of Manucharitram and harikatha saram, both in Telugu, he was also known as Andhra Kavitapitamaha
  2. Nandi Thimmana – the author of Parijathapaharanam
  3. Madayagari Mallana
  4. Dhurjati
  5. Ayyalaraju Ramabhadra Kavi
  6. Pingali Surana
  7. Ramaraja Bhushana
  8. Tenali Ramakrishna
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161
Q

T/F: Vijayanagara kings claimed to rule on behalf of the goddess Pampa devi.

A

F

on behalf of God Virupaksha

All royal orders were signed “Shri Virupaksha”, usually in the Kannada script.

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162
Q

“Hindu Suratrana”?

A

Vijaynagara rulers indicated their close links with the gods by using the title “Hindu Suratrana”. This was a Sanskritisation of the Arabic term Sultan, meaning king, so it literally meant Hindu Sultan

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163
Q

Vijaynagara empire: architecture: new features?

A

structures of immense scale that must have been a mark of imperial authority, best exemplified by the raya gopurams that often dwarfed the towers on the central shrines, and signalled the presence of the temple from a great

Other distinctive features include mandapas or pavilions and long, pillared corridors that often ran around the shrines within the temple complex

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164
Q

Virupaksha temple?

A
  1. in Hampi, Bellary, KN
  2. It is part of the Group of Monuments at Hampi, designated as a UNESCO WHS
  3. temple was built by Lakkan Dandesha, a nayaka (chieftain) under the ruler Deva Raya II also known as Prauda Deva Raya of the Vijayanagara Empire
  4. It is intact among the surrounding ruins and is still used in worship
  5. Virupaksha-Pampa sanctuary existed well before the Vijayanagara empire. What started as a small shrine grew into a large complex under the Vijayanagara rulers
  6. additions made to the temple in the late Chalukyan and Hoysala periods, though most of the temple buildings are attributed to the Vijayanagar period.
  7. A narrow channel of the Tungabhadra River flows along the temple’s terrace and then descends to the temple-kitchen and out through the outer court.
  8. One of the most striking features of this temple is the usage of mathematical concepts to build and decorate it. The temple has repeated patterns that demonstrate the concept of Fractals. The main shape of the temple is triangular.
  9. The most ornate of all structures in the temple, the central pillared hall is believed to be Krishnadeva Raya’s addition to this temple as was also the eastern Gopuram
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165
Q

Vitthala temple?

A
  1. temple is located in the north eastern part of Hampi, near the banks of the Tungabhadra River.
  2. built during the reign of King Devaraya II though several portions of the temple were expanded and enhanced during the reign of Krishnadevaraya
  3. principal deity was Vitthala, a form of Vishnu generally worshipped in MH
  4. unique shrine designed as a stone- chariot. A characteristic feature of the temple complexes is the chariot streets that extended from the temple gopuram in a straight line.
  5. These streets were paved with stone slabs and lined with pillared pavilions in which merchants set up their shops
  6. fascinating musical pillars aka Saregama pillars. Every main pillar is surrounded by 7 minor pillars. These 7 pillars emit 7 different musical notes from the representative musical instruments. The cluster of musical pillars was carved out of huge single pieces of resonant stone.
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166
Q

Vijayanagar Empire: administration?

A
  1. king was head of all powers in the state.
  2. Council of Ministers – to assist the King
  3. Empire was divided into six Provinces.
  4. Naik – a Governor who administered each Province.
  5. The provinces were divided into Mandalams (districts), headed by Mandaleshwara or nayakas, and the districts were further divided into smaller units namely Nadus, then into Sthalas and then finally into Gramas (villages).
  6. village was administered by hereditary officers like accountants, watchmen, the weights men, and officers in charge of forced labour.
  7. land revenue was 1/6th of produce
  8. gold coin: Varaha
  9. Port; cannanore on Malabar coast
  10. Mahanayakacharya: He is an officer and the contact point between the villages and the Central administration.
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167
Q

Vijayanagar Empire: social structure?

A
  1. Women occupied a high position and took an active part in the political, social and literary life of the empire. They were educated and trained in wrestling, in the use of various weapons of offence and defence, in music and fine arts.
  2. Nuniz writes that the kings had women astrologers, clerks, accountants, guards and wrestlers.
  3. The society was systemized.
  4. Child marriage, polygamy and sati were prevalent.
  5. The kings allowed freedom of religion.
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168
Q

sayana:

  1. who was he?
  2. when?
A
  1. was a Sanskrit Mimamsa scholar, An influential commentator on the Vedas
  2. from the Vijayanagara Empire; flourished under King Bukka Raya I and his successor Harihara II
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169
Q

T/F: sangam dynasty was the only Vaishnavite dynasty among the four dynasties of Vijaynagara empire.

A

F

sangam was saivite, others were Vaishnavite (mainly followers of Ramanujam)

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170
Q

Temple Building Style of Vijayanagar Empire?

A

Vesara style of temple architecture → Tall gopurams with large kalyanmandapam along with pillars

Example → Vradhraja & Ekam Parantha temple @ Kanchipuram

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171
Q

Arrange the following rulers of Kashmir in a chronological order:

  1. Avantivarman
  2. Didda
  3. Harsha
  4. jayasingha
A

1234

Utpala dynasty founded by Avantivarman followed the Kakrotas

Queen Didda, who descended from the Hindu Shahis of Kabul on her mother’s side, took over as the ruler in second half of the 10th century.

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172
Q

What do these terms mean and their alternatives:

  1. Muzarian?
  2. Pahi-kashta?
  3. khud kashta?
  4. jins-i-kamil?
  5. muqaddam?
  6. miras?
  7. kharbandi?
A
  1. means peasants in Mughal rule; Raiyat, asami
  2. pahi-kashta: residents of the village in which they held their lands
  3. khud-kashta: non-resident cultivators who belonged to some other village, but cultivated lands elsewhere on a contractual basis
  4. literally, perfect crops, usually cash crops like cotton and sugarcane and oilseeds
  5. village headman; aka mandal
  6. artisans were often paid in terms of land holdings on which they were granted hereditary rights, these were called miras or watan
  7. scrubland
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173
Q

The spread of tobacco in North India?

A

This plant, which arrived first in the Deccan, spread to northern India in the early years of the seventeenth century.

The Ain does not mention tobacco in the lists of crops in northern India.

Akbar and his nobles came across tobacco for the first time in 1604. At this time smoking tobacco (in hookahs or chillums) seems to have caught on in a big way.

Jahangir was so concerned about its addiction that he banned it. This was totally ineffective because by the end of the seventeenth century, tobacco had become a major article of consumption, cultivation and trade all over India.

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174
Q

crops introuced in India in 17th century?

A
  1. Maize: introduced into India vai africa and spain
  2. vegetables like tomatoes, potatoes and chillies
  3. pineapple and papaya
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175
Q

T/F: There are evidences of jati panchayats in addition to village panchayats in Mughal villages.

A

T

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176
Q

jajmani system?

A

a variant of payment to artisans wherein artisans and individual peasant households entered into a mutually negotiated system of remuneration

zamindars in Bengal who remunerated blacksmiths, carpenters, even goldsmiths for their work by paying them “a small daily allowance and diet money”. This later came to be described as the jajmani system, though the term was not in vogue in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries

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177
Q

prevalence of cash economy in Mughal times?

A
  • a cash nexus had already developed through trade between villages and towns.
  • In the Mughal heartland too, revenue was assessed and collected in cash.
  • Artisans producing for the export market (for example, weavers) received their advances or wages in cash, as did producers of commercial products like cotton, silk or indigo.
  • marvelled at by jean Tavernier
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178
Q

women in agrarian society in 17th cent?

A
  1. important partner in economy: both in field as well as artist shops
  2. biases related to women’s biological functions did continue eg. menstruation
  3. high mortality rates among women – owing to malnutrition, frequent pregnancies, death during childbirth – often meant a shortage of wives. This led to the emergence of social customs in peasant and artisan communities that were distinct from those prevalent among elite groups. eg. bride price instead of dowries, Remarriage was considered legitimate both among divorced and widowed women
  4. importance attached to women as a reproductive force also meant that the fear of losing control over them was great. women were kept under strict control by the male members of the family and the community
  5. Amongst the landed gentry, women had the right to inherit property.
  6. women, including widows, actively participated in the rural land market as sellers of property inherited by them. Women zamindars were known in eighteenth-century Bengal
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179
Q

What do the following terms in Mughal agrarian system signify?

  1. milkiyat?
  2. qilachas?
  3. sanad?
A
  1. property held by zamindars
  2. military fortresses of zamindars
  3. imperial order
    4.
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180
Q

zamindars-peasantry relation in Mughal 17th cent?

A
  1. Zamindars very powerful with their own military, fortresses ad huge milkilyats
  2. Zamindars spearheaded the colonisation of agricultural land, and helped in settling cultivators by providing them with the means of cultivation, including cash loans
  3. zamindars often established markets (haats) to which peasants also came to sell their produce
  4. Although there can be little doubt that zamindars were an exploitative class, their relationship with the peasantry had an element of reciprocity, paternalism and patronage. Evidence:
    1. bhakti saints, who eloquently condemned caste-based and other forms of oppression did not portray the zamindars or moneylenders as exploiters or oppressors. Usually it was the revenue official of state who was shown as oppressor
    2. in a large number of agrarian uprisings which erupted in north India in the seventeenth century, zamindars often received the support of the peasantry in their struggle against the state
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181
Q

Land revenue system in Mughal empire?

A
  1. diwan: responsible for supervising the fiscal system of the empire
  2. land revenue arrangements consisted of two stages
    1. Assessment: jama was the amount assessed
    2. Actual collection: hasil
  3. revenue collector: amil-guzar, strived to make cultivators pay in cash, the option of payment in kind was also to be kept open.
  4. While fixing revenue, the attempt of the state was to maximise its claims. The scope of actually realising these claims was, however, sometimes thwarted by local conditions
  5. Both cultivated and cultivable lands were measured in each province. Yet not all areas were measured successfully eg. forests
  6. Akbar classified the lands and fixed a different revenue to be paid by each.- Polaj, Parauti, Chahchar and Banjar
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182
Q

Land revenue system in Mughal empire: different systems of land assessment and collection?

A

revenue collector: amil-guzar, strived to make cultivators pay in cash, the option of payment in kind was also to be kept open.

  1. kankut: literally ‘grain-estimate’ , crops cut and estimated in three lots, the good, the middling, and the inferior
  2. batai aka bhaoli: crops are reaped and stacked and divided by agreement in the presence of the parties. But in this case several intelligent inspectors are required
  3. khet-batai: they divide the fields after they are sown
  4. lang batai: after cutting the grain, they form it in heaps and divide it among themselves, and each takes his share home and turns it to profit.
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183
Q

Land revenue system in Mughal empire: classification of land by Akbar?

A

Akbar classified the lands and fixed a different revenue to be paid by each.- Polaj, Parauti, Chahchar and Banjar

  1. Polaj is land which is annually cultivated for each crop in succession and is never allowed to lie fallow.
  2. Parauti is land left out of cultivation for a time that it may recover its strength.
  3. Chachar is land that has lain fallow for three or four years.
  4. Banjar is land uncultivated for five years and more.
  5. Of the first two kinds of land, there are three classes, good, middling, and bad. They add together the produce of each sort, and the third of this represents the medium produce, one-third part of which is exacted as the Royal dues.
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184
Q

official responsible for ensuring that imperial regulations were carried out in the provinces of Mughal empire?

A

Amin

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185
Q

which crops were cultivated in Mughal times?

A
  1. large variety of crops such as barley, gram, pulses, rice, and wheat were cultivated.
  2. Commercial crops such as indigo, oil-seeds, cotton and sugarcane were also cultivated.
  3. During the seventeenth century two new crops, viz., tobacco and maize were added.
  4. India was able to export food items like rice and sugar to the neighbouring countries.
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186
Q

Language and literature contribution in Mughal times?

A
  1. Persian language became widespread in the Mughal Empire by the time of Akbar’s reign.
  2. Many historical works were written during this period. They include Ain-i-Akbari and Akabar Nama authored by Abul Fazl.
  3. The leading poet of that period was his brother Abul Faizi. The translation of Mahabharata into the Persian language was done under his supervision.
  4. Utbi and Naziri were the two other leading Persian poets
  5. Jahangir’s autobiography, Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri was famous for its style
  6. He also patronized many scholars like Ghiyas Beg, Naqib Khan and Niamatullah
  7. Shah Jahan also patronized many writers and historians like Abdul Hamid Lahori, author of Padshah
  8. Nama and Inayat Khan who wrote Shah Jahan Nama.
  9. His son Dara Shikoh translated the Bhagavat Gita and Upanishads into the Persian language
  10. The most influential Hindi poet was Tulsidas, who wrote the Hindi version of the Ramayana, the Ramcharitmanas.
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187
Q

Ain i Akbari?

A
  • by Abu’l Fazl
  • completed in 1598, the forty-second regnal year of Akbar
  • Ain was part of a larger project of history writing commissioned by Akbar. This history, known as the Akbar Nama, comprised three books. The first two provided a historical narrative
  • The Ain-i Akbari, the third book, was organised as a compendium of imperial regulations and a gazetteer of the empire.
  • Ain gives detailed accounts of the organisation of the court, administration and army, the sources of revenue and the physical layout of the provinces of Akbar’s empire and the literary, cultural and religious traditions of the people
  • Ain is made up of five books (daftars)
    • first book, manzil-abadi: regarding imperial HH and its maintenance
    • second, sipah-abadi: covers military and civil admin and establishment of servants. It also includes short biographical sketches of mansabdars, learned men, poets and artists
    • third, mulk-abadi: deals with fiscal side and info on revenue rates and account of the 12 provinces. mulk-abadi gives a fascinating, detailed and highly complex view of agrarian society in northern India.
    • fourth and fifth books (daftars) deal with the religious, literary and cultural traditions of the people of India and also contain a collection of Akbar’s “auspicious sayings”
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188
Q

translation of Ain-i-akbari?

A

by a number of scholars

Henry Blochmann edited it and the Asiatic Society of Bengal, Calcutta (present-day Kolkata), published it in the first volume of Bibliotheca Indica series.

The other two volumes were translated by H.S. Jarrett

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189
Q

India at the end of ancient era?

A
  1. Harsha’s Pushyabutis dynasty centered in Thanesar
    1. Harsha died in 647 AD
    2. after death of Harsha, for abt 5 centuries, 7th to 12th, states like Kashmir, Gandhara, Sindh, GJ, Kanauj, Ajmer, Malwa, Bengal and Assam kept fighting among themselves for control over whole of Northern India. While Kashmir was dominant in early 8th century, later Palas of Bengal emerged powerfully and finally Pratiharas, by 900AD, emerged as the most powerful rulers of northern India
  2. Gurjaras (Pratiharas) in southern RJ
  3. Valabhi in GJ
  4. Kalachuris in Central India and MH, centered at Mahishmati (today’s Maheshwar, MP)
  5. Chalukyas in MH and KN
  6. Gauda in east
  7. return of Pallavas and Pandyas in south India
  8. Chach dynasty ruled over Sindh by 700AD
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190
Q

Medieval era: Chalukyas?

A
  • based in badami, KN
  • ruled southern and central India from ~550 to ~750 AD
  • Kannada and Telugu literature thrived
  • architecture:
    • Bhoothath grp of temples in badami
  • replaced by Rashtrakutas by 753AD
    • Dantidurga overthrew the Chalukyan king Kirtivarman II and established Rashtrakutas empire at Manyakheta
191
Q

The Kanauj Triangle/Tripartite struggle: pic?

A

https://1drv.ms/u/s!AvN_8sA-Zf0djTqLQKPhhqYryQf7?e=Wmd6mi

  • Gurjara Pratiharas ruling centred at Ujjain
  • Rastrakutas centered at Manyakheta
  • Palas centered at Bengal
  • ~750-~1000 AD
  • finally Gurjaras-Pratiharas emerged victorious
  • each vied for control over Ganga-Yamuna doab and Kanauj region (rich trade centre+fertile for agri + significant power centre)
192
Q

Medieval era: Rashtrakutas?

A
  • Elichpur clan
  • were earlier feudatories of Chalukyas of Badami
  • Dantidurga overthrew Chalukyan King Kirtivarman II and established Rashtrakutas, centered at Manyakheta (near present day Gulbarga, KN and Sholapur, MH)
  • fought constantly with Chalukyas of Vengi (in modern AP), Pallavas of Kanchi (southern AP) and Pandyas of Madurai (modern day TN) in south and Pratiharas and Palas in north India
193
Q

Medieval era: Rashtrakuta: time period ?

A

mid 8th cent to late 10th century

194
Q

Medieval era: Rashtrakuta: imp rulers?

A
  1. Dantidurga: 735-756 AD; founder
  2. Govinda III: 793-814 AD
  3. Amoghavarsha: 814-878 AD
  4. INdra III
  5. Krishna III
  6. Dhruva defeated both Gopala and Dharampala of Pala dynasty
195
Q

Medieval era: Rashtrakuta: admin?

A
  1. division of kingdom into
    1. Rashtra: provinces
    2. Visaya: district
    3. Bhukti: tehsil, collection of villages
  2. Head of rashtra: rashtrapati, equiv to present guv
    1. similar post was called uparika in pratihara and pala admin; though they also maintained law and order as well as collected land revenue
  3. head of visaya: visayapati
  4. village admin was in charge of managing local schools, tanks, temples and roads
  5. revenue officers: gavundas or desa gramuktas (gradually became hereditary posts). As these hereditary offices grew, village committees became weaker. Central rulers found it difficult to control these hereditary officials and nobles- rise of Feudalism
  6. Law and order in towns- kostapala (or kotwal)
196
Q

Medieval era: Rashtrakuta: Govinda III?

A

793-814 AD (don’t remember exact, just have an idea)

defeated Nagabhatta of Kannauj, annexed Malwa and then even defeated Pallavas and Pandyas in south, Gangas of KN as well as king of Sri Lanka (captured him and brought him to Manyakheta)

197
Q

Medieval era: Rashtrakuta: Amoghvarsha?

A

highest watermark

longest serving ruler of Rashtrakutas as well as one of the longest in India’s whole history

preferred pursuit of religion and literature to war

wrote first kannada book on poetics and grammar: Kavirajmarg

end period saw many rebellions

Jain Narayana Temple at Pattadakala

198
Q

Medieval era: Rashtrakuta: Indra III?

A

914-929AD

grandson of Amoghvarsha

defeated Pratihara ruler Mahipala and sacked Kanauj this made him the strongest ruler of the time

199
Q

Medieval era: Rashtrakuta: Krishna III?

A

934-963 AD

campaigned against Paramaras of Malwa, eastern Chalukyas of Vengi and Cholas of Tanjore. defeated Cholar ruler Parantaka I and annexed northern regions of Chola kingdom in 949 AD

pressed till Rameswaram and built a victory pillar and a temple there

200
Q

Medieval era: Rashtrakuta: end?

A

after death of Krishna III, all opponents united and attacked

972 AD- capital Malkhed was sacked and burned

201
Q

Medieval era: Rashtrakuta: architecture?

A

Jain Narayana Temple at Pattadakala built by Amoghavarsha

Many of HIndu and BUddhist caves at Ellora were built by Rashtrakuta kings, most famous being Kailasa temple built by Krishna I of Rashtrakuta dynasty

202
Q

Medieval era: Rashtrakuta: Arab traders?

A

allowed Muslim traders tos ettle

permitted ISlam to be preached

Muslims had their own headmen as well as large mosques in many coastal towns

these tolerant policies helped foreign trade with Arabs

203
Q

Medieval era: Rashtrakuta: art and literature?

A
  • Amoghavarsha himself wrote Kavirajmarg in Kannada
  • Great Apbhramsha poet Svayambhu and his son lived in Rashtrakta court
  • Medhatithi wrote law books, dharmashastras
    • it says things like one has right to bear arms to defend against theives as well as right to oppose an unjust king
  • dancing girls and musicians at court
204
Q

Medieval era: Rashtrakuta: society?

A

women did not veil their faces

205
Q

Medieval era: Palas: Bengal at the end of ancient period?

A
  1. After death of Sashanka (King of Gaur, Harsha’s great rival) around 637 CE, there was a century of anarchy and confusion in Bengal. This situation os described by Sanskrit phrase matsya nyaya
206
Q

Medieval era: Palas: origin?

A

founded by Gopala I in 750AD; elected by nobles of the region in order to fill the power vaccum

empire extended by his son, Dharampala.

207
Q

Medieval era: Palas: rulers?

A
  1. Gopala I : founder
  2. Dharampala
  3. Devpala
  4. Mahedrapala
  5. https://1drv.ms/b/s!AvN_8sA-Zf0djxtMMwuZl1DHM4Xp?e=kWSgmp
208
Q

Medieval era: Palas: Dharmpala?

A
  1. 770-810 CE
  2. son of Gopala
  3. Despite being defeated by Rashtrakuta Ruler, Dhruva, he took advantage of the latters return back to south India, and occupied Kannauj. However he was defeated again by Nagabhatta II of Pratiharas near Munger.
  4. a Buddhist
  5. founded Vikramshila uni (Mahavihara) in modern day Bhagalpur district
  6. rehabilitated Nalanda (tax collections of 200 villages was allocated for its maintenance)
  7. referred to as Uttrapathaswami by a Gujarati writer Soddhala of 11th Cent CE
  8. Khalimpur Copper plate inscription deated to 32nd yr of reign of Dharmpala describes his empire as glorious and prosperous
  9. first Pala king to assume full imperial titles of Maharajadhiraja, Parmesvara and Paramabhattaraka
209
Q

Medieval era: Palas: Devpala?

A

810-850AD

highest watermark of Pala empire

extended control over Pragjyotishpur (Assam), parts of Utkala (Odisha), parts of Nepal and even upto Benares.

Info abt his regin is found in Munger copper plate inscription

patron of Buddhism

Mahayana Buddhist Sailendra dynasty (ruled both Srivijaya empire of Sumatra + Medang kingdom of Java) ruler Balputradeva sent embassies to Devpala and got permission to grant revenue of 5 villages for the maintenance of a Buddhist monastery built at Nalanda by the former

210
Q

Medieval era: Palas: foreign visitor acct?

A
  • Arab merchant, Suleiman
    • visited India around 850AD
    • called Pala kingdom “Ruhma” (probably called Dharma of dharmapala as ruhma)
    • wrote that Pala ruler had more troops than Rashtrakutas and Pratiharas
    • It was customary for Pala king to be accompanied by a force of 50000 elephants
    • 10-15 thousand men in his army were employed in only washing clothes
  • Tibetan traveller- Taranath
    • compiled much later in 17th century
    • Palas had maintained close cultural relations with Tibet
    • nonted Buddhist scholars like Santarakshita and Dipankara (called Atisa) were invited to Tibet and they introduced a new form of Buddhism there
    • many Tibetan buddhists came to Nalanda and Vikramshila
211
Q

Medieval era: Palas: art and culture?

A
  • Rehabilitated Nalanda uni
  • established Vikramshila uni
  • despite being hindu rulers, they supported and patronised Buddhism
  • built many viharas for Buddhist monks
212
Q

Medieval era: Palas: relations with foreign nations?

A

trade and cultural links with SE Asia

Mahayana Buddhist Sailendra dynasty (ruled both Srivijaya empire of Sumatra + Medang kingdom of Java) sent embassies to Devpala and got permission to grant revenue of 5 villages for the maintenance of a Buddhist monastery built at Nalanda by the former

213
Q

Name of Hindu dynasties in SE Asia?

A

many lasted till 14th-16th century

  • Champa dynasty in modern day southern Vietnam
  • Khmer in today’s Cambodia (worlds largest Hindu temple)
  • Siam in Thailand
  • Malaya in Malaysia
  • Srivijaya in Java, Sumatra and Bali
  • Kalimantan in Bodneo
  • Sulavesi
214
Q

Medieval era: Pratiharas: origin?

A

Founder of Pratihara dynasty: Nagabhata I

called Gurjara-Pratiharas, beacuse they origiated fro SW region of RJ, knowna s Gurjaratra

Started as local officials, who carved of a series of district
towns in central and eastern Rajasthan.

Resisted Arab incursions from Sindh to RJ. (Islamic armies under Mohammad Bin Qasim annexed and included Sindh in Islamic Caliphate in 712 CE. In 738 CE, Islamic armies under Junaid was defeated by Pratiharas, Rashtrakutas and Mewar’s Bappa Rawal in Battle of RJ which thwarted the former’s plan to penetrate into western India)

However, Mihir BHoja (836-885) is credited as the real founder of Pratiharas

215
Q

Medieval era: Pratiharas: Mihir bhoja?

A

recovered Kannauj in 836 CE and it remained their capital for almosta century after that

inscriptions say his territories extended to the east of Sutlej river upto Narmada river

extended his rule eastward after death of Devpala

was a devotee of Vishnu- adopted the title of ‘Adivaraha’ inscribed on some of his coins

succeded by son Mahendrapala I in 885 CE

216
Q

Medieval era: Pratiharas: contacts with Arabs?

A

Resisted Arab incursions from Sindh to RJ. (Islamic armies under Mohammad Bin Qasim annexed and included Sindh in Islamic Caliphate in 712 CE. In 738 CE, Islamic armies under Junaid was defeated by Pratiharas, Rashtrakutas and Mewar’s Bappa Rawal in Battle of RJ which thwarted the former’s plan to penetrate into western India)

imported horses from Arabia and central Asia (Arab Merchant travellers account say that they had the best cavalry of the time)

217
Q

Medieval era: Pratiharas: Mahendrapala?

A

Mahendrapala ruled till 908 09

Maintained the empire of Bhoja , extended over Magadha
and northern Bengal.

Lost Punjab, after losing to the king of Kashmir.

His inscriptions are found in Kathiawar, east Punjab and Awadh.

218
Q

Medieval era: Pratiharas: foreign accounts?

A

915 to 916: Al Masudi of Baghdad visited Gujarat.

  • Calls the Gurjara Pratihara kingdom Al Juzr
  • Wrote the kingdom has 18,00,000 villages and cities.
  • 2000 km in length x 2000 km in breadth.
  • King’s army had 4 divisions each consisting of
    7,00,000 to 9,00,000 men
  • “With the army of the north he fights the ruler of Multan and other Muslims who align themselves with him
  • With the army of the south, the Pratihara king fought the Rashtrakutas ; with the army of the east, fought the Palas
  • He had only 2000 elephants in the army, but the best cavalry in the country
  • Acc to al Masudi, Rashtrakuta king Balhara or Vallabhraja, was the greatest king of INdia and most of Indian rulers accepted his suzerainty and respected his envoys
219
Q

Medieval era: Pratiharas: Art and Culture?

A
  • Sanskrit poet and dramatist Rajashekhar lived at the court of Mahipala grandson of Bhoja
  • Pratiharas built fine temples at Kanauj
  • Sent Indian scholars and embassies to the Caliph of Baghdad they introduced Indian mathematics and sciences to the Arab world (which later spread to Europe through the Moors and venetians).
220
Q

Medieval era: Pratiharas: decline?

A
  • 915 to 918: Rashtrakuta king Indra III attacked Kanauj , and devastated the city.
  • Pratiharas also lost Gujarat to the Rashtrakutas (this cut off access to the sea).
    • Lack of sea trade = economic
  • Around 963 Rashtrakuta ruler Krishna III invaded north India and defeated the Pratiharas
  • This led to their rapid dissolution.
221
Q

Medieval era: tripartite struggle: armed forces of the three armies?

A
  • The 3 kingdoms Palas , Pratiharas , and Rashtrakutas maintained large and well organized infantry + cavalry +war elephants
  • Palas had the largest number of elephants.
  • Horses were imported by Pratiharas and Rashtrakutas
    • By sea from Arabia and West Asia;
    • By land from central Asia.
  • No reference to war chariots (which were commonly referenced to in Vedic documents)
  • Rashtrakutas had large no. of forests. These were garrisoned by special troops, with their own independent commanders
  • The regular troops were often hereditary
  • Palas and Rashtrakutas had their own navies
222
Q

Medieval era: Pala and Pratiharas: administration?

A
  • Some areas of the empires were administered directly
  • Other areas were ruled by vassal chiefs
    • Vassal chiefs were autonomous in internal affairs
    • However, they had to pay fixed tribute + supply troops to the overlord.
    • Vassal chiefs attended the royal darbar sometimes.
    • Sometimes they rebelled, like the Paramaras of Malwa and Chandellas of Bundelkhand rebelled against the Pratiharas
  • Directly administered territories of Palas and Pratiharas were divided into:
    • Bhukti: Provinces; governed by uparika; = collect land revenue + maintain law and order with the help of an army.
    • mandalas or Visayas: districts; headed by visayapati; same duties as uparika
    • pattala
  • In Rashtrakuta kingdom, directly administered territories were divided into
    • rashtra: province; governed by rastrapati, fns same as uparika
    • visaya: district
    • bhukti: tehsil
  • Village was the basic unit of administration
    • Village administration was carried on by the village headman and the village accountant these posts were hereditary
    • They were paid by grants of rent free lands
    • The headman was often helped in his duties by the village elder ( grama mahajana or grama mahattara
  • Growth of small chieftains samantas or bhogapatis dominated over a number of villages. Visayapatis and smaller chiefs merged later the term samanta ’ is later used for both
  • Officials were paid by giving them grants of rent free land. This blurred the distinction between: local officials and hereditary chiefs and smaller vassals
223
Q

Medieval era: Pala and Pratiharas: Trade and commerce?

A
  • 7 th to 10 th Centuries Period of stagnation/decline of trade in north India
    • Decline in long distance trade within the country because of internal conflicts and policy of ‘localism’.
  • Absence of gold and silver coins.
    • This is because of the collapse of the Western Roman Empire (476 554), with whom India had profitable trade.
    • Now trade was with Byzantine empire (eastern Roman empire) and Sassanids of Iran/persia
  • Bengal, Malwa , Gujarat and south India got gold from trade with: SE Asia and China
  • Some Dharmashastras ban travel across the salt seas , and beyond the areas where the munja grass does not grow and black gazelle does not roam ( outside India. Foreign trade continued despite this. Therefore, travel ban was probably meant for brahmans to discourage them from going to lands dominated by Islam and Buddhism, and bringing back religious ideas that were unacceptable.
  • Indian merchants organized themselves into guilds.
    • Manigraman and Nanadesi were most famous guilds. Primarily in South India
  • Tamralipti Tamluk , East Midnapore, WB) was the chief port for sailing to Java, Sumatra,etc
224
Q

Rajput Age?

A

7th-12th century, after the period of tripartite struggle

~1050 CE: breakup of Gurjara Pratiharas => emergence of feudal rajput powers

225
Q

Theories abt origin of Rajputs?

A
  1. Agni Kula theory: sprang from sacrificial fire held at Guru Shikhar (Mt Abu) by Rishi Vasishtha
  2. belong to ancient solar (solar vamsa- Ram) and lunar (Chnadra vamsa- Krishna) families of kshatriyas which are mentioned in mahabharat
  3. They are of foreign origin- descendants of Scythians and white HUns who assimilated into the Indian society
226
Q

Rajputs: name and their centre of rule?

A

Pratiharas of Kannauj→ paramount

  • Chauhans of Delhi and Ajmer
  • TOmars of Delhi
  • Rathores of Kannauj, later JodhpurGahadavals
  • guhilas or Sisodiyas of Mewar
  • Chandelas of Bundelkhand- built Khajuraho temples
  • Paramaras of Malwa
  • Solankis of GJ- aka Chaulukyas
  • Gahadavalas of Varanasi
227
Q

Rajput history: name of an English historian who has produced many accounts of the period?

A

Col James Todd

228
Q

Rajput: tomaras?

A

736-1152

ruled parts of Delhi and Haryana

initially vassals of Gurjara-Pratiharas

later displaced by Chauhans of Shakambhari in 12th cent

capital: Anangpur
1058: Lal Kot fort, delhi built by Anangpal Tomar. It was later renovated by Prithviraj Chauhan after which it was called Qila Rai Pithora

229
Q

Rajput: Mewar?

A

in Southern RJ

2 dynasties

  1. Guhila of Medapata (Mewar)
    1. 728-1300 CE; decalred sovereignty in 11th cent
    2. mainly estab by Bappa Rawal 9th descendant() (Battle of Rajasthan against Arab invaders)
    3. capital was Nagda and Ahar
    4. built some parts of Chittaur fort (original name Chitrakuta fort) to fight mlechha (Arabs)
    5. Mid 12th century: it split into: Rawal branch (senior branch) who ruled from Chitrakuta (Chittaurgarh) and Rana or Sisodia branch (junior branch) who ruled from Sesoda
  2. last Rawal was Rawal Ratan Singh who died in 1303 during war with Alauddin Khilji. After that Sisodias Rana emerged as the new rulers of Mewar.
230
Q

Rajputs: Chauhans?

A
  • origin as Chahamanas of Shakambhari or Sambhar (Shakambhari temple near Sambhar lake)
  • Simhraja was the first to declare himself as Maharajadhiraja and declared soverignty from Pratiharas
  • 12th cent: capital moved to Ajmer
  • captured Delhi from Tomars and further expanded to PJ, which brought them into conflict with Ghurids in Afg. While Muhammad Ghuri oevrran Multan and Uchch, a 11 yr old boy- Prithviraj III ascended throne of Delhi.
  • Prithviraj (III) Chauhan
    • Battle of Mahoba: defeated Chandelas
    • challenge with Muhammad Ghuri over claim to Tabarhinda
    • death in 1192 during second battle of Tarain
  • other branches of Chauhans
    • Chahamans of Naddula (western RJ)
    • Chahamans of Jalore (western RJ)
    • descendants of Prithviraj Chauhan later shifted to Ranthambore and built Ranthambore fort
231
Q

Rajputs: Gahadalvas of Varanasi

A
  1. Chandradeva declared himself independant in 1089 CE after decline of Kalachuri power
  2. reached its zenith in mid 12th cent under Govindachandra, who warded off Ghaznavid raids and Pala attacks
  3. 1194 CE: Jayachandra, Govindachandra’s grandson, was defeated by Ghurids
  4. some descendants created Kanaujiya Rathores of Marwar. First Rathore chieftain was Rao Siha, grandson of last Gahadalvas king Jaychandra. ruled from Khed, Pali, Mandore and Jodhpur at different times
  5. Rao Jodha (15th cent) shifted his capital to and created Jodhpur and built the famous Mehrangar fort
232
Q

Rajputs: Solankis?

A
  • aka Chaulukya dynasty
  • founded by Mularaja in 940 CE
  • ruled in GJ, Rj and Malwa
  • capital:Anhilwara (modern day Patan)
  • Rani Udaymati of Chaulukyas built Rani ki Vav in Patan in 11th cent
  • during reign of BHima I of Chaulukyas, Mahud of Ghazni sacked Somnath temple
  • Chaulukya king Karna established Karnavati on banks of Sabarmati (present day Ahmedabad)
  • Dilwara temples:
    • finest example of Jain temples in India
    • hallmark: crisp translucent shell like treatment of marble
    • located near Mount Abu, Rajasthan’s only hill station.
    • built by Vimal Shah, minister under Chalukyan dynasty and designed by Vastupala- Tejpal
233
Q

Rajputs: Chandel?

A
  • Chandels of Bundelkhand (then known as Jejakbhukti)
  • eastb by Nannuka in 9th cent bt main ruler was Dhanga in mid 10th cent
  • built the famous Khajuraho temples:
    • Dhang built the Vishwanath temple
    • Vidyadhar built the Kandariya Mahadev temple
234
Q

Rajputs: Parmars?

A

9th - 14th cent

Parmars of Malwa

capital: Ujjain and Dhara

vassals of Rashtrakuta bt later declared independence in 972 CE

Paramara kings are famous for being Shaivite

most famous ruler: Raja Bhoja, who built Bhojeswara temple at Bhojpur, MP

235
Q

Kalachuris?

A

ruled in central India and northern Deccan in 5th-6th cent (beginning of medieval period)

later 3 branches arose at Tripuri, Kalyani (KN- saw the origin of Lingayat sect in 12th cent during their reign)and Ratnapura (CHH)

Kalachuris of Tripuri (near present day Jabalpur) (7th to 13th cent)

  • became independent in early 10th cent under Yuvarajdeva I
  • Tripuri si mentioned by Al Biruni
  • Lakshmikarna built Karna temple at Amarkantak
236
Q

Sena dynasty?

A
  • replaced the Palas in Bengal in 11th cent
  • originally from KN
  • founded by Sumanta Sen, described as Brahmakshatriya. Succeded by his son Hemant Sen. Hemant’s son Vijaya sen brought the family into limelight during his long reign of 60 yrs.
  • main rulers
    • Ballala Sen
      • son of Vijaya sen
      • most powerful ruler of the dyansty
      • made Nabadwip (present dat Nadia district) (is an important pilgrimage centre even today) as his capital
      • great scholar. wrote Danasagara and Adbhutsagar
    • Lakshman Sena
      • expanded Sena empire to Odisha, Bihar and probably Varanasi
      • faced continuous attacks from the Ghurid generals who had established themselves in Delhi region after 2nd Battle of Tarain; was the ruler at the time of Baktiyar Khilji’s invasion in 1198 CE.
237
Q

Medieval age in south India: South India at the end of ancient age?

A
  1. Chalukyas of Vengi in orth Andhra
  2. Pallavas in southern Andhra centered at Kanchi
    1. built Kailasanath temple of Kanchipuram around 700CE
  3. Cholas- small region centered at Thanjavur in north TN, around Kaveri delta- a minor power at the time
  4. Pandyas: in southern TN centered around Madurai
238
Q

Medieval age in south India: Chola empire: reemergence?

A
  • founded by Vijayalaya
  • he was initially a feudatory of Pallavas
  • captured Tanjore in 850CE
  • by the end of 9th cent, Cholas had defeated Pallavas and with the weakening of Pandyas, most of Tamil country (Tondamandala) was in their territory. Thus their reemergence occured over 850Ce-950Ce
  • However, a devastating loss at Battle of Takkolam in 948-48 in which prince rajaditya was defeated and killed by Rashtrakuta king Krishna III
    • mother of Rajaditya was a aChera princess showing marriage alliances betn Cholas and Chreas
    • This loss again led to decline of Cholas with Rashtrakutas reaching Rameshwaram and making Cheras and Pandyas their vassals as well
  • Then came the golden period of Cholas under the 60 yr period of Rajaraja and Rajendra Chola
239
Q

Medieval age in south India: Chola empire: Rajaraja Chola: period of rule?

A

985-1014 (~30 yrs)

240
Q

Medieval age in south India: Chola empire: Rajaraja Chola: military conquests?

A
  • destroyed Chera’s navy in Trivandrum and Kollam
  • invaded Sri Lanka and annexed its northern parts
  • conquered Maldives
  • Conquered Madurai, and captured rhe Pandyan King
  • annexed the Gangas of KN and overran Chalukyas of Vengi
  • his empire covered whole peninsular India south of Godavari delta and AP and Telangana and Odisha
241
Q

Medieval age in south India: Chola empire: Rajaraja Chola: archi?

A
  1. Brihadeshwara temple at Thanjavur, his capital in 1010 CE
242
Q

Medieval age in south India: Chola empire: Rajaraja Chola: art and culture?

A
  • texts of Tamil poets- Appar, Sambandar and Sundarar- were collected and edited into one compilation of 11 volumes called Thirumurai. Considered as 5th Veda
243
Q

Medieval age in south India: Chola empire: Rajaraja Chola: admin?

A
  • initaited a massive project of land survey and assessment in 1000CE. This led to reorganisation of kingdom into individual units called valanadus
244
Q

Medieval age in south India: Chola empire: Rajendra I: period of rule?

A

1014-1044 CE

245
Q

Medieval age in south India: Chola empire: Rajendra I: conquests?

A
  • completed the annexation of whole of Sri Lanka
  • 1022CE- Rajendra I marched across Kalinga to Bengal by crossing Ganga (Hooghly). defeated Bengal kings. gained the title of Gangaikondachola.
    • established the town of Gangaikondacholapuram, near Thanjavur, as his new capital
  • conquests in SE Asia
    • during the reign of Rajaraja I, they had cordial relations with Sri Vijaya empire’s Sailendra dynasty rulers (in Sumatra islands).
    • They even built a Buddhist vihara at nagapattinam
    • But during the reign of Rajendra Chola, Khmer Emperor Suryavarman I of Cambodia declared war on kingdom of Tambralinga (Malay peninsula). The former sought help of Rajendra I while the latter sought aid of Shailendra dynasty.
    • This pitted the two HIndu kingdoms- Cholas and Khmer against two Mahayana Buddhist kingdoms- Tambralinga and Srivijaya
    • The former prevailed (1025 CE).
    • Rajendra I was given the title of Kadaramkondan as he conquered Kadaram (a place in Malay peninsula)
    • This aided the trade of Chola traders, esp with China as they could now move rent free through malacca strait. Tamil merchnat associations like Manigraman, Ayyavole and Ainnurruvar dominated trade in SE Asia for the next century
    • This invasion also led to decline of Srivijayan empire
246
Q

Medieval age in south India: Chola empire: Rajendra I: archi?

A
  • Brihadeshwara temple at Gangaikondacholapuram
  • Rajarajeswara temple at Tanjore
247
Q

Great Living Chola temples: names?

248
Q

Great Living Chola temples:Brihadisvara Temple in Thanjavur?

A
249
Q

Medieval age in south India: Chola empire: admin?

A
  • Mandalam→ provinces
  • further divided into Valanadu and nadu
  • Villages had two types of assemblies
    • villages where land was owned by people of all communities had Ur (general assembly)
    • villages where land was owned by mainly Brahmins (called agrahars), had Sabha or Mahasabha
      • such villages were rent free and had autonomy in many aspects
      • Mahasabha could settle new lands and exercise ownership rights over them
      • could also raise loans or levy taxes on behalf of village
  • affairs of village were managed by an executive committee, comprised of educated persons owning property (chosen through election or rotation). These members had to retire every 3 yrs
250
Q

Medieval age in south India: Chola empire: art and culture?

A

12th cent poet Kambar or Kavichakravarthy Kamban lived at the court of a Chola king.

He wrote the tamil version of Ramayana- Ramavataram- aka Kambaramayana

Age of Kamban- golden age of Tamil lit

251
Q

Medieval age in south India: Chola empire: decine?

A

declined by early 13th cent

replaced by their feudatories like

  • kakatiyas of Warangal (AP + telangana)
  • Hoysalas of Dorasamudra (southern KN)
    • centered around capital Halebid
    • large no of temples
    • eg. Hoysaleswara temple at Halebid
  • Yadavas of Devagiri (MH)
  • Pandyas back in Madurai
  • Chalukyas of Kalyani emerged
252
Q

Nanniah?

A

11th cent CE

was a Telugu poet

started writing Telugu Mahabharat (at the court of a Chalukyan king, Rajaraja Narendra, of Vengi); work completed by Tikkanna and Errapragada

Nannaya is the first of Trinity of poets (Kavitrayam- a Telugu expression for trinity of poets. Kavitrayam popularly refers to the poets who translated the great epic Mahabharata into Telugu. The group/trinity consists of Nannayya, Tikkana and Yerrapragada.)

The first treatise on Telugu grammar, the “Andhra Shabda Chintamani”, was written in Sanskrit by Nannaya

253
Q

Ratnathrayas?

A

Pampa, Ponna and Ranna were famous Kannada poets of the Rashtrakuta period. They are also referred to as Ratnathrayas (“Three gems of Kannada literature”)

in 10th cent

under patronage of Rashtrakuta king Krishna III

all three were Jain writers

254
Q

Arrival of Islamic invaders to India: prologue to first Muslim invasion on India: estab of Islam? Caliphates?

A
  • At beginning of 7th cent, there were two major powers outside India and China
    • Persia ruled by Sassanid Empire- Zoroastrian nationalistic dynasty
    • eastern roman empire aka Byzantine empire- western roman empire had collapsed in 480CE
    • https://1drv.ms/u/s!AvN_8sA-Zf0djTuKELV9etE4qSax?e=BBSv3s
    • 602-628 : Byzantine vs Sassanid wars; finally Byzantines emerged victorious however, both sides were weakened and a power vaccum (both political and religious) emerged in west Asia as a result of dissolution of Sassanid empire.
    • Due to constant wars, economy of the region suffered as well
  • Prophet Muhammad
    • born in 570 CE to Quraysh tribe of Mecca
    • preached new religion, and united all tribes of Arabia under one polity and religion
    • Hijra in 622 CE : migration from Mecca to Medina- hijri calender
    • died in 632 CE; Caliphs were the new religious and political heads
  • Caliphates:
    • Rashidun Caliphate: 632-661 CE- 4 rightly guided caliphs; capital at Mecca and Medina
    • Ummayyad caliphate- 661-750 CE: capital at Damascus
    • Abbasid Caliphate: 750-1250 CE: capital at baghdad; This was the golden period of Islam when Baghdad and Gulf region emerged as the knowledge centre of the world
    • Ottoman Caliphate: 1517-1924; capital at Istanbul
255
Q

Arrival of Islamic invaders to India: first Muslim invasion?

A
  • during Umayyad Caliphate time
  • Sindh at the time was under control of Chachas
  • https://1drv.ms/u/s!AvN_8sA-Zf0djTx-5cbAIFiCX9Xz?e=JrwWPh
  • Baghdad Guv under umayyid caliphate sends Muhammed bin Qasim in 712 CE
  • he defeated Dahir, ruler of Sind and established Arab rule over Sindh
  • further incursion stopped by Gurjars-Pratiharas (Battle of Rajasthan)
256
Q

Arrival of Islamic invaders to India: Age of conflict?

A

1000-1200 CE

  • weakening of Abbasid caliphate’s influence
  • end of Arab culture of learning and science
  • replaced by Turks from Central Asia ruling over many Islamized states
    • In the 9th cent Trans-Oxania (uzbekistan), Khorasan and Iran was ruled by Samanids. They faced waves of attacks from non-Muslim Turkish tribesmen from Central Asia. A new type of soldier emerged who fought not only for his king bt also for religion, called ghazi.
    • Turks were not Arabs, they were pagans from Central Asia who entered the Abbasid Empire during 9h cent as palace guards and mercenary soldiers under Samanid Emirate (in Central Asia region), but soon gained power and emerged as king makers
    • As authority of Abbasid caliphate declined, provincial guvs became independent and declared themselves as ‘Sultans’ (title for independent rulers) rather than earlier designation of ‘Amirs’ under Caliphate. (Further those who outright rejected the authority of Caliphates, declared himself as ‘Badshah’)
    • Turkish tribesmen characterised by fierce looting and plunder with rapid raids and retreats
  • A Turkish slave- Alaptigin- later a Samanid guv- established an independent kingdom at ghazni in Afghanistan in 962 CE. To further legitimize themselves, they declared themselves as ‘sword of Islam’.
  • Grandson of Alaptigin, Sabuktigin aka Mahmud of Ghazni, ruled from 998 to 1030 CE. most famous for 17 invasions of India
  • https://1drv.ms/u/s!AvN_8sA-Zf0djT2uTr5R06ioTAAO?e=VByNQo
257
Q

Arrival of Islamic invaders to India: Mahmud of Ghazni?

A
  • Grandson of Alaptigin, Sabuktigin aka Mahmud of Ghazni, ruled from 998 to 1030 CE. most famous for 17 invasions of India
  • Persian poet Firdausi served aat the court of Mahmud
    • Firdausi’s Shah Namah- glorified the battles of Ghaznavids
    • he called Ghazni rulers as descendants of Persians
  • initial resistance by hindushahi rulers of Peshawar and PJ as well as Muslim rulers of Multan.
  • Most significant raids of Mahmud of Ghazni
    • 1018: raid of kannauj and Mathura
    • 1025- raid of Somanath temple
    • motives of attacks were always raids to plunder and loot and never to rule
  • Al Biruni arrived in India along with Mahmud of Ghazni. He wrote Kitab ul Hind
  • after death of Mahmud of Ghazni in 1030 CE, his descendants lost most of his state and Ghaznavid territory was limited to PJ and Ghazni
258
Q

Arrival of Islamic invaders to India: situation in mid 12th cent?

A

At the beginning of 12th century, Ghaznavid empire and Seljuk empire covered Afg ad Iran respectively, as shown in the map below.

https://1drv.ms/u/s!AvN_8sA-Zf0djT9Y_KlvIZun2N-h?e=QvhP6R

Buddhist and Pagan Turks from Central Asia raided the middle east.

  • shattered the power of the Seljuk Turks
  • Power vaccum in middle east, in which 2 new empires arose
    • Khwarizmi empire in Iran, and
    • Ghurid empire based in Ghur (NW Afghanistan)

Meanwhile in India.

  • Chauhan power grew and they took over Delhi from Tomars. Prithviraj Chauhan ascended the throne of Ajmer in 1166 as a 11 yr old boy. Expansion of Chauhan power towards PJ, brought them into conflicts with the Ghurids. Conflict arose over claims to Tabarhind (in present day PJ).
259
Q

Arrival of Islamic invaders to India: Ghurid empire?

A
  • were earlier vassals on Ghaznavids but emerged as independent as the latter receded
  • imp rulers
    • Sultan Alauddin: given the title of Jahan Soz (The world burner) due to his battles all around. He ravaged Ghazni and burnt it to ground in middle of 12th cent
    • 1173: Shahabuddin Muhammad aka Muhammad Ghori took over throne of Ghazni while his elder brother ruled from Ghur, Afg
  • Due to the powerful Khwarizmi empire in west, they decided to devote their energy to their east i.e. India
260
Q

Arrival of Islamic invaders to India: Muhammad Ghori battles in India?

A
  • 1175 CE: Marched through the Gomal pass (first one to do so to invade, usually armies usually used Khyber pass) and annexed Multan
  • 1178 CE: crossed Thar desert and attacked GJ bt defeated by Bhima II (Solanki king) near Mt. Abu
  • 1186 CE: annexed PJ - Qutbuddin Aibak featured as general for the first time
  • 1191 CE: 1st Battle of Tarain: Confederacy under the command of Prithviraj Chauhan vs Ghurids; latter defeated; Prithviraj annexed Tabarhinda
  • 1192 CE: 2nd Battle of Tarain: Prithviraj Chauhan defeated and killed; Chauhans were allowed to rule over Ajmer as a Ghurid vassal for a while bt soon ousted whereafter Chauhans moved to Ranthambore
  • After 2nd Battle of Tarain, he returned to Ghazi. In his absence, his general led by Qutbud Din Aibak overran parts of upper Doab.
  • returned to India in 1194 and attacked Gahalvads of Kannauj and defeated in the battle of Chandwar. Muhammad Ghori marched to Beanares and destroys many temples. He also captured the forts of Gwalior and Bayana (east RJ) to secure flanks of his empire.
  • https://1drv.ms/u/s!AvN_8sA-Zf0djUDUUdg6Z0EycKOP?e=aDbybs
  • He appoints Qutbud DIn Aibak to conquer remaining Rajput states like GJ while appoints Bakhtiyar Khilji (another of his slave generals) to manage the areas wast of Benares
  • Final campaign in India was in 1206 to crush the rebellion by Khokhars in PJ (tribe of PJ) in which he succeded but soon after was assassinated
261
Q

Arrival of Islamic invaders to India: Bakhtiyar Khilji?

A
  • Mohammad Ghori appoints Bakhtiyar Khilji (another of his slave generals) to manage the areas wast of Benares
  • bakhtiyar Khilji made frequent raids into Bihar and destroyed Nalanda and Vikramshila Universities
  • after finally defeating Sena rulers and forcing them to fled to present day BN, he was formally appointed as Guv of Bengal by Ghori, but he effectively ruled as an independent ruler.
  • When he tried to conquer Assam, ruled by Kamrup rulers, he was defeated. Soon after he was assassinated by one of his own amirs
262
Q

Delhi sultanate: name of dynasties and their periods? map of their territories?

A

Total rule of 320 yrs: 1206 to 1526

  1. Slave Dynasty aka Ilbari dynasty: 1206-1290
  2. Khilji dynasty: 1290-1320
  3. Tughlaq dynasty: 1320- 1414
  4. Sayyid dynasty: 1414-1451
  5. Lodhi dynasty- 1451-1526

https://1drv.ms/u/s!AvN_8sA-Zf0djUFJqs7fqwDRn09B?e=R4gHTo

263
Q

Delhi sultanate: Slave dynasty: period? imp rulers? aka?

A

1206-1290

imp rulers

  1. Qutb ud DIn Aibak
  2. Iltutmish
  3. Razia Sultan
  4. Nasiruddin Mahmud
  5. Ghiyasuddin Balban

AKA Ilbari dynasty or Mamluk dyansty

264
Q

Delhi sultanate: Slave dynasty: Qutb ud Din Aibak?

A
  • 1206-1210
  • set up his capital at Lahore to secure against other contenders from Ghazni like Yildiz
  • sent envoys to Ghurid capital to seek recognition from Ghurid rulers as the official ruler of India, which he was granted.
  • Thus by 1209, he was recognised by Mahmud, Ghuri ruler, as Sultan of HIndustan, detached from Ghori empire
  • aka Lakh Baksh due to his charity of 1 L coins
  • patronised the great scholar Hasan Nizami
  • built Qutub Minar
    • in honor of Sufi saint Qutub ud Din Bakhtiyar Kaki
    • inspired by Minaar e Jaam in Ghor
    • construction completed by Iltutmish in 1220
265
Q

Delhi sultanate: Slave dynasty: Iltutmish?

A
  • 1211-1236
  • son in law of Aibak
  • seized the throne by defeating Aibak’s son and successor and thus, Slave dynasty is one of the very few dynasties which did not follow hereditary succession.
  • regareded as true founder of Slave dysnasty- subdued many Rajput rulers and put down rebellions in Bengal, PJ etc as well as defeated Yaldiz in Lahore and secured frontier against Khwarizmi empire
  • Made Delhi his capital
  • started the Turkani Chahahgani or Chalisa-
    • council of 40 elite nobles
  • refused refuge to Khwarizm prince,Jalaluddin Mangabarni , against Mongols which was one of the reasons that Mongols did not cross Indus and invade INdia.
  • authority as Sultan approved by Abbasid caliph
  • started Iqta system
    • division of empire into iqtas, which were assigned to the nobles and officers in lieu of salary
    • nobles were responsible for: revenue, law&order and army
  • introduced coinage in Arabic
    • Tanka-silver
    • Jital- Copper
    • std weighth of 175 g
  • finished work on Qutub Minar
  • built Gandhak ki Baoli in Mehrauli
    • Mehrauli has 3 baolis: other two are- Anangtal Baoli (built by Anangpal Tomar in 11th cent) and Rajon ki Baoli (buily during Lodhis rule)
266
Q

Delhi sultanate: Slave dynasty: Razia Sultan?

A
  • 1236-1240
  • first Muslim ruler of Indian Subcontinent
  • to combat Turkish nobles intrigues, she included new, non-Turk nobles into Chahalgami and gave the non-Turk nobles important positions
  • Abyssinian (Ethiopian) slave Yakuth was her most fav noble
  • held court with face unveiled and rode elephants
267
Q

Delhi sultanate: Slave dynasty: Nasiruddin Mahmud?

A
  • 1246-1265
  • puppet ruler
  • effective power was in the hands of his father oin law and wazir, Balban
    • Thus, balban effectively had 40 yr rule : 20 yr indirect + 20 yr direct rule
268
Q

Delhi sultanate: Slave dynasty: Balban?

A

1265-1285

  • was also a slave of Aibak
  • original name: ulugh Khan
  • ruled indirectly as wazir during Nasiruddin ahmad’s rule
  • sought to legitimize his rule by
    • claiming to be descendant of Iranian king Afrasiyab
    • Acc to Balban Sultan was God’s shadow on Earth and the recepient of divine grace
  • paid more attention to consolidation rather than expansion
    • eliminated all Chahalgani, sparing only the most loyal ones
    • separate military deptt “Diwan i Ariz” to maintain law and order
    • legendary for his adherence to justice- even against his own nobles
    • policy of Blood and Iron: rebellions by Mewatis crushed, Rajput strongholds destroyed, etc.
    • policy against Mongols: Force + Diplomacy
      • repaired forts at Tabarhinda and Samna and posted a strong force there to deter MOngols from crossing beas, though himself remained at Delhi
      • sent diplomatic missions to Halaku and received their diplomats as well
      • tacitly agreed to leave a major portion of PJ to Mongols. In return Mongols did not attack Delhi
  • introduced rigorous court discipline and started new customs
    • Sajda- Prostration
    • Paibos: kissing Sultan’s feet to prove his supremacy over nobles
  • introduced Persian festival of Navroz
  • acct abt his rule given by Amir Khusro
269
Q

Mongols and India?

A
  • Mongol force invaded Kashmir after 1935, soon Kasmir became a Mongolian dependency. A Kashmiri Buddhist master, Otochi, and his brother Namo arrived at the court of Ogedei
  • 1241: after dealing with their mess in Central Asia and seeing the power vaccum in India, after death of Razia Sultan, Mongol forces invaded the Indus valley and besieged and depopulated Lahore. This started a period of continuous invasions by Mongols in NW.
  • Despite Balban’s efforts, Frontiers of Delhi Sultanate gradually receded from river jhelum to Beas
  • policy of Balban against Mongols: Force + Diplomacy
    • repaired forts at Tabarhinda and Samna and posted a strong force there to deter MOngols from crossing beas, though himself remained at Delhi
    • sent diplomatic missions to Halaku and received their diplomats as well
    • tacitly agreed to leave a major portion of PJ to Mongols. In return Mongols did not attack Delhi
270
Q

Delhi sultanate: Slave dynasty: Architecture?

A

Mamluk Style of Architecture

  • most constructions were remodellings of existing Hindu structures
  • some new monuments as well

Qutb ud Din Aibak

  • Qutb complex
    • Qutb Minar
      • started by Qutub ud Din Aibak
      • in honor of Sufi saint Qutub ud Din Bakhtiyar Kaki
      • inspired by Minaar e Jaam in Ghor
      • construction completed by Iltutmish in 1220; changes made by 2 more Delhi Sultans
      • was the tallest man made str in the world for some period
      • skillfully balconies hv been projected yet linked with the main tower
      • use of red and white sandstone ad marble in top stages
      • ribbed effect
    • Quwwat ul Islam (Triumph of Islam) Mosque
      • iron pillar in midst of it
      • the gates represent the earliest example of arches in Indian subcontinent
      • was constructed over ancient ruins of 27 Jain and Hindu temple complex
    • Alai Darwaza
    • Alai Minar
      • incomplete
      • by Alauddin Khilji
    • Iltutmish Tomb
  • Adhai Din ka Jhopra
    • in Ajmer
    • started by Ghori in 1192 bt completed by Aibak in 1199
    • built by destroying a Sanskrit school
    • named probably because the foundation was built within 2.5 days

Iltutmish

  • completed Qutub Minar
  • built Gandhak ki Baoli in Mehrauli
271
Q

Delhi sultanate: Khilji dynasty: Khilji revolution?

A

1290: end of Mamluk dynasty when last Sultan was killed by Jalal Ud Din Khilji, an army commander.

It is termed as revolution, because Khiljis were Afghan Turks rather than the Turkic nobles. They weren’t allowed higher positions in govt during slave dynasty. So the usurpation of power by Khiljis was a kind of revolution as it marked the transfer of power from the monopoly of turkic nobles to Afghans

272
Q

Delhi sultanate: Khilji dynasty: period? significance?

A

1290-1320

The shortest serving dynasty in Delhi Sultanate, however despite that, max expansion of frontiers of Delhi sultanate was done during this period and AlaudDin Khilji was arguably the most powerful ruler in whole Delhi Sutanate

273
Q

Delhi sultanate: Khilji dynasty: imp rulers?

A
  1. Jalal ud din: 1290-1296
  2. Ala ud Din: 1296- 1316
274
Q

Delhi sultanate: Khilji dynasty: Ala ud Din Khilji: reforms: headings?

A
  • Army reforms
  • steps to quell nobles and rebellions
  • revenue reforms
  • market reforms
275
Q

Delhi sultanate: Khilji dynasty: Ala ud Din Khilji: reforms: army reforms?

A
  • standing army
  • soldiers paid in cash: eg. sawar was paid 238 tankas a yr
  • Dagh- Branding of horses
  • Huliya: Record of soldiers
276
Q

Delhi sultanate: Khilji dynasty: Ala ud Din Khilji: reforms:steps to quell nobles and rebellions

A
  • confiscated properties of nobles
  • organised intelligence system to know secret activities of nobles
  • public sale of drugs and alcohol was totally stopped
  • social gatherings and festivities without permission of Sultan was forbidden
277
Q

Delhi sultanate: Khilji dynasty: Ala ud Din Khilji: reforms: Market reforms?

A
  • Market control
    • after his Chittor campaign
    • fixed cost of all commodities incl cattles, slaves, foodgrains, clothes, horses etc.
    • it ensured cheap supply of cheap foodgrains
    • helped in sustaining standing army
  • introduced three mkts in Delhi
    • for grains
    • for clothes, sugar, dry fruit, oil and butter
      • control of prices of clothes was not necessary for the sultan bt, probably he did that to please the nobles.
      • Sums of Money were advance dto Multani traders for bringing fine qlty cloth to Delhi. As a result Delhi became the biggest market for fine clothes
    • for horses, slaves and cattles
  • each mkt was under control of a high officer called “Shahna-i-Mandi”, who maintained a register of merchants and strictly regulated prices
  • secret agents “Munhiyans” were appointed to report anyone not adhering to fixed prices
  • Harsh punishments if anyone found cheating
278
Q

Delhi sultanate: Khilji dynasty: Ala ud Din Khilji: reforms: revenue reforms?

A
  • First sultan of Delhi who ordered measurement of land to collect land revenue in cash
    • this allowed him to pay his soldiers in cash
  • TO ensure cheap supply of regular foodgrains, Alauddin declared that doab region from Meerut to Kara (Allahabad) would pay land revenue directly to state, in cash i.e. villages in this area would not be allotted to anyone in iqta to anyone.
  • sought land revenues on the basis of area under cultivation
  • to get cash, peasants now had to sell their produce to banjaras at cheap prices, who then carried it to the cities to sell at fixed prices
  • to stop hoarding, all banjaras were regtd and their families were collectively held responsible for any violations
  • state set up warehouses- to store foodgrains which could be used in times of famines and disasters
  • Landlords (khuts and muqaddams) were made to pay same taxes as others, unlike earlier exemptions and privileges
279
Q

Delhi sultanate: Khilji dynasty: military campaigns?

A

titled himself Sikander-i-Sani

dreamed of conquering whole of India and Persia

can be divided into north India campaigns and South India campaigns

MAP with timeline:

https://1drv.ms/u/s!AvN_8sA-Zf0djUI9IsvF2cvduXTu?e=ufXpsc

280
Q

Delhi sultanate: Khilji dynasty: Ala ud Din Khilji: Northern military campaigns?

A

Northern campaigns

  1. 1299: GJ
    1. Somnath sacked and plundered
    2. even the wealthy Muslim merchants of Cambay were looted and murdered
    3. where he met Malik Kafur (Hazar Dinari)
    4. on the way sacked Jaisalmer, where Saka and Jauhar occured
  2. 1305: Malwa- Parmars

significance

1. populous
2. fertile
3. western sea ports
4. horses for cavalry, esp against Mongols
5. trade routes connecting Ganga valley with south India passed through Malwa and GJ
  1. 1301: Ranthambore- Hammirdev Chahman (successor of Prithviraj Chauhan); Saka and Jauhar occured; first description of jauhar in Persian
  2. 1303: Mewar (Chittor)- Rana Ratan Singh, ‘Jauhar’ of Rani Padmini
    1. Malik Mohd Jayasi wrote Padmavat in 16th cent
    2. famous Jauhar led by Rani Padmini

He attacked Ranthambore and Mewar to secure route to GJ and Malwa

  1. Faced multiple Mongols invasions and defeated them convincingly
281
Q

Delhi sultanate: Khilji dynasty: Ala ud Din Khilji: Southern military campaigns?

A
  • At the time of Khiljis, South India had 4 major dynasties who were all fighting with one another
    • Yadavas of Deogir: MH
    • Kakatiyas of Warangal: Telangana
    • Hoysalas of Dwarsamudra (KN)
    • Pandyas of Mabar (TN coast)
  • vividly described in Amir Khusrau’s books
  • First Delhi Sultan who attacked South India
  • Did not annex ruled over southern kingdoms, made them submit and asked for tributes; worked only until Alauddin Khilji was alive
  • 1306-07: Attacked and defeated Rai Ramchandra of Deogir; campaign led by Malik Kafur; resulted in Rai Ramchandra marrying his daughter Jhatyapali to Alauddin
  • 1310-11: defeated Hoysalas, Pandyas and Kakatiyas
    • Malik Kafur seized Kohinoor diamond from Kakatiyas of Warangal
    • When Malik Kafur’s armies reached Mabar, TN, they found a colony of Muslim Merchants already settled.
    • Temples of Madurai were looted
282
Q

Delhi sultanate: Khilji dynasty: Ala ud Din Khilji: Mongols?

A

Background:

  • Two Mongol empires in vicinity of INdia were threats: il Khnatae in Persia and Iraq region
  • Chagtai Khanate in Central Asia

Attacks had been occuring right from Balban’s time bt both Jalaluddin Khilji and Alauddin khilji prevented them from entering Delhi. Ilkhanate Mongols were however brought to friendly terms after defeat on the hands of Jalaluddin Khilji. Chugtai Khanate remained a problem though.

1297 onwards series of campaigns against frontiers of Sultanate, and even managed to enter streets of Delhi in 1299. However, overall Khilji managed to defend against Mongol attacks. After 1310, Mongol empire loses its sheen.

283
Q

Delhi sultanate: Khilji dynasty: Art and Culture?

A

Alauddin Khilji

  • patronised poets like Amir Khusro and Amir Hasan
284
Q

Delhi sultanate: Khilji dynasty: Architecture?

A

Seljik Style of Architecture

  • use of red sandstone
  • prominence of Arcuade style began from this period
  • Use of Mortar as a cementing agent began prominently

Alauddin Khilji

  • Alai Darwaja: in Qutub complex; dome of Alai Darwaza first one to be made correctly on scientific lines
  • Alai Minar: unfinished; in Qutub complex; aim was to build a tower twice the size of Qutub minar
  • Hauz Khas lake for water needs of Delhi area
  • New capital Siri fort: built by Alaudin Khilji, to fortify against Mongol attacks
  • Chor minar: to punish those defying him or his orders with their heads exhibited on stakes
285
Q

Delhi sultanate: Khilji dynasty: decline and end?

A

The harsh methods undertook by Alauddin Khilji were effective only as long as Alauddin was alive. After his death in 1316, his successors were too weak to ensure the harsh regime.

Khilji dynasty was ended by Khusrau Khan, a slave general of Mubarak Shah, who was originally Hindu but bought during a conquest and converted, in 1320. Khusrau Khan then occupied throne for 3 months bt was soon deposed in the battles of Saraswati and Lahrawat, as he was originally hindu.

286
Q

7 cities of Medieval Delhi?

A

Ancient India: indraprastha

Medieval India:

  1. Qila Rai pithora: Lal Kot was built by Tomars; after renovation by Prithviraj Chauhan, it was renamed as Qila Rai Pithora
  2. Mehrauli: settled by Aibak; Qutub complex is built in this region
  3. Siri: built by Alaudin Khilji, to fortify against Mongol attacks
  4. Tughlaqabad: built by Ghiyasuddin tughluq
  5. Jahanpanah: built by Muhammad Bin tughluq in 1327
  6. Firozabad: Firozabad founded by Feroz Shah Tughluq in 1354
  7. Purana Qila: founded by Sher Shah/Humayun in 1533
  8. Shergah (Dinpanah)
  9. Shahjahanabad (“Old Delhi”): by Shah Jahan in 1639

Modern India: New Delhi in 1912

https://1drv.ms/u/s!AvN_8sA-Zf0djUNpfXRCDw5zY8yU?e=vrYFc1

287
Q

history of Kashmir

A

In the first half of the 1st millennium, the Kashmir region became an important centre of Hinduism and later—under the Mauryas and Kushanas—of Buddhism.

Later in the ninth century, during the rule of the Karkota Dynasty, a native tradition of Shaivism arose. It flourished in the seven centuries of Hindu rule, continuing under the Utpala and the Lohara dynasties, ending in mid-14th century, partly due to 1320 Mongols attack under Dalucha that saw huge massacre and slavery. This weakened the empire and hindu rule in Kashmir came to an end in mid 14th cent

In 1339, Shah Mir became the first Muslim ruler of Kashmir, inaugurating the Shah Mir dynasty.

1389 to 1413: Sultan Sikandar Shah of Kashmir persecutes learned HIndus and Brahmins and carry out forced conversions

For the next five centuries, Muslim monarchs ruled Kashmir, including the Mughal Empire, who ruled from 1586 until 1751, and the Afghan Durrani Empire, which ruled from 1747 until 1819. That year, the Sikhs, under Ranjit Singh, annexed Kashmir.

In 1846, after the Sikh defeat in the First Anglo-Sikh War, the Treaty of Lahore was signed and upon the purchase of the region from the British under the Treaty of Amritsar, the Raja of Jammu, Gulab Singh, became the new ruler of Kashmir. The rule of his descendants, under the paramountcy (or tutelage) of the British Crown, lasted until 1947

288
Q

Delhi sultanate: Tughluq dynasty: period? imp rulers? significance?

A
  • 1320-1414
  • imp rulers
    • Ghiyasuddin tughluq
    • Muhammad Bin Tughluq
    • Ferozshah Tuhluq
  • longest lasting dynasty in Delhi Sultanate
289
Q

Delhi sultanate: Tughluq dynasty: Ghiyasuddin Tughluq?

A
  • 1320-1325
  • aka Ghazi Malik
  • defeated and killed Khusrau khan in Battles of Saraswati and Lahrawat
  • adopted a sustained and vigorous forward policy, esp in South India. Led by his son, ulugh Khan (who later became Muhammad Bin Tughluq) it expanded Delhi Sultan expire as far as Madurai
  • 1321: defeated kakatiyas of Warangal; renamed Warangal to Sultanpur; plundered and looted the rich cities
  • this was followed by annexation of Mabar. By 1324, Delhi Sultanate reached upto Madurai.
    • 1328: The last Hindu principality of the area- Kampili (South KN) was annexed
  • 1324-25: led his army to Lakhnauti, Bengal and established Tughluq rule in Bengal as well which had been virtually free since death of Balban
  • contemporary of Nizamuddin Auliya (Huzur Dilli Door Ast)
290
Q

Delhi sultanate: Tughluq dynasty: Muhammad Bin Tughluq?

A
  • 1325-1351
  • original name Ulugh Khan
  • Tolerant nature in religious matters
  • novel experiments- but all failed
    • transfer of capital to Devagiri
    • introduced fiat currency
    • heavy taxation in Doab
    • assembled a large army to occupy Ghazni and Afghanistan; disbanded a year later
    • Qarachil expedition in Himalayas to secure Kumaun hill region. From an army of 10000, only 10 returned. however, hill rajas incl Kangra hills accepted overlordship of MBT
    • Although the share of state in agri o/p was half as in Alauddin khilji’s time, it was fixed arbitrarily, not on the basis of actual produce. Prices were also fixed artificially for converting the produce into money
  • First Delhi sultan who had received a literary, religious and philosophical education
  • judged harshly by contemporary historians like Barani, Isami and Ibn Batuta
    • on his death, Badauni quoted “Finally sultan was freed from people and people from sultan” and called him a “mixture of opposites”
  • expansion of Delhi Sultanate to far frontiers created tremendous administartive and financial problems as well as led to rebellions
  • attacks by Mongols continued and a force even reached upto meeru. MBT not only defeated the Mongols in a battle near the Jhelum bt also occupied Kalanaur and for some time his power extended upto Peshawar beyond the Indus.
  • made Ibn batuta his Chief Qazi fro 6 yrs. Ibn Battuta describes MBTs palace.
291
Q

Delhi sultanate: Tughluq dynasty: Muhammad Bin Tughluq: novel experiments: transfer of capital to Devagiri?

A
  • Delhi to Devagiri (Daulatabad) for better central control
  • forced many royals and Sufis to move; no attempt was made to shift the rest of the population; many died
  • after 2 yrs, abandoned Daulatabad and asked them to return to Delhi
  • though the plan failed, exodus did help in bringing north and south India closer together by improving communications. Many people, including religious saints who had gone to Daulatabad settled there and became means of spreading in the Deccan the cultural, religious and social ideas which the Turks had brought with them to north India. Led to cultural interaction betn North and South India
292
Q

Delhi sultanate: Tughluq dynasty: Muhammad Bin Tughluq: novel experiments: introduction of Fiat currencies?

A
  • Not the first in world to do so
    • in China, Kublai Khan had successfully implemented a token currency (paper based)
    • Mongols of Ilkhanate also experimented with token currencies
  • introduced bronze and Cu coins at par value of Silver Tanka
    • asked public to submit their silver coins (demonetisation of that time) and in return admin will give them new coins of same nominal value
  • failed because
    • lack of trust of people in govt
    • forgery
293
Q

Delhi sultanate: Tughluq dynasty: Muhammad Bin Tughluq: novel experiments: Heavy taxation in doab region?

A
  • To overcome financial difficulties
  • failed due to
    • coincided with strong famine at the same time
    • led to strong revolts from peasants
  • later sultan launched a scheme by which Takkavi loans were given to farmers to buy seeds and to extend cultivation
294
Q

Delhi sultanate: Tughluq dynasty: Muhammad Bin Tughluq: Agriculture reforms?

A
  • Takkavi loans
  • a separate deptt of agriculture “diwa-i-Kohi” was established; failed due to corruption of his men
  • Model farm created
  • Although the share of state in agri o/p was half as in Alauddin khilji’s time, it was fixed arbitrarily, not on the basis of actual produce. Prices were also fixed artificially for converting the produce into money
295
Q

Delhi sultanate: Tughluq dynasty: Muhammad Bin Tughluq: rebellions and loss of Deccan?

A

While he was mired in his administartive experiments,

  • Madurai Guv started his own Sultanate in 1340
  • 1336: vijayanagar kingdom
  • 1347: Bahamani kingdom
  • 1338: Bengal broke free under Ilyas Khan; after being defeated by MBT, Kosi river was decided as mutually agreed boundary.
296
Q

Bengal at the time of Tughluqs?

A
  • 1338: Bengal broke free under Ilyas Khan; after being defeated by MBT, Kosi river was decided as mutually agreed boundary.
  • Ilyas Khan tried to expand towards Assam
    • Assam that time was ruled by two empire: upper Assam was ruled by Ahoms from 13th cent onwards while western Assam and nortehrn Bengal was ruled by Kamata or Kamrup Kingdom
    • Kamrup resisted Ilyas Khan and River karatoya was accepted as NE boundary of bengal
  • Ilyas Khan then raided Jajnagar in Odisha and advanced upto Chilika Lake
297
Q

Delhi sultanate: Tughluq dynasty: Feroz Shah Tughluq?

A
  • 1351-1388 CE
  • reluctant ruler
  • ruled over a diminished empire
    • Bengal, Malwa and GJ broke away and declared independence
    • no attempts to expand territory except gew campaigns in Bengal
    • On his way back from Bengal, he raided Odisha. massacred people, desecrated the famous Jagannath temple and weakened the ruling dynasty of Odisha which later led to emergence of Gajapati dynasty in Odisha
  • religious reforms
  • administrative reforms
  • Agri reforms
298
Q

Delhi sultanate: Tughluq dynasty: Feroz Shah Tughluq: administrative reforms?

A
  • appointed Khan-i-Jahan Maqbal, a Telugu Brahmin convert as Wazir of his kingdom to help him in day to day administration
  • revived iqta system and further it was made hereditary, unlike earlier (to placate nobles, again due to his own weak position)
  • did away with harsh punishments
  • royal factories- Karkhanas, where thousands of slaves were employed
    • largest no. of slaves seen in Tughluq period
    • separate ministry to deal with them- Diwan-i-Bandagani
  • Diwan-i-Khairat: to take care of orphans and widows
  • developed free hospitals and marriage bureaus for poor muslims
  • provided dowries for daughters of poor
  • ordered Kotwals to make lists of unemployed persons
299
Q

Delhi sultanate: Tughluq dynasty: Feroz Shah Tughluq: religious reforms?

A
  • followed the advice of religious clerics, Ulemas, in admin
  • imposed sharia rule strictly throughout realm
  • imposed Jiziya tax; earlier, whenever Jiziya was imposed, it was temporary during economic struggles and brahmins were exempted from it- but he did away with any exceptions
    • only women, children, disabled and indigent who had no means of livelihood were exempt
  • Shias, Sufis and Hindus- persecuted and treated as 2nd class citizens
300
Q

Delhi sultanate: Tughluq dynasty: Feroz Shah Tughluq: Agri reforms?

A
  • First Sultan to impose irrigation tax
  • developed irrigation network- canals from Yamuna to Hisar and Sutlej to Hansi
  • reservoirs, wells and canals refurbished
  • encouraged horticulture
301
Q

Delhi sultanate: Tughluq dynasty: Art and culture?

A

Ghiyasuddin Tughluq

  • Khusrau’s Tughluq Namah

Muhammad Bin tughluq

  • employed Ibn Battuta as court Qazi, who later, back in Morroco, wrote Risla

Feroz shah Tughluq

  • patronized scholars like Barani and Afif
302
Q

Delhi sultanate: Tughluq dynasty: Architecture?

A

Tughluq Architecture

  • crisis period for architecture
  • grey sandstone
  • focus was more on strength and less emphasis on decoration
  • combined both arch and lintel method of entrance design
  • introduction of “batter” style of construction characterised by sloping walls to give more strength to the building. However, not seen in FST’s buildings

Ghiyasuddin Tughluq

  1. Tughlaqabad fort
  2. tomb of GST marks a new trend: putting the building on a high platform to have a good skyline

Muhammad Bin Tughluq

  1. set up Jahanpanah city in 1327, by enclosing the then inhabitated area betn Qila Rai Pithora and Siri

Feroz shah Tughluq

  1. Ferozabad city in 1354: now known as Ferzeshah Kotla
    1. brought two Asokan pillars from Topra (Yamunanagar, Haryana) and Meerut, and placed them in Ferozabad
    2. it is an open, large and well populated city without a wall around it
    3. It had many palaces and half a dozen mosques
  2. repaired Qutub minar
  3. built Jami Mosque, one of the largest mosque of that time. mentioned by Timur in his memoirs.
  4. built Madarsa in hauz Khas
  5. Feroz Shah’s tomb in hauz Khas
  6. decorative device in all buildings of FST is lotus
303
Q

Timur’s invasion?

A
  • was from the same lineage as that of Genghis Khan. He was of Mongol and Turk descent.
  • ruelr of Timurid Empire- repalced Il Khanate in Persia, Iraq and Afghanistan
  • https://1drv.ms/u/s!AvN_8sA-Zf0djUQfqLFtTGbP32Q_?e=Qq53om
  • 1398: entered Delhi without any opposition and sacked the city for days
  • before his departure from India, Timur appointed Khizr Khan as Governer of Multan. Khizr Khan was originally Guv of Multan under Tughluqs but when Timur invaded, he changed his loyalty.
    • After death of Timur in 1405, he captured Delhi and founded Sayyid dynasty in 1414
  • As Timur sacked Delhi, TUghluq rulers fled Delhi. This allowed provincial governers and local autonomous rulers to declare their independence with states like Bahamani, Vijayanagar, Bengal, Sindh, Multan, GJ, Malwa and Jaunpur emerging as independent. Rajputana states became independent again
304
Q

Delhi sultanate: Sayyid dynasty: origin?

A
  • before his departure from India, Timur appointed Khizr Khan as Governer of Multan. Khizr Khan was originally Guv of Multan under Tughluqs but when Timur invaded, he changed his loyalty.
  • After death of Timur in 1405, he captured Delhi and founded Sayyid dynasty in 1414
305
Q

Delhi sultanate: Sayyid dynasty: Khizr Khan?

A

officially did not take up the title of Sultan. he continued as Rayat-i-Ala ( vassal) of timurids

306
Q

Delhi sultanate: Sayyid dynasty: last ruler?

A

Alam Shah

gave away his throne to Bahlol Lodhi in 1451 without any bloodshed and retired to badaun

307
Q

Delhi sultanate: Lodhi Dynasty: period? imp rulers? significance?

A

1451-1526

  • Bahlul Khan Lodi: 1451-1489
  • Sikander Lodi: 1489-1517
  • Ibrahim Lodi: 1517-1526
  • These were not Turks, but were Afghans (different from Khiljis who were Afghan Turks), who until now were not allowed in higher positions.
  • Note that this period also saw emergence of Afghans in Malwa and bahmani sultanate as well.
308
Q

Delhi sultanate: Lodhi Dynasty: origin?

A

During Sayyid dunasty’s rule, many Afghan Sardars were established themselves in PJ

Bahlul Lodi was one of them, grated the iqta of Sirhind. He checked the growing power of Khokhars in PJ nd soon controlled entire PJ.

After being asked for help by Alam Shah, last ruler of Sayyid dynasty, to fight against Malwa, he never left Delhi and replaced Alam Shah and started Lodi Dynasty

309
Q

Delhi sultanate: Lodhi Dynasty: Bahlul Lodi?

A
  • 1451-1489
  • militarily focussed on conquest against Sharqi rulers of Jaunpur
    • invited Afghans of Roh (modern Khyber Pakhtunwa of Pak; Rohillas were people from Roh) for help
    • managed to defeat Sharqis and annex Jaunpur in 1479
    • Afghan numbers in India increased and held important positions of power (later Sher Shah Suri emerged from Afghans as well)
    • changed the complexion of Muslim society in India
  • after his death, divided kingdom betn his sons and relatives
310
Q

Delhi sultanate: Lodhi Dynasty: Sikander Lodi?

A
  • 1489-1517
  • most powerful Lodhi ruler
  • contemporary of Mahmud Begarha of GJ and Rana Sanga of Mewar
  • Sikander made the Afghan nobles bow to the superiority of Sultan since Afghans had a custom of tribal independence and did not view Sultan as superior
  • defeated Rajput kingdoms like Gwalior; destroyed many Hindu temples and imposed many restrictions on hindus in these
  • shifted capital to Agra in 1506 (first time) (will remain the most imp city in India fr next 150 yrs). It was geographically closer to Rajput and Malwa and GJ aiding his military conquests.
  • administrative reforms
    • all those who held jagirs had to submit accounts regularly
    • drastic punishments to corrupt or embezzlers
    • established efficient administartion
    • emphasis on justice
    • All highways were made safe from robbers and bandits
  • Agri reforms
    • octroi duty on grains abolsihed
    • established new measurement of yard i.e. Gazz-i-Sikandar (continued till Mughal times)
    • rent rolls prepared in his time frmed the basis of rent rolls formed by Sher Shah Suri
  • mkt reforms
    • essential commodities were cheap
  • religious policies
    • Sikander’s mother was Hindu; nobles raised question over his commitment to Islam
    • To counter this, he became a bigot and orthodox ruler
    • reimposed jiziyah on Hindus
    • demolished many temples (eg. Nagarkot temple in Kangra)
    • stern imposition of sharia law (eg. forbade Muslims from visiting graves of saints and sufis)
  • archi:
    • 1503: repaired Qutub minar (4th and last Sultan to make changes to str)
    • renovated Red fort in Agra
311
Q

Delhi sultanate: Lodhi Dynasty: Ibrahim Lodi?

A

1517-1526

  • Not good equations with nobles
  • daulat Khan Lodi, guv of PJ, invited Babur to invade India
  • died in 1st battle of Panipat
312
Q

Delhi sultanate: Lodhi Dynasty: architecture?

A

Lodhi Architecture

  • architecture continued on the back seat, only tombs were commissioned during this period
  • introduction of Double Domes. Consisted of a hollow dome inside the top dome. It gave strength to the structure as well as lowered the height of inner dome
  • tombs built were hard and bare without any lavish decorations.
  • Tombs were built in octagonal shapes with diameter of roughly 15 m. supported by a sloping verandah. building placed on platforms. balconies, kiosks of Rajasthani-Gujarati style were used
  • famous for garden architecture style of Tombs: tomb surrounded by garden; Lodhi gardens in Delhi has following imp buildings
    • Ath pula: 8 piered bridge
    • Shisha Gumbad and Bada Gumbad in Lodhi gardens
    • 3-domed mosque
    • Moti Masjid, new Delhi
    • Tomb of Sikander Lodi
  • walls of tombs are straight instead of slanting as was the case in tughluq tombs
  • larger domes than tughluqs
  • city of Agra was established by Sikander Lodi
313
Q

Delhi Sultanate: who were

  1. khuts?
  2. muqaddams?
  3. amils?
A
  1. landlords
  2. landlords
  3. Officer in charge of Land Revenue and Other taxes at village level
314
Q

Delhi Sultanate: Administration: Sultan??

A
  • many declared themselves as “liutenant of the faithful” i.e. of the Abbasid Caliph at baghdad, and included his name in khutba; but caliph only held a moral position
  • supreme political, military and legal authority
  • no clear law of succession; all sons of a ruler considered to have equal claim to the throne; evn when outgoing sultan nominated one of his son (or daughter by Iltutmish) as successor, nobles often had a different say. Overall military strength was the main deciding factor
315
Q

Delhi Sultanate: Administration: central administration?

A
  • wazir
    • most imp minister
    • evolved from military leader to revenue expert
    • MBT’s wazir: Khwaja Jahan
    • FST’s wazir: Khan-i-Jahan, a Tailanf Brahmin convert; his attempt to play kingmaker after FST’s death and failure in doing so, resulted in setback to wazir’s position; his long reign in the office for 1 yrs saw the highest watermark of wazir’s influence
  • separate auditor general (for expenditure) and accountant general (for income) worked under wazir
  • FST made officers and iqta hereditary
  • military
    • diwan-i-arz (military deptt):
    • headed by ariz-i-mamlik ;
    • not army general, as that Sultan was the army general; his duty was to recruit, equip and pay the army
    • first set up by Balban
    • Dagh and Hulia system started by Alauddin Khilji
    • paid in cash by Alauddin
    • maintained strong cavalry, elephants corps
  • diwan-i-risalat:
    • dealt with religious matters;
    • presided by chief sadr (chief qazi)
    • chief qazi also headed justice deptt
    • Hindus governed by their own personal laws dispensed by panchayats
  • Diwan-i-Insha: dealt with state correspondence
  • Barids: intelligence agents
  • wakil-i-dar headed the Sultan’s HH deptt or karkhanas
  • FST also set up a separate deptt of public works which built canals and public buildings
316
Q

Delhi Sultanate: Administration: local admin?

A

The country was divided into

  1. Iqtas : the provinces under the Delhi Sultanate were initially under the dominion of the nobles. Muqtis or Walis was the name given to the governors of the provinces and were responsible for maintaining law and order and collecting the land revenue.
  2. Shiqs: The provinces were further divided into Shiqs, which was under the control of the Shiqdar.
  3. Parganas: The Shiqs were further divided into Pargana, comprising a number of villages (100 0r 84) and was headed by the Amil.
  4. The village remained the basic unit of administration and its headman was called Chaudhri or Muqaddam (headmen).
    1. Patwari was the village accountant.
    2. khuts: landowners
317
Q

Delhi Sultanate: Economy: agri and rural economy?

A
  • little info
  • Ibn Battuta
  • soil fertile; mentions Sesame, sugarcane and cotton
  • village industries like weaving, dyeing, jaggery
  • The lands were categorised into three classes-
    • Iqta land: allotted to the officials as iqtas instead of payment for their services.
    • Khalisa land: it was directly under the control of the Sultan and the revenue generated was utilised for maintaining the royal court and royal household.
    • Inam land – it was allotted to religious institutions or religious leaders.
  • The farmers paid 1/3rd of their produce as land revenue and sometimes even half of the produce
  • Sultans like Muhammad Bin Tughlaq and Firoz Tughlaq provided better irrigation facilities and also takkavi loans which helped in the increased agricultural production. They also promoted the cultivation of crops like wheat rather than barley. A separate agriculture department, Diwan-i-Kohi was set up by Muhammad Bin Tughlaq. Firoz Tughlaq promoted the growth of the horticulture sector.
  • Banjara-farmers system by Alauddin khilji to maintain price control
  • Hidu rais or rajas enjoyed lavish lifestyle
318
Q

Delhi Sultanate: Economy: Trade and Industry?

A
  • growth of trade due to
    • consolidation of empire
    • improvement of communications:
      • Roads were built and maintained for facilitating smooth transport and communication.
      • The royal roads were especially kept in good shape.
      • In addition to the royal road from Peshawar to Sonargaon, Muhammad Bin Tughlaq built a road to Daulatabad.
      • Sarais or rest houses were constructed on the highways for the benefit of the travellers.
    • sound currency system: silver tanka and Copper Dirham and jitals
    • INdian traders belonged to multiple beliefs and faiths and was not a monopoly
  • urbanisation
    • The important cities were – Multan, Lahore (north-west), Anhilwara, Cambay, Broach (west), Lakhnauti and Kara (east), Jaunpur, Daulatabad and Delhi. Delhi was the largest city in the east.
  • Trade centres
    • Cambay was famous for textiles and for gold and silver work
    • Sonargaon (Bengal) was famous for raw silk and fine cotton cloth (muslin)
  • Indian textile:
    • skill of Indian craftsmen unparalleled; Indian textile valued more than silk in China
    • silk and the cotton textile industry thrived. The introduction of sericulture on a large scale made India less reliant on other countries for the import of raw silk.
  • industry
    • Paper was widely used from the 14th and 15th centuries which led to the growth of the paper industry.
    • Other crafts like carpet weaving, leather making and metal crafts also flourished due to the rise in their demand.
    • Expensive articles made of gold and silver were produced by the royal karkhanas.
319
Q

Delhi Sultanate: Economy: new crafts introduced by Turks?

A
  • mfg of paper was introduced by Turks (discovered by Chinese in 2nd century)
  • spinning wheel
  • iron stirrup
  • armour improvement
  • improvement of rahat so that water could be lifted from a deeper level for irrigation’intro of superior mortar enabling arches and domes
320
Q

Delhi Sultanate: Economy: society?

A
  • rural life remained relatively unaffected;
  • Townslife:
    • in towns, great inequality, esp among Muslims. For a lower govt official or soldier, life was affordable; not so for artisans
    • mnay towns grew around military garrisons
    • in general foodstuffs were cheap
    • teaching was largely in the hands of muslim ulemas
  • slavery
    • slave mkt existed
    • different types of slaves mentioned in Hindu shastras; also mentioned in mahabharata; however practised on large scale by Turks. Firoz Shah Tughlaq had about 1,80,000 slaves.
    • generally bought for domestic purposes and/or skills
    • some even rose to higher offices like Aibak
    • note that consitions of slaves was better than that of servants as former’s food and shelter was owner’s responsibility, were allowed to marry and own property
  • caste and customs
    • usual caste restrictions continued with some modifications like Brahins were allowed to engage in agri and shudras allowed to hear puranas
    • condition of women unchanged: widow remarriage remained prohibited in the three upper castes; mixed views on sati (Ibn battuta mentions a scene of sati; mentions that permission of sultan was needed for sati); property rights of Hindu women improved ; practice of purdah became widespread among upper class and gradually became a symbol of upper class
    • Muslim society remained divided in Turks, Afghans, indians etc.
    • hindu and Muslim upper classes did hv social interaction, however limited due to superiority feeling of the latter and religious restrictions among former
321
Q

Delhi Sultanate: Economy: religion?

A
  • state was formally Islamic bt Muslim divines were not allowed to dictate state policies. Sultans supplemented Muslim law by framing their own regulations (zawabit). Alauddin Khilji told the leading Qazi that he did not know what was lawful or unlawful bt framed laws according to the needs of the state. Barani refused to consider state of India as truly Islamic, bt one based on secular considerations i.e. jahandari
  • cities were sacked and temples often targeted. Many weer converted into Mosques like Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque in Qutub complex which was formerly a Vishnu temple. however in times of peace, hindus were allowed to practice their religion openly as well.
  • Most of PoWs were converted to islam. howevr some instances of Muslims converting to hinduism eg, Chaitanya, the great Vaishnava reformer converted a number of Muslims
  • HIndus dominated trade and rural aristocracy and lower admin while Muslims nobles dominated upper echeleons of power
  • hindus were given status of zimmis (protected) and had to pay jiziyah. At first, jaziya was collected along with land revenue. Later, Firoz Tughlaq made jaziya a separate tax and levied it on Brahmins also, who were earlier exempted from the jaziya.
322
Q

Delhi Sultanate: music?

A
  • The sarangi and the rabab, new musical instruments were introduced during this period.
  • Also, new ragas like ghora and sanam were introduced by Amir Khusrau.
  • He is also credited with fusing the Iranian and Indian musical systems to create Qawwali.
  • He also invented the Sitar.
  • Ragadarpan, the Indian classical work, was translated into Persian during the rule of Firoz Shah Tughlaq.
  • Pir Bhodan was a Sufi saint who was regarded as the greatest musician of his age.
  • Raja Man Singh of Gwalior was a great patron of music and encouraged the composition of the great work on music called Man Kautuhal.
323
Q

Delhi Sultanate: literature?

A
  • Apart from poetry and theology, history writing was also promoted.
    • The most renowned historians of this time were Minhaj-us-Siraj, Zia-ud-din Barani, Hasan Nizami and Shams Siraj.
    • Tabaqat-i-Nasari was authored by Minhaj-us-Siraj which gives a general account of the history of Muslim dynasties up to c. 1260 CE.
    • The history of the Tughlaq dynasty, Tarikh-i-Firoz was written by Barani.
  • Prince Muhammad, the eldest son of Sultan Balban was a great patron of scholars and provided protection to two great scholars of his time i.e, Amir Khusrau and Amir Hasan.
  • Amir Khusrau has been regarded as the greatest Persian poet of his age.
    • He is said to have written more than 4 lac couplets.
    • He created a new style of Persian poetry called Sabaq-i-Hind (Indian style).
    • His important works include Khazain-ul-Futuh, Tughlaqnama and Tarikh-i-Alai.
    • He was a great singer and was given the title ‘Parrot of India’.
  • Translation of certain Sanskrit books was done into the Persian language during this period. Zia Nakshabi was the first to translate Sanskrit stories into the Persian language.
  • The book Tutu Nama or the Book of the Parrot was first translated into Turkish and then to many European languages.
  • The famous book Rajatarangani written by Kalhana belonged to the era of Kashmiri ruler Zain-ul-Abideen.
  • In the Arabic language, Al-Beruni’s Kitab-ul-Hind is the most important work.
    • Al-Beruni or Alberuni was an Arabic and Persian scholar patronized by Mahmud of Ghazni.
    • He learnt Sanskrit and translated two Sanskrit works into Arabic.
    • He was impressed by the Upanishads and Bhagavad Gita.
    • In his work Kitab-ul-Hind (also known as Tarikh-ul-Hind), he had mentioned the socio-economic conditions of India.
  • A large number of scholars flourished at the courts of provincial rulers as well. Chand Bardai, a Hindi poet, was the author of Prithviraj Rasau.
  • Nusrat Shah patronised the translation of Mahabharata into Bengali.
  • Krittivasa prepared a Bengali translation of the Ramayana from Sanskrit.
324
Q

Delhi Sultanate: paintings?

A
  • mixed Persian and Indian elements
  • gave preference to illustrated manuscripts. Nimatnama was the finest example of this
  • another style, called Lodi Khuladar was also prevalent in many sultanate dominated regions betn Delhi and Jaunpur
325
Q

Regional powers post Tughluq dynasty: names, periods and regions?

A

East India

  1. Sharqi Sultans: 1394-1479 in Jaunpur
  2. Bengal Sultanate:
    1. Ilyas Shahi dynasty in bengal
    2. Hussain Shahi dynasty in bengal
  3. Kamrup ingdom in northern bengal (Cooch Behar region) and western Assam
  4. Ahom kingdom in eastern Assam

West India

  1. Gujarat
  2. malwa
  3. Mewar

North India

  1. Kashmir
326
Q

Regional powers post Tughluq dynasty: Sharqi dynasty: origin? capital? areal extent? end?

A

established by Malik Sharawar (wazir under Tughluq sultans, later made Lord of east i.e. Malik-us-Sharq) in 1394

capital at Jaunpur- “Shiraz (originally in Ira) of the east”

Aligarh to Darbhanga and Nepal to Bundelkhand, at its max

1479: defeated by Bahlol Lodi

327
Q

Regional powers post Tughluq dynasty: Sharqi dynasty: imp rulers?

A
  1. Malik Sarwar: founder
  2. Hussain Khan: Last sultan
328
Q

Regional powers post Tughluq dynasty: Sharqi dynasty: art and culture?

A
  • Jaunpur: “Shiraz of East”
    • became centre of learning and culture
    • Malik Muhammad Jaisi, author of padmavat, lived at Jaunpur
329
Q

Regional powers post Tughluq dynasty: Sharqi dynasty: Architecture?

A

Sharqi or Pathan style

  • Jaunpur was adorned with beautiful mosques, mausoleums and gardens
  • features:
    • Lofty gates and huge arches
    • avided the use of minars
    • unique feature is the use of bold and forceful chracters painted on huge screens in the centre and side bays of the prayer hall.
  • Buildings
    • Atala Masjid of Jaunpur
    • Jama Masjid of Jaunpur
330
Q

Regional powers post Tughluq dynasty: Kashmir?

A
  1. Sultan Shah of Kashmir: 1389-1413
    1. persecuted learned Hindus and Brahmins
    2. was named ‘But-shikan’ cause he destroyed so many sculptures
    3. forced conversions
    4. sizeable Muslim population in Kashmir after his rule
    5. saw the construction of Shah Hamadan mosque in Srinagar (covered in f/c # 76)
  2. Zainul Abidin: 1420-1470
    1. also called Akbar of Kashmir or Bud Shah i,e, Great Sultan
    2. stopped atrocities on non-Muslims, brought back non-Muslims who had fled from Kashmir
    3. abolished Jiziyah
    4. restored libraries and temples of hindus
    5. Sriya BHatt: his minister of justice and court physician
    6. married a hindu princess of Jammu
    7. built Zaina lake-an artificial island in Wular lake on which he built a palace and mosque
    8. encouraged shawl making and carpet industry
    9. got Kalhan’s rajatrangini translated to persian
    10. defeated Mongol invasion of Ladakh
    11. conquered baltistan
331
Q

Regional powers post Tughluq dynasty: Ilyas Shahi dynasty: origin?

A
  • established by Ilyas Shah
    • 1338: Bengal broke free under Ilyas Khan;
    • ascended the throne under the name of Sultan Shamsuddin Ilyas Khan
    • after being defeated by MBT, Kosi river was decided as mutually agreed boundary.
332
Q

Regional powers post Tughluq dynasty: Ilyas Shahi dynasty: imp rulers?

A
  1. Ilyas Shah
  2. Azam Shah: 1389-1409
333
Q

Regional powers post Tughluq dynasty: Ilyas Shahi dynasty: Azam Shah?

A

known for fierce justice

had literary ties iwth Iran (poet hafiz of Shiraz arrive din Bengal)

diplomatic relations with Ming China (sent Buddhist monks on the latter’s request- showing that Buddhism still lived in Bengal)

overseas trade through Chittagong port

334
Q

Regional powers post Tughluq dynasty: Ilyas Shahi dynasty: architecture?

A
  • built magificent buildings at their capitals- Pandua and Gaur
    • Adina mosque, Pandua- largest mosque in India for many centuries until Jama Masjid was built by Mughals in new Delhi
    • Badshah e Takht in Adina mosque
    • Qadam Rasul mosque in Gaur
  • features
    • used both black marble and bricks
    • Bengal roof : arched roof: eg. tomb in Gaur; previously used by Bengal temples, continued by Sultanate rulers in their buildings
335
Q

Regional powers post Tughluq dynasty: Ilyas Shahi dynasty: art and culture?

A
  • patronised Bengali language
    • famous Bengali poet of the time- Maladhar Basu
      • compiled Sri Krisna Vijaya
      • granted the title Gunaraja Khan
      • His son was honored with title of Satyaraja Khan
336
Q

Regional powers post Tughluq dynasty: Hussain Shahi dynasty: period? origin?

A
  • 1493-1519
  • founded by Alauddin Hussain Shah
337
Q

Regional powers post Tughluq dynasty: Hussain Shahi dynasty: Art and culture?

A
  • most significant period of growth of Bengali language was during Alauddin Hussain Shah’s reign
  • offered high posts to hindus eg. his wazir, chief physician were HIndus
  • showed respect to vaishnavite saint-Shri Chaitanya (1486-1534)
    • Growth of Vaishnavism in Bengal
    • Vaishnava brothers- Rupa and Sanatan held high posts in his court bt left it for Vaishnavism
  • wrested Chittagong from Arakan kings. also conquered Tipperah (Tripura)
  • attacked Kamata kingdom, along with Ahoms and annexed northern Bengal and western Assam.
    • built Panbari Mosque in Goalpara district of Assam to commemorate Kamata victory
    • it was however soon overpowered by locals
    • ultimately Koch dynasty took over in 1515
338
Q

Regional powers post Tughluq dynasty: Ahoms?

A
  • established in 1228 by Sukaphaa, a Tai prince from Mong Mao (present day Burma); Tibeto-Burmese origin
  • ruled for 600 yrs
  • 16th century: Ahoms started expanding under Suhungmung and almost the whole of Brahmputra valley was under their control. Also made them multi-ethnic in nature.
  • Suhungmung considered the greatest ruler
    • he saw over the Hinduization of Ahoms
    • he changed his name to Svarga narayana
    • repulsed all Muslim attacks eg. Mughals attacked Ahoms 17 times bt were repulsed most of the times
  • Shankardev, a Vaishnavite reformer lived during this time
339
Q

Shankardev?

A
  • 1449-1568
  • born in Nagaon district, Assam
  • played an important role in spread of Vaishnavism in Assam
  • propagated Ekasarana Dharma. It rejects Vedic ritualism and focuses on pure devotion (bhakti) to Krishna, consisting primarily in congregational singing (Kirtan) and listening (Sravan) to his deeds and activities. it developed a new kind of philosophy, art, and music in the form of ‘Borgeets’, ‘Ankiya Nats’ or ‘Bhaonas’ as well as the ‘Satriya Dance’ as modes of conveying the principles of Ek-Sarana-Nama-Dharma, based on the devotion to one single God Lord Krishna or Vishnu.
  • he and his followers established Sattras i.e. Monasteries; continue to this day (role in Assam and Meghalaya border dispute)
  • lived on Majuli island. There are about 30 Satras in Majuli
340
Q

Regional powers post Tughluq dynasty: Gujarat: time period? origin? imp rulers? capital?

A

1407-1573

  • During FST’s reign, Zafar Khan was the guv of GJ
  • After Timur’s invasion, in 1407, proclaimed independent GJ sultanate
  • took up the title of Muzaffar Shah
  • imp rulers
    • Muzaffar Shah: founder; 1407-1411
    • Ahmad Shah I :
    • Mahmud Begada: 1458-1511; most powerful ruler
  • capital: originally was Patan (aka Annhilwara) but shifted to Ahmedabad by Ahmed Shah I in 1413. Later shifted to Champaner by Mahmu Begada
341
Q

Regional powers post Tughluq dynasty: Gujarat: imp rulers: Muzaffar Shah?

A

founder; 1407-1411

342
Q

Regional powers post Tughluq dynasty: Gujarat: imp rulers: Ahmad Shah I?

A
  • 1411-1442;
  • established Ahmedabad; expanded and consolidated;
  • defeated Saurashtra and captured strong fort of Girnar (present day Junagadh);
  • attacked Hindu pilgrimage centre of Sidhpur and destroyed many Hindu temples like Rudra Mahalaya Temple and converted to mosque;
  • first ruler to impose jiziyah in GJ
  • however, also appointed rich Hindu merchnats like Manik Chand and Motichand as ministers
  • capital shifted to Ahmedabad in 1413
343
Q

Regional powers post Tughluq dynasty: Gujarat: imp rulers: Mahmud Begada?

A

1459-1511

  • Begarha in Gujarati means two forts. He was called so because he attacked two forts: Girnar fort (many Hindu and Jain temples continue to this day; Girnar Asoka inscription) (Junagarh) and CHampaner; renamed Junagarh to Mustafabad
  • built Jumma masjid at Junagadh
  • was the first one to establish his rule over Saurashtra region as well
  • Champaner fort or Pavagarh fort was ruled by Chauhans; committed Jauhar; fort strategically important for future annexation of Malwa and Khandesh
  • built the town of Muhammadabad (Champaner) at foothills. He shifted his capital from Ahmedabad to here.
  • sacked Dwarka-razed Hindu temples
  • Vasco da Gama arrived in India. Portugese interfered with GJ’s trade with west Asia Gujaratis were importnat middlemen bringing spices from Maluku islands as well as silk from China and then selling them to Arabs. But Portugese began to establish their own monopoly over these trades
    • Mahmud Begarha allied with Mamluk Egypt to chech Portugese naval power and defeated portugese in battle of Chaul. However, Portugese registered a decisive victory in Battle of Diu of 1509 against the combined strength of Mahmud’s navy, Mamluk of Egypt, Zamori of calicut, Ottoman navy, Venice and Ragusa (Croatia)
    • Portugese traveller Barbosa also visited his court
  • court poet of Mahmud Begarha: Udayraja, who composed in Sanskrit
344
Q

Regional powers post Tughluq dynasty: Gujarat: architecture?

A
  • style similar to Jains of GJ and distinct from Delhi Sultanate
  • features
    • slender currets
    • exquisite stone carvings
    • highly ornate brackets
  • imp buildings
    • jama Masjid of Ahmedabad
    • Tin darwaza of Ahmedabad
  • Ahmedabad town built by Ahmad Shah I
  • Mohammadabad built by Mahmud Begada at Champaner fort
    • Jama Masjid of Champaner by Mahmud Begada; similarities of Jain and Rajput architecture can be seen here as well
345
Q

Regional powers post Tughluq dynasty: Malwa: origin? end?

A
  • established by Dilwar Khan Ghori in 1392; however, did not declare himself Sultan
  • His Son, Hushang Shah, when ascended the throne in 1406, was the first one to declare himself independent sultan
  • annexed by Akbar when he defeated Baz bahadur in 1562
346
Q

Regional powers post Tughluq dynasty: Malwa: imp ruler: Hushang Shah?

A
  • original name; Alp Khan
  • shifted his capital from Dhar to Mandu
  • According to Lalitpur Temple (built during this period) inscription
    • no restrictions were placed on the construction of temples, under Hushang Shah
    • he extended his patronage to Jains. Jains were the main commercial traders and merchants of Malwa eg. Nardeva Soni was a rich merchant of Malwa and was made treasurer under his admin
347
Q

Regional powers post Tughluq dynasty: Malwa: imp ruler: Mahmud khilji?

A
  • replaced Hushang Shah’s Ghor dynasty
  • not related to Khilji dynasty of Delhi
  • intolerant to non-Muslims
  • destroyed many Hindu temples, esp in Mewar, during his wars with rana Kumbha and other HIndu rulers
348
Q

Regional powers post Tughluq dynasty: Malwa: architecture?

A
  • aka Pathan school of Architecture
  • features
    • large scale use of different colored and glazed tiles and marbles
    • large windows (could be European influence) decorated by arches and pillars
    • Unlike Gujarat architecture, Mandu used massive and lofty buildings, made to look even more so by using very lofty plinth for the buildings
    • even the stairs were used to enhance aesthetics
    • MInars were not used
    • one of the finest specimens of environmental adaptation
      • large windows
      • pavilions were lightly arched which made them airy and allowed natural cooling
      • artificial reservoirs, baulis, were constrcuted within the premises for storage of water
      • locally available material was used
    • use of batter system introduced by Tughluqs
  • famous buildings
    • Jama masjid
    • Hindola mahal
    • Rani Roopmati pavillion
    • Jahaz mahal
      all in Mandu
    • Ashrafi mahal
349
Q

Regional powers post Tughluq dynasty: Mewar: origin?

A

During Tughluq’s rule in Delhi, a new branch of Chauhans, under Hammir established his rule in Mewar.

This was called Sisodiya dynasty, since they came from Sisod village

350
Q

Regional powers post Tughluq dynasty: Mewar: imp rulers: Rana Kumbha?

A

1433-1468

  • revived Mewar
  • conquered Bundi, Kota (Malwa border) and Dungarpur (GJ border); brought him in direct confrontation with GJ and Malwa
  • Kumbhalgarh fort:
    • built by Rana Kumbha
    • the largest fort in the world
    • its boundary wall is 38 km long; 3rd longest wall in the world
  • constructed Vijay Stambh at Chittorgarh, to commemorate his victory over the combined armies of Malwa and GJ led by Mahmud Khilji. Located in Chittorgarh fort
    • note that there is another tower called Kirti stambh in Chittorgarh, bt it was built by Jains living in Chittor region in 12th cent. It was a religious architecture
  • also annexed Marwar region by defeating Rathores of Marwar
    • however later it became independent under the leadership of Rao Jodha, who established Jodhpur as his new capital. He was also the one to build Mehramgarh fort of Jodhpur
  • was a patron of learned men
    • composed many books himself
  • dug several lakes and reservoirs in the region
  • After his death, after a brief war of succession, Rana Sanga, his grandon, ascended the throne of Mewar in 1508
351
Q

Regional powers post Tughluq dynasty: Mewar: imp rulers: Rana Sanga?

A
  • ascended the throne of Mewar in 1508
  • 1517: fought alongside raja Medini Rai of Chandeli (north MP) against combined armies of Malwa and GJ. Emerged victorious and as a result, Eastern Malwa, Chanderi and parts of GJ comes under his rule. This makes him the most powerful ruler in Central India. this brings him in direct conflict with Lodhis
  • 1518: defeated Ibrahim Lodhi in battle of Khatoli
352
Q

Cultural Developments in india in 13th-15th century: Headings?

A
  1. Bhakti Movement: covered in prior f/c
  2. Sufi movement: covered in prior f/c
  3. Non sectarian movements led by the likes of Kabir and Guru Nanak: covered in prior f/c
  4. Literature
    1. Sanskrit
    2. Arabic and Persian
    3. Regional Languages
  5. music
353
Q

Cultural Developments in india in 13th-15th century: Sanskrit literature?

A
  1. production in sanskrit lit increased, esp works in Advaita philosophy, by Ramanuja, Madhava, Vallabha etc.
  2. newtwork of schools and academies in Sanskrit continued to flourish
  3. boosted by intro of paper; Because of which some of the oldest texts of Ramayana and Mahabharata belong to the period of 11th-12th century onwards
  4. Beside philosophy, works in field of kavya , drama, fiction, medicine, astronomy, music continued
  5. law:
    1. commenataries on dharmashastras; Chandeshwar of Bihar was a prominent commentator
    2. Vijaneshwara’s Mitakshara
  6. special growth in regions of South India, Begal, Mithila and west India under patronage of Hindu rulers
  7. Jains too contributed eg. Hemachandra Suri
  8. most of these works ignored the presence of muslims in India
  9. little attempt made to translate Persian works into Sanskrit, except some like translation of love story of Yusuf and Zulaikha written by famous Persian poet, Jami
354
Q

Cultural Developments in india in 13th-15th century: Arabic and Persian Literature?

A
  1. Arabic was the predominant language of Muslims, used from Spain to Baghdad; bt Turks prefrerred Perisan which had seen a resurgence (eg. Firdausi and Sadi, some of greatest poets of Persian language loved and composed during this time) and had become the literary and administrative language of Central Asia from 10th century onwards. In India, use of Arabic remained confined to a narrow circle of Islamic scholars and philosophers
  2. In due course, Islamic law digests were prepared in Persian most famous ones during MBT’s rule
  3. Lahore emerged as the first centre of cultivation of Persian language. eg. Masud ud Salman lived and composed in Lahore
  4. Amir Khusrau (refer separate f/c for him)
  5. Apart from poetry a strong school of history writing and fiction in Persian developed. most famous historians of this period were Ziauddin barani, Afif and Isami
  6. Through Persian language, relations betn India and central asia improved
355
Q

Cultural Developments in india in 13th-15th century: Sanskrit-Persian interaction?

A
  • both functioned as link languages in the country as well as language of literary productions
  • At first there was little interchange between the two
  • Zia Nakshabdi (1350) was the first to translate into persian Sanskrit stories, Tuti Nama, which were related by a parrot to a woman whose husband had gone on a journey; written during MBT’s time; was subsequently translated into other languages incl European languages as well
    • He also translated the old Indian treatise on sexology, Kok Shastra, into Persian
  • During FST’s rule, Sanskrit books on medicine and music were translated
  • Sultan Zain ul Abidin of Kashmir had the famous historical work Rajatrangini and Mahabharata translated
    • Sanskrit works on medicine and music were also translated under his reign
356
Q

Cultural Developments in india in 13th-15th century: regional languages?

A
  • Amir Khusrau had noted the existence of regional languages
  • while some languages like Hindi, bengali and Marathi were young, with their origin in 8th cent or so, others like Tamil were old
  • Regional languages matured in this period. Factors responsible for this can be
    • Sanskrit had lost some of its prestige, with the same for Brahmanas
    • use of vernacular language by Bhakti saints
    • some sufi saints used vernacular language as well. eg. in Jaunpur, Malik Muhammad Jaisi wrote in Hindi and put forward sufi concepts in a form which could be easily understood by the common man; Farid baba was one of the earliest Punjabi poets
    • these languages emerged as languages of administration in regional kingdoms of the pre-Turkish period, which continued later on as well.
      • Thus, literature in telugu developed in south India under vijaynagara rulers.
      • marathi was one of the administrative languages in Bahamani kingdom, and later at the court of Bijapur
      • Maladhar Basu translated the Bhagvata into Bengali under his patronage
    • After some time, some of these languages were also patronied to some extent by Muslim rulers. eg. Nusrat Shah of Bengal had Mahabharata and Ramayana translated into Bengali.
357
Q

Cultural Developments in india in 13th-15th century: music?

A
  • Turks brought the rich Arab tradition of music
  • sama tradition of Sufis; Sufi saint Pir Bodhan was considered the second greatest musician of the age
  • new musical instruments like rabab and sarangi
  • Amir Khusrau (refer his f/c)
  • under FST, Indian classical work, Ragadarpan was translated into Persian
  • Sultan Hussain Sharqi, ruler of Jaunpur, was a great patron of music
  • Similarly, Raja Man Singh of Gwalior was a great patron of music: Man Kautuhal, in which all new musical modes introduced by Muslims were included was prepared under his aegis
  • Largely due to the incorporation of Perso-Arabic modes, the music of orth and South India began differentiating
  • A distinctive style of music, with a lot of influence of Persian style, was developed in the kingdom of Kashmir
358
Q

Mughal Architecture: intro?

A
  • establishment of Mughal rule in India revitalized Indo-Islamic architecture.
  • The prevalent architectural forms and techniques were amalgamated with those brought from Central Asia and Persia.
    • The foundation of a new style of architecture in India had already been laid in the thirteenth century with the introduction of the arcuate technique where spaces were covered with domes and entrances were made with the help of arches.
    • The Mughals carried this tradition and created a synthesis of the pre-Turkish technique, viz., trabeate with the arcuate.
    • The final result of this blending (trabeate + arcuate) was the emergence of a distinct style of their own.

• The Mughal style of architecture took a concrete form during the reign of Akbar, yet the basic principles of Mughal architecture were provided by Babur and Humayun.

  • The Mughals built magnificent forts, palaces, gates, public buildings including sarais, hamams, mosques, baolis (water tank or well) etc. They also laid out many formal gardens with running water. In fact, use of running water even in their palaces and pleasure resorts was a special feature of the Mughals.
359
Q

Mughal Architecture: main features?

A
  1. Large courtyards
  2. Very large vaulted gateways
  3. Delicate ornamentation, including pachin kari decorative work and jali-latticed screens.
  4. Bulbous domes
  5. Slender Minarets with cupolas at the 4 corners
  6. Use of white marble and red sandstone
  7. Persian and Arabic calligraphic inscriptions, including verses from the Quran.
  8. Iwans on two or four sides (Iwan is a rectangular hall or space, usually vaulted, walled on three sides, with one end entirely open)
  9. Use of decorative chhatris.
  10. Use of jalis and jharokhas.
360
Q

Mughal Architecture: Babur?

A
  • Had no time to devote to big architectural projects. Though had very less time, he took considerable interest in building secular works (e,g: gardens and pavilions). Very little of this work is extant today.
  • . For Babur, the most important aspect of architecture was regularity and symmetry which he did not find in the buildings, in India. Perhaps, his dissatisfaction was directed at the Lodi buildings which he saw at Lahore, Delhi and Agra.
  • Standing structures attributed to him are mosques (built in 1526) at Panipat, Sambhal and Ayodhya. These structures possess no architectural merit.
  • They were adaptations of earlier buildings, and do not therefore give an idea of his architectural concepts.
  • Babur’s secular works mainly comprise the laying of gardens and pavilions.
    • Garden of Dholpur: Only the excavated ruins of this garden are visible.
    • Ram Bagh and Zahra Bagh at Agra: have undergone many alterations.
  • In Baburnarna, he claims credit for some pavilions. None of Babur’s pavilions are surviving today.
361
Q

Mughal Architecture: Humayun?

A
  • He also had very less time for such work.
  • The surviving buildings have the same inconsequential character as that of Babur.
  • Two mosques from among several other buildings erected during the first phase of his reign survive, both are devoid of any architectural marit.
    • One of these lies in ruinous condition at Agra.
    • The other is at Fatehabad (Hissar). There is no notable building from Humayun 2nd term.
  • Humayun’s tomb: covered separately in Akbar’s buildings
362
Q

Mughal Architecture: Akbar?

A

Major Architectural developments under Mughal regime started during Akbar.

Akbar’s building projects can be divided into two main groups, each representing a different phase.

  • The 1st Phase: The first group comprised buildings of fort and a few palaces mainly at Agra, Allahabad and Lahore. eg. Agra fort, Lahore fort
  • second phase of Akbar’s architectural scheme coincides with the conception and creation of a ceremonial capital for the Empire at Sikri, this new capital was named Fatehpur.

Architecture during Akbar’s rule incorporated and syncretized influences from wider Indian Architecture

Major Buildings

  1. Agra fort
  2. Great White Mosque in Peshawar
  3. Humayun’s tomb
  4. Fatehpur Sikri
  5. TOmb of Salim Chisti
363
Q

Mughal Architecture: Akbar: Agra fort?

A
  • Agra fort is a UNESCO world heritage site
  • One of the earliest building projects was the construction of a fort at Agra.
  • The Agra Fort was started in 1565 and completed in eight years’ time.
  • The architecture of the fort clearly indicates the free adoption of the Rajput planning and construction.
  • The Agra fort, with its massive battlements and crenalated (spaces for soldiers to attack) walls, its gates consisting of two octagonal towers of dressed red sandstone linked to each other was the pattern of the forts which were built at Lahore, Ajmer and Allahabad later by Akbar.
    • The Red Fort at Delhi built by Shah Jahan was also patterned on the fort at Agra.
  • According to Abul Fazl, within the Agra fort, Akbar built “upward of five hundred edifices of red stone in the fine style of Bengal and Gujarat.”
    • Most of these buildings were demolished by Shah Jahan to make way for his own style of buildings (white marble palaces).
    • .Delhi Gate of the Agra fort and Jahangiri Mahal (inside the Agra Fort) and Akbari Mahal are the only representative buildings of Akbar’s reign.
    • Akbari Mahal was once known as the Bengali Mahal, owing its name to the Bengali designs used in the Mahal.
  • Delhi Gate of Agra Fort probably represents Akbar’s earliest architectural effort.
  • Jahangiri Mahal
    • Built by Akbar.
    • Use of red sandstone.
    • It is a fine specimen of the fusion of the Hindu and Islamic building designs.
    • Combination of beam and bracket used
    • The roofs of these palaces were flat, and supported by exquisitely carved pillars.
    • The palace is said to have been based on the Man Mandir in Gwaliyar fort, and has many Rajasthani features, such as the heavy red sand stone brackets and balconies, carved with peacock and serpent motifs.
    • The walls and staircase carry geese, flamingos and lotus carvings, as also figures of mythical animals, such as winged dragons, half elephants, birds etc.
364
Q

Mughal Architecture: Akbar: Buildings of 1st phase other than Agra fort?

A

The style of Agra fort is manifested in the other palace-fortresses at Lahore and Allahabad

Lahore Fort or Shahi Qila:

  • It was built during the reign of Akbar.
  • It has two gates one is known as Alamgiri Gate build by Emperor Aurangzeb which opens towards Badshahi Mosque and other older one known as Masjidi Gate which was built by Akbar.

But the fort at Ajmer represents a different class. Since it spearheaded the advancing frontier of the Empire, the walls of the forts were thickly doubled.

. Note:

• The mosque-cum madarsa called Khair-ul-Majalis, outside the Purana Qila (built by Humayun in Delhi) with a magnificent gate was built by Maham Anaga in 1561.

365
Q

Mughal Architecture: Akbar: Great White Mosque of Peshawar?

A

A glorious white mosque standing in the heart of historic Islamia College Peshawar surrounded by lush green lawns

it’s a mixture of Mughal and British construction design.

This lovely mosque has become the second tourist attraction in Peshawar after Mahabat Khan Mosque which was built during Mughal rule.

366
Q

Mughal Architecture: Akbar: Humayun’s Tomb?

A

It is often regarded as the first mature example of Mughal architecture.

  • This building is a landmark in the development of the Mughal style of architecture.
  • This structure was inspired by the Persian culture.
  • Constructed during Akbar reign (work began in 1564),
  • under the patronage of his widow Hamida Bano Begum.
  • Architect: Mirak Mirza Ghiyas (a native of Persia).
  • Akbar brought many Persian craftsmen to Delhi to work on this structure.
  • The tomb has thus become representative of an Indian rendition of a Persian concept (Double Dome, was a Persian feature that had appeared in India in the tomb of Sikander Lodi but had not fully matured).
  • Though it built during Akbar reign but because of peculiar features, it has been treated separately.
  • One of the earliest specimens of the garden enclosure (Garden tomb).
  • It is raised high on an arcaded sandstone platform and was topped by a white marble dome. The tomb is octagonal in plan and is crowed by a high dome, with a constricted neck, which is actually a double dome. The double dome enabled a pleasing sky line as well as an interior roof in keeping with the enclosure inside.
  • Geometrical sandstone and marble pietra dura inlay patterns over the entrance Iwan or high arc, and the chhatris and small minarets that surround the white marble central dome,
  • A second feature of Persian influence was the arrangement of the rooms inside.
    • Instead of one enclosure, there were separate rooms in the corridors linked by passages. However, such an arrangement can be found in earlier, pre-Turkush buildings.
    • The Indian feature was the entire building being placed in a formal garden with a large gate.
    • The dome was supported by slender minaraets which was a feature of the Gujarat style of architecture.
    • Graceful kiosks (a small, separated pavilion open on some or all sides) were a familiar feature in Rajasthan.
    • The arches on all sides, and the fine white inlay work added to the pleasing effect of the building.
367
Q

Mughal Architecture: Akbar: Fatehpur Sikri?

A
  • Akbar’s greatest architectural achievement was the construction of Fatehpur Sikri, his capital city near Agra at a trade and Jain pilgrimage centre. The construction of the walled city was started in 1569 and completed in 1574.
  • The building at Sikri was later renamed as Fatehpur after victory at Gujarat.
  • The city was built in a very short span of time (1571-1585) and does not follow any conscious overall plan. An asymmetry seem to have been deliberately incorporated into the setting out and design of the complex.
  • All the buildings are rich in red sandstone, using traditional trabeate construction.
  • The pillars, lintels, brackets, tiles and posts were cut from local rocks and assembled without the use of mortar.
  • The buildings in Fathpur Sikri may be resolved into two categories:
    • religious
      • Jami Masjid
      • Buland Darwaza
      • Tomb of Salim Chisti
    • secular character: Buildings of secular nature are more varied and thus numerous. These can be grouped under
      • palaces
      • administrative buildings;
      • structures of miscellaneous nature
  • The religious buildings are invariably built in the arcuate style while in secular buildings dominates the trabeate order (having straight horizontal beams or lintels rather than arches).

The Haramsara, the royal seraglio in Fatehpur Sikri was an area where the royal women lived. According to Abul Fazl, in Ain-i-Akbari, the inside of Harem was guarded by senior and active women, outside the enclosure the eunuchs were placed, and at a proper distance there were faithful Rajput guards.

Jodha Bai’s Palace is the largest palace in the Fatehpur Sikri seraglio, connected to the minor haramsara quarters.

The main entrance is double storied, projecting out of the facade to create a kind of porch leading into a recessed entrance with a balcony. Inside there is a quadrangle surrounded by rooms. The columns of rooms are ornamented with a variety of Hindu sculptural motifs.

368
Q

Mughal Architecture: Akbar: Jami Masjid?

A
  • The most magnificent building at Fatehpur Sikri is the Jama Masjid with an interior courtyard of unusually large proportions.
  • It was one of the first buildings to come up in the Fatehpur Sikri complex in 1571-72.
  • It uses the typical plan of a mosque
    • a central courtyard,
    • arcades on three sides and
    • domed skyline
  • It was built in the manner of Indian mosques, with iwans (rectangular space, usually vaulted, walled on three sides, with one end entirely open) around a central courtyard.
  • A distinguishing feature is the row of chhatri over the sanctuary.
  • There are three mihrabs (A mihrab is a space carved out in the wall of a mosque or madrasa that indicates the direction of Mecca) in each of the seven bays, while the large central mihrab is covered by a dome, decorated with white marble inlay, in geometric patterns.
  • The main-sanctuary had arched entrances, domes with pillared kiosks.
  • In the courtyard is the tomb of Shaikh Salim Chishti.
369
Q

Mughal Architecture: Akbar: Buland Darwaza?

A
  • On one side of the Jami mosque is a massive gateway leading up to a flight of stairs. This is the Buland Darwaza started by Akbar in 1573 to commemorate his victory at Gujarat.
  • .This is 55 metre high, from the outside, gradually making a transition to a human scale in the inside.
  • Red and yellow sandstone with white marble inlay outlining the span of the arches.
  • It carries two inscriptions in the archway.
  • The central portico comprises three arched entrances, with the largest one, in the centre.
  • The gate is in the style of what is called a half-dome portal.
    • What was done was to slice a dome into half.
    • .The sliced portion provided the massive outward façade of the gate, while smaller doors could be made in the rear wall where the dome and the floor meet.
    • . This devise, borrowed from Iran, became a feature in Mughal buildings later.
370
Q

Mughal Architecture: Akbar: Tomb of Salim Chisti?

A

The Tomb of Salim Chishti is famed as one of the finest work of marble in India, built during the years 1580 and 1581.

stands in the courtyard of Jami Masjid, Fatehpur Sikri

The tomb is a square white marble chamber with a verandah.

an exquisitely designed lattice screen around it.

It enshrines the burial place of the Sufi saint, Salim Chisti (1478 – 1572), a descendant of Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti of Ajmer, who lived in a cavern on the ridge at Sikri.

The mausoleum, constructed by Akbar as a mark of his respect for the Sufi saint, who foretold the birth of his son.

371
Q

Mughal Architecture: Akbar: Fatehpur Sikri: Palace Complex?

A

Palace complex in Fathpur Sikri comprises a number of apartments and chambers.

  • The royal haram was on the side of the Emperor’s palace.
    • It has a guard-house, and a high wall to separate it from the public buildings.
    • Further, behind the palace was the Jama Masjid
    • Water from the lake below was lifted up to provide for running water and the fountains.
  • Jodha Bai palace:
    • One of the palaces within the haram complex is called the Jodha Bai Palace.
    • It is the largest of these buildings.
    • This palace may have housed the Emperor’s Hindu wives.
    • This was a large palace with suites of rooms around a courtyard a traditional design which continued in residential buildings till recent times.
    • The bases, columns, and capitals are borrowed from the traditional type of temple pillars. It also has a chapel or puja room.
  • Panch mahal
    • meant to be a place where women of harem could enjoy fresh air
    • five storeyed building with receding terraces, each with a flat roof supported by intricately carved pillars. The size of the five storeys diminishes as one goes upwards.
372
Q

Mughal Architecture: Akbar: Fatehpur Sikri: Administrative Buildings?

A
  • Entering the palace complex through a gate with three arches, called Naubat Khan (Also known as Naggar Khana meaning a drum house, where musician used drums to announce the arrival of the Emperor)
  • With the royal karkhanas and the mint on the right, one reaches the vast courtyard called diwan-i-am.
  • Behind the diwan-i-am was building called the diwan-i khas and by its side the treasury meant mainly for precious stones.

Diwan-i Khas:

  • Hall of Private Audience
  • The diwan-i-khas is a single hall which has a large pillar supporting a circular stone platform.
  • From this central platform, stone bridges radiate to each corner to connect with the hanging galleries.
  • Central pillar has a square base and an octagonal shaft, both carved with bands of geometric and floral designs.
  • The central pillar, with various patterned shafts and brackets supporting the central platform appears to be based on a wooden Gujarati derivative. Mythical animals can be seen on the friezes outside.
  • The plan of this building is rectangle with four chhatris on the roof.
  • has two stories from outside.
  • It is here that Akbar had representatives of different religions discuss their faiths and gave private audience.

Diwan-i Aam:

  • Hall of Public Audience where the ruler meets the general public.
  • It is a spacious rectangular courtyard surrounded by columns.

Ibadat Khana/ House of Worship:

  • It was a meeting house built in 1575 CE by the Mughal Emperor Akbar, where the foundations of a Syncretistic faith, Din-e-llahi were laid by Akbar.

Anup Talao:

  • In front of the Emperor’s palace was the Anup Talao with a platform in the centre.
  • It was a pool with a central platform and four bridges leading up to it.
  • This was the place where Akbar sometimes held philosophical debates or organized musical parties. A double-storied palace nearby.
  • At a corner of the Anup Talao is small square building of red sand stone the walls of which are beautifully carved. This is miscalled Turkish Sultana’s house (Hujra-l Anup Talao) for no queen could have lived in such a public place.

Khwab-gah (House of Dreams):

  • The courtyard behind the Diwan-i-Am led to the Emperor’s double storeyed palace or khwab-gah, Akbar’s residence, which was screened off from the public buildings by a wall which has been demolished.
373
Q

Mughal Architecture: Akbar: “represents the finest example of fusion of Indo-Islamic Architecture”?

A
  • Combined the Pre-Turkish technique- Trabeate with the Arcuate, that was brought by the Sultanate rulers
  • Combined elements of Indo-Islamic Architecture
    • used red sandstone as the building material.
    • a widespread use of the trabeated construction.
    • arches used mainly in decorative form rather than in structural form.
    • dome was of the ‘Lodi’ type, sometimes built hollow but never technically of the true double order.
    • the decoration comprised of boldly carved or inlaid. patterns complemented by brightly coloured patterns on the interiors.
  • Humayun’s Tomb
    • The Double Dome first used in Humayun’s tomb was a erpresentative of an Indian rendition of a Persian concept
    • Akbar brought many Persian craftsmen to Delhi to work on this structure. eg. chief architect was Mirak Mirza Ghiyas (a native of Persia), who had come along with humayun
    • Persian influence also seen in the arrangement of rooms
    • The Indian feature was the entire building being placed in a formal garden with a large gate.
    • The dome was supported by slender minaraets which was a feature of the Gujarat style of architecture.
    • Graceful kiosks (a small, separated pavilion open on some or all sides) were a familiar feature in Rajasthan.
  • Agra fort:
    • Akbari Mahal was once known as the Bengali Mahal, owing its name to the Bengali designs used in the Mahal.
    • Jahangiri Mahal is a fine specimen of the fusion of the Hindu and Islamic building designs
    • The palace is said to have been based on the Man Mandir in Gwaliyar fort, and has many Rajasthani features, such as the heavy red sand stone brackets and balconies, carved with peacock and serpent motifs. The walls and staircase carry geese, flamingos and lotus carvings, as also figures of mythical animals, such as winged dragons, half elephants, birds etc.
  • Jami Masjid
    • row of chhatri is a distinguisjing feature
  • Jodha Bai Palace
    • The bases, columns, and capitals are borrowed from the traditional type of temple pillars. It also has a chapel or puja room.
374
Q

Mughal Architecture: new features under Jahangir and Shahjahan?

A

With the consolidation of the empire, the Mughal architecture reached its climax.

  • Towards the end of Jahangir’s reign began the practice of putting up buildings entirely of marble and decorating the walls with floral designs made of semi-precious stones.
  • This method of decoration called Pietra dura was used in the small, but slender tomb of Itimad-ud-Daula built during Jahangir’s reign.
  • Marble took the place of red sandstone (so it is called age of marble) during period of Jahangir and Shah Jahan. This dictated significant stylistic changes:
  • The arch adopted a distinctive form with foliated curves usually with nine cusps;
  • Marble arcades of engrailed arches became a common feature.
  • The dome developed a bulbous form with stifled neck. Double domes became very common.
  • Inlaid patterns in coloured stones became the dominant decorative form
  • In the buildings, from the latter half of the Jahangir’s reign, a new device of inlay decoration called pietra dura was adopted. In this method, semi-precious stones such as lapis lazuli, onyx, jasper, Topaz and cornelian were embedded in the marble in graceful foliations.
375
Q

Mughal Architecture: Jahangir?

A
  • Jahangir was a much greater patron of the art of painting and he was not a notable builder.
  • His love of flowers and animals as reflected in the miniature painting of his period, made him a great lover of the art of laying out gardens rather than building huge monuments.
  • Jahangir also built Mughal gardens: the Shalimar Gardens and Nishat Bagh, in Kashmir, and their accompanying pavilions on the shore of Dal Lake in Kashmir.
  • Under Jahangir the Hindu features became lesser in the style; his great mosque at Lahore is in the Persian style, covered with enameled tiles.
  • At Agra, the tomb of Itmad-ud-Daula, which was completed in 1628, was built entirely of white marble and covered in pietra dura mosaic.
  • He also built a monument to his pet deer, Hiran Minar in Sheikhupura, Pakistan and due to his great love for his wife, after his death she went on to build his mausoleum in Lahore.
376
Q

Mughal Architecture: Jahangir: major buildings?

A
  1. Begum Shahi mosque
  2. TOmb of I’timad ud Daulah
  3. Tomb of Akbar
377
Q

Mughal Architecture: Jahangir: Begum Shahi Mosque?

A
  1. in Lahore
  2. built during the reign of Mughal Emperor Jahangir in honour of his mother, and is Lahore’s earliest surviving example of a Mughal-era mosque
378
Q

Mughal Architecture: Jahangir: Tomb of I’timād-ud-Daulah?

A
  • The tomb of I’timād-ud-Daulah, is a mausoleum in the city of Agra
  • Built by Nur Jahan for her father Mirza ghiyas Beg
  • marks a change in architectural style from Akbar to Jahangir and Shah Jahan. The transition from the robustness of Akbar’s buildings to a more sensuous architecture of the later period is evident in the conception of this structure.
  • Often described as a “jewel box”, sometimes called the “Bachcha Taj”, as the tomb of I’timād-ud-Daulah is often regarded as a draft of the Taj Mahal.
  • The tomb is a square structure raised on a low platform. There are four octagonal minarets, at each corner, with graceful cupolas.
  • Like his own tomb started by Akbar but finished by Jahangir, it had no dome, but only a small cloister on the flat roof decorated with varigated design of perforated screens.
  • The main tomb is built in white marble and is embellished with mosaics and pietra dura.
  • Four red sandstone gateways enclosing a square garden.
379
Q

Mughal Architecture: Shahjahan?

A
  • Rather than building huge monuments like his predecessors to demonstrate their power, Shah Jahan built elegant monuments.
  • He preferred delicate elegance and refinement of detail, illustrated in the palaces erected during his reign at Agra, Delhi and Lahore.
  • eg, position and architecture of Jama Masjid and Moti Masjid have been carefully considered so as to produce a pleasing effect and feeling of spacious elegance and well-balanced proportion of parts.
  1. Taj Mahal
  2. Wazir Khan mosque
  3. Shalimar Gardens
  4. Shah Jahan Mosque
  5. Shahi Hammam
  6. Moti Masjid
  7. Jama Masjid
  8. Red fort
380
Q

Mughal Architecture: Jahangir: Tomb of Akbar?

A
  • Located at Sikandra, eight kilometers from the Agra on Delhi road.
  • It was designed by Akbar himself and begun in his own lifetime but remained incomplete at the time of his death. Subsequently, it was completed by Jahangir with modifications in the original design.
  • It is a curious mix of the architectural schemes of both Akbar and Jahangir.
  • Tomb is located in the midst of an enclosed garden.
  • A square structure built up in three stories.
  • The gateway is ornamented with painted stucco-coloured stone and marble
  • Materials = Red sandstone + stucco-coloured stone + marble.
  • The decorative motifs include, besides the traditional floral designs, arabesques and calligraphy, gaja (the elephant) -hamsa (the swan) padma (the lotus), swastika and chakra. •
  • The architectural importance of Akbar’s tomb at Sikandra can be gauged from the fact that several mausoleums built subsequently reflect the influence of this structure to varying degree. e.g. The tomb of Jahangir at Shahadara near Lahore and of Nur Jahan’s father Mirza Ghiyas Beg at Agra(i.e tomb of Itimadud Daula).
381
Q

Mughal Architecture: Shahjahan: Taj Mahal?

A
  • WHS
  • built between 1630–49 by the emperor Shah Jahan in memory of his wife Mumtaz Mahal
  • Its construction took 22 years and required 22,000 laborers and 1,000 elephants, at a cost of 32 million rupees. (corresponding to US$ 827 million in 2015)
  • It is a large, white marble structure standing on a square plinth and consists of a symmetrical building with an iwan (an arch-shaped doorway) topped by a large dome and finial.
  • Parchin kari i.e. Pietra Dura, a method of decoration on a large scale-inlaid work of jewels and Jali work has been used to decorate the structure.
382
Q

Mughal Architecture: Shahjahan: Wazir Khan Mosque?

A

in Lahore

Considered to be the most ornately decorated Mughal-era mosque,

Wazir Khan Mosque is renowned for its intricate faience (glaze) tile work known as kashi-kari, as well as its interior surfaces that are almost entirely embellished with elaborate Mughal-era frescoes.

The mosque has been under extensive restoration since 2009 under the direction of the Aga Khan Trust for Culture and the Government of Punjab

383
Q

Mughal Architecture: Shahjahan: Shalimar Gardens?

A

It is a Mughal garden complex located in Lahore

The gardens date from the period when the Mughal Empire was at its artistic and aesthetic zenith.

In 1981 the Shalimar Gardens were inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site as they embody Mughal garden design at the apogee of its development

384
Q

Mughal Architecture: Shahjahan: Shah Jahan Mosuqe?

A

The Shah Jahan Mosque is the central mosque for the city of Thatta, in the Pakistani province of Sindh. The mosque commissioned by Shah Jahan, who bestowed it to the city as a token of gratitude.

Its style is heavily influenced by Central Asian Timurid architecture, which was introduced after Shah Jahan’s campaigns near Balkh and Samarkand.

The mosque is considered to have the most elaborate display of tile work in South Asia, and is also notable for its geometric brick work - a decorative element that is unusual for Mughal-period mosques

385
Q

Mughal Architecture: Shahjahan: Shahi Hammam?

A

Shahi Hammam is a Persian-style bath which was built in Lahore, Pakistan, in 1635 C.E. during the reign of Emperor Shah Jahan.

It was built by chief physician to the Mughal Court, Ilam-ud-din Ansari, who was widely known as Wazir Khan.

The baths were built to serve as a waqf, or endowment, for the maintenance of the Wazir Khan Mosque

386
Q

Mughal Architecture: Shahjahan: Moti Masjid?

A

located in Lahore fort

structure built by Mughal emperor Jahangir and modified by the architects of Shah Jahan, and is among his prominent extensions (such as Sheesh Mahal and Naulakha pavilion) to the Lahore Fort Complex

After the Mughal Empire, the mosque was converted into a Sikh temple and renamed Moti Mandir during the period of the Sikh rule under Ranjit Singh’s Sikh Confederacy

completely made up of white marble

387
Q

Mughal Architecture: Shahjahan: Jama Masjid?

A
  • built by the Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan between 1650 and 1656
  • it served as the imperial mosque of the Mughal emperors until the demise of the empire in 1857
  • was called ‘Masjid-i-Jehān-Numā’ by Shahjahan
  • The mosque is located within the historic city of Shahjahanabad, today known as the locality of Old Delhi. Across from the mosque are the Red Fort and Sunehri Masjid
  • The tomb of Abul Kalam Azad, Indian independence activist, is located adjacent to the mosque
  • At the time of its construction, it was the largest mosque in the Indian subcontinent.
  • Shah Jahan claimed that the mosque was modelled after the Jama Masjid of Fatehpur Sikri, and this is reflected in the design of many exterior features, such as the facade and courtyard. However, the interior of the mosque more closely resembles the Jama Masjid in Agra
  • The mosque predominantly uses red sandstone, and is set apart from its predecessors by a more extensive usage of white marble. Black marble also features as a decorative element
388
Q

Mughal Architecture: Shahjahan: Red fort?

A

Red fort complex designated as WHS

Emperor Shah Jahan commissioned construction of the Red Fort on 12 May 1638, when he decided to shift his capital from Agra to Delhi. Served as main residence of Mughal Emperors.

Originally red and white, its design is credited to architect Ustad Ahmad Lahori, who also constructed the Taj Mahal.

The fort represents the peak in Mughal architecture under Shah Jahan, and combines Persianate palace architecture with Indian traditions.

The fort lies along the Yamuna River, which fed the moats surrounding most of the walls

Unlike other Mughal forts, the Red Fort’s boundary walls are asymmetrical to contain the older Salimgarh Fort.

Aurangzeb, added the Moti Masjid (Pearl Mosque) to the emperor’s private quarters

The fort was plundered of its artwork and jewels during Nadir Shah’s invasion of the Mughal Empire in 1739.

Most of the fort’s marble structures were subsequently demolished by the British following the Indian Rebellion of 1857. 80% of the fort’s buildings were demolished as a result of this effort. Later Lord Curzon ordered repairs to the fort including reconstruction of the walls and the restoration of the gardens complete with a watering system

Archaeological excavations at Red fort have unearthed several Ochre Coloured Pottery culture artifacts dating from 2600 BCE to 1200 BCE

389
Q

Mughal Architecture: Aurangzeb?

A

In Aurangzeb’s reign (1658–1707) squared stone and marble was replaced by brick or rubble with stucco ornament.

Srirangapatna and Lucknow have examples of later Indo-Mughal architecture.

He made additions to the Lahore Fort and also built one of the thirteen gates which were later named after him (Alamgir).

  1. Badshahi Mosque
  2. Bibi Ka Maqbara
390
Q

Mughal Architecture: Aurangzeb: Badshahi Mosque?

A

Constructed between 1671 and 1673, it was the largest mosque in the world upon construction. It is the third-largest mosque in Pakistan and the seventh-largest mosque in the world.

The mosque is adjacent to the Lahore Fort and is the last in the series of congregational mosques in red sandstone.

The red sandstone of the walls contrasts with the white marble of the domes and the subtle intarsia decoration.

Aurangzeb’s mosque’s architectural plan is similar to that of his father, Shah Jahan, the Jama Masjid in Delhi; though it is much larger.

It also functions as an idgah. The courtyard which spreads over 276,000 square feet, can accommodate one hundred thousand worshippers; ten thousand can be accommodated inside the mosque.

The mosque suffered greatly under the reign of Maharaja Ranjit Singh.

391
Q

Mughal Architecture: Bibi Ka Maqbara?

A

Bibi Ka Maqbara was a mausoleum built by Emperor Aurangzeb, in the late 17th century as a loving tribute to his first wife, Dilras Bano Begum in Aurangabad, Maharashtra. Some accounts suggest that later it was taken care by Azam Shah, son of aurangzeb.

It is a replica of the Taj Mahal, and was designed by Ata-Ullah, the son of Ahmed Lahori, who was the principal designer of the Taj Mahal.

392
Q

Marathas: Shivaji?

A
  • Shivaji was born in 1627. In fort of Shivneri
  • He was the son of Shahji Bhonsle and Jija Bai.
  • Shivaji inherited the Jagir of Poona from his father in 1637.
  • After the death of his guardian, Dadaji Kondadev, in 1647, he assumed full charge of his Jagir.
  • His guru was Ramdas Samrath
  • He conquered many Forts viz.,Singh Garh/ Kondana (1643), Rohind and Chakan (1644-45), Toran (1646), Purandhar (1648), Rajgarh/ Raigarh (1656), Supa (1656), Panhala (1659).
  • In 1657 Shivaji first confronted the Mughals, talking advantage of the Mughal invasion of Bijapur, he raided Ahamadnagar and plundered Junnar.
  • In 1659-60, Afzal Khan was deputed by Adil Shah of Bijapur to punish Shivaji; but the later Afzal Khan was murdered by Shivaji in 1659. The famous ―baghnakh‖ episode is related with the death of Afzal Khan.
  • In 1660, Shaista Khan, governor of Deccan, was deputed by Aurangzeb to check Marathas. Shivaji lost Poona, Kalyan and Chakan also suffered several defeats till he made a bold attack on Shaista Khan(1663) and plundered Surat (1664) and later Ahmadnagar.
  • Raja Jai Singh of Amber and Diler Khan were then appointed by Aurangzeb to curb the rising power of Shivaji in 1665.
  • Jai Singh succeeded in besieging Shivaji in the fort of Purandhar. Consequently the treaty of Purandhar (1665) was signed according to which Shivaji ceded some forts to the Mughals and paid a visit to the Mughal court at Agra.
  • 1666, Shivaji visited Agra but there he was insulted.
  • 1670, Shivaji captured most of the forts lost by the treaty of Purandhar.
  • 1674 Shivaji was coroneted at capital Raigarh and assumed the title of Haindava Dharmodharak (Protector of Hinduism).
  • After that Shivaji continued the struggle with Mughals and Siddis (Janjira). He conquest Karnataka during 1677-80.
  • His last expedition was against Ginjee and Vellore.
393
Q

Marathas: administration: features?

A
  1. He employed members of all castes and tribes to maintain balance among them.
  2. He assigned separate responsibilities to the ministers and each of them was made responsible for his work to him.
  3. He made no office hereditary.
  4. In general he did not assign jagirs to his civil and military officers.
  5. He gave special attention towards the administration of the forts.
  6. In matters of administration, he gave superior position to his civil officers as compared to military officers.
  7. He established Ryotwari system in revenue administration. The state kept direct contact with the farmers.
  8. Shivaji took special care to make his administrative system responsive to the needs of the people. In the words of Dr. Ishwari Prasad, “The institutions which he established were an improvement upon the existing order and were well adapted to the well-being of his subjects.”
394
Q

Marathas: administration: central administration?

A

The administration was divided into eight departments headed by ministers who are some times called “Ashta pradhan.” They are-

  • Peshwa= the finance and general administration.
  • Sari naubat = senapati
  • Majumdar= Accounts
  • Waqai navis or Mantri = intelligence and household affairs.
  • Surnavis or Sachiv or Chitnis = official correspondence
  • Dabir or sumant = foreign minister
  • Nyayadish = justice
  • Pandit rao = religious affairs.
  • Apart from the departmental duties, three of the ministers- Peshwas, Sachiva and the Mantri were also given incharge of extensive provinces.
  • All ministers, except the Panditrao and the Nyayadish, had to serve in a war whenever necessary.
395
Q

Marathas: administration: provincial and local administration?

A
  • Shivaji divided entire territory into three provinces, each under a viceroy.
  • The provinces weredivided into Prants. The Prants were under the charge of the subedar.
  • Over a number of Subedar, there were Sarsubedar to control and supervise the work of the subedar.
  • Smaller than prant wereParganas and Tarafs which were headed by a havaldar.
  • There were Mauzas or villages which were the lowest unit of administration, headed by its headman or Patel.
396
Q

Marathas: administration: revenue administration?

A
  • Shivaji abolished the Jagirdari System and replaced with Ryotwari System, and changes in the position of hereditary revenue officials which was popularly known as Deshmukhs, Deshpande, Patils and Kulkarnis.
  • Shivaji strictly supervised the Mirasdars who had hereditary rights in land.
  • The revenue system was patterned on the Kathi system of Malik Amber. According to this system, every piece of land was measured by Rod or Kathi.
  • Chauth and Sardeshmukhi were other sources of income
    • Chauth and Sardeshmukhi were taxes collected by Marathas.
    • Chauth was paid to the Marathas so as not be subjected to Maratha raids. 1/4th of the standard tax
    • Sardeshmukhi was an additional levy of 10% on those lands of Maharashtra over which the Maratha claimed hereditary rights, but which formed part of the Mughal Empire.
    • Historians differ as to the exact nature of these two taxies levied by Shivaji. According to Ranade, ‘Chauth’ was not merely a military contribution without any moral or legal obligation but a payment in lieu of protection against the invasion of a third power and he compares it with Wellesley’s Subsidiary Alliance System. Sardesai holds that it was a tribute exacted from hostile or conquered territories.
  • Marathi became the official language.
  • Land in every village was measured and the produce was roughly assessed. On the basis of assessment, the cultivators were asked to pay 40 per cent of their produce as land revenue. The farmers had the option to pay land revenue in cash or kind. The peasants could pay the revenue in installments.
  • The accounts of the revenue officers began to be thoroughly checked.
  • In the event of famine of natural calamity, the state offered loans to the peasants.
397
Q

Marathas: administration: Military administration?

A

Shivaji organised a disciplined and efficient army. The ordinary soldiers were paid in cash, but big chief and military commander were paid through jagir grants (Saranjam or Mokasa).

Military Personnel

  • Sar-i-Naubat (Senapati)- Incharge of army
  • Qiladars- Officers of Forts
  • Nayak- Head of the member unit of infantry
  • Havaldar- Head of five Nayaks
  • Jumladar- Head of five Nayaks
  • Ghuraw- Boats laden with guns
  • Gallivat- Rowing boats 40-50 rowers
  • Paik- Foot Soldiers

The army was effective instrument of policies of Marathas State where rapidity of movement was the most important factors. Only in the rainy season, the army get rested otherwise rest of the year was engaged in expeditions.

He maintained a regular army. In the traditional military organisation, the soldiers served army for six months and thereafter, they worked in their fields. Now the soldiers were to serve around the year.

Pindaries were allowed to accompany the army who were allowed to collect “Pal-Patti” which was 25% of war booty.

398
Q

Marathas: administration: religious policy?

A

Shivaji was a cultured and a tolerant Hindu ruler. He proclaimed to be the protector of the Hindus, the Brahmans and the cows. He showed respect to religious texts of all religions. He did not destroy a single mosque. He protected Muslim ladies and children even during the course of war.

He gave financial help to Muslim scholars and saints. He employed Muslims in civil and military departments. When Aurangzeb issued a fresh order reimposing the jizya on all the Hindu population, it was an open challenge as much to Shivaji as to many Rajput chiefs.

Shivaji wrote a strong letter of protest to Aurangzeb. He wrote “God is the Lord of all men and not of the Muhammadans only. Islam and Hinduism are only different pigments used by the Divine Painter to picture the human species.” At the same time Shivaji was never actuated by a hatred of the Muslims. He respected the personal honour of a Muslim.

399
Q

Babur?

A
  1. He was a descendant of Timur (from the side of his father) and Chengiz Khan (from the side of his mother),
  2. 1526- Defeated Ibrahim Lodi - Battle of Painpat
  3. 1527- Defeated Rana Sanga of Mewar- Battle of Khanwa
  4. 1528- Defeated Medini Rai- Battle of Chanderi
  5. 1529- Defeated Muhammad Lodi- at Ghaghra
  6. 1530- Died at Agra. Tomb at Kabul
  7. Military innovations- He adopted Tughluma and flanking party system and was the first to use gunpowder and artillery in India.
  8. wrote Tuzuk-i-Babri in Turkish, i which he gives an excellent account of India
    1. translated into Baburnama by Abdul rahim Khanekhana
    2. translated into English by Madam Bevridge
  9. He compiled two anthologies of poems, Diwan in Turki and Mubaiyan in Persia
  10. Also wrote Risal-i-Usaz or letters of Babur
400
Q

Humayun

A

1530-40 and 1555-56

(period- KHA-Chausa and Belgram-DinPanah-buried in Delhi- Lane Poole-Humayunama-Insanekamil)

  1. His succession was challenged by his brothers Kamran, Hindal and Askari alongwith the Afghans.
  2. He fought two battles against Sher Shah at Chausa (1539) and at Kannauj/Bilgram (1540) and was completely defeated by him.
  3. After Sher Shah’s death Humayun invaded India in 1555 and defeated his brothers the Afghans. He once again became the ruler of India.
  4. He died while climbing down the stairs of his library (at Din Panah) in 1556 and was buried in Delhi. British orienatalist Lane Poole remarked on Humayun’s misfortune: “Humayun tumbled through life, and he tumbled out of it”.
  5. His sister, Gulbadan Begum, wrote his biography Humayunama.
    • He built Din Panah at Delhi as his second capital.
  7. His peaceful personality, patience and non-provocative methods of speech earned him the title of Insan-i-Kamil (Perfect Man), among the Mughals
401
Q

Sur Empire?

A

1540-55

  1. Sher Shah: 1540-45
  2. Islam Shah: 1545-54
  3. Muhammad Adil Shah 1554-55
402
Q

Sher Shah: becoming emperor and military conquests?

A
  1. Originally called Farid Khan, He was the son of Hasan Khan, the Jagirdar of Sasaram Ibrahim Lodhi transferred his father’s jagir to him.
  2. In 1527-28, he joined Babur’s service and then returned to South Bihar as deputy governor
  3. Sher Shah usurps throne as Hazarat-i-Ala. He gained Chunar by marrying Lad Malika, the widow of governor of Chunar Fort. (imp: siege of Chunar fort by Humayun)
  4. Defeated Humayun in decisive battles at Chausa (1539) and Bilgram near Kannauj (1540)
  5. As an emperor, he conquested Malwa (1542), Ranthambhor (1542), Raisin (1543), Rajputana- annexation of Marwar (1542), Chittor (1544) and Kalinjar (1545). He died in 1545 while conquesting Kalinjar. His empire consisted of the whole of North India except Assam, Nepal, Kashmir and Gujarat.
403
Q

Sher Shah: Central Administration?

A

(WARI)

  1. The central government consisted of several departments. The king was assisted by four important ministers
    1. Diwan-i-Wazarat: aka Wazir- incharge of revenue and finance
    2. Diwan i Ariz- in charge of army
    3. Diwan i Risalat- Foreign min
    4. Diwan i Insha- Ministr for Comm
  2. Tarikh-i-Sher Shahi (History of Sher Shah), written by Abbas Khan Sarwani, a waqia-navis under later Mughal Emperor, Akbar around 1580, provides a detailed documentation about Sher Shah’s administration
404
Q

Sher Shah: Provincial Administration?

A

(In Her Account-are Sixty Seven Million-Paid via Social Media-as she’s a Great Magic Artist)

  1. Iqta- Province- Haqim and Amin (land revenue)
  2. Sarkar- District- Shiqdar-i-Shiaqdaran and Munsif-i-Munsifan
  3. Pargana- Taluka- Shiqdar (law & order and collection of land revenue) and Munsif (judge/measured land for revenue collection); Fotedar (treasurer) and Karkun (accountant)
  4. Gram - Village- Muqaddam (village headman) and Amil
405
Q

Sher Shah: Land Revenue system?

A

(Measurement-Wages-Multan-Classesofland-⅓rd-Cashorkind-pattendqubuliat-welfare-bandobast-ryotwari)

(M-W-M-C-3-CK-PQ-W-B-R)

(Meri Wife ne Marriage ki Cd ke 3 tukde kr diye. offered me Cash ya dusri cd, maine Phir Question kiya usse for this, after Which she Beat me with Revolver)

  • As a monarch, he unilatereally decided that the best system of assessment must be based on actual measurement.
  • According, the empire was surveyed. In order to ensure the accuracy of measurement and honestry of collection he fixed the wages of the measurers and the collectors.
  • The uniform system of measurement in spite of strong opposition from some quarters, was enforced all over the empire, with the exception of Multan where political turmoil could endanger the security of the State.
  • the revenue on perishable articles was fixed in cash rates, but for all the principal staple crops, the land was classified into three classes-good, middling and bad. After the average produce of the three was added, one-third of the total was taken as the average produce of each bigha for revenue purposes. It could be paid in cash or in kind though the former mode was preferred.
  • In case of cash payments, the state demand was fixed according to the prices prevalent in the near markets and a schedule of crop of crop rates was preserved indicating the method and the rates of assessment.
  • The state gave a patta to each cultivator, which specified the state demand. The cultivator was also obliged to sign a qabuliat (deed of agreement) promising to honour the revenue due from him. Both the documents contained information on the size of the plot.
  • Sher Shah was the first ruler who considered the welfare of the people as essential for the interests of the state. He was benign in times of drought and famine. The state, under such circumstances, would lend money and material to the cultivators. He instructed the army not to damage any crops and in any damage, to adquately compensate.
  • Sher Shah’s revenue settlement has been unanimously acclaimed. And it has been contended hat it provided the basis for Todar Mal’s bandobust in Akbar’s reign, as also for the Ryotwari system in British India
406
Q

Sher Shah: coins and currency?

A

(Debased-trimetalism-rupya-muhar-paisa-FaridaldinSherShah)

He removed the currency which had debased under the later Turko-Afghan regimes and instead issued well executed coins of gold, Silver and Copper of a uniform standard.

The system of tri-metalism which came to characterise Mughal coinage was introduced by Sher Shah. While the term rūpya had previously been used as a generic term for any silver coin, during his rule the term rūpee came to be used as the name for a silver coin of a standard weight of 178 grains, which was the precursor of the modern rupee. Gold coins called the Mohur weighing 169 grains and copper coins called Paisa were also minted by his government

Sher Khan had assumed the royal title of Farid al-Din Sher Shah and had coins struck in his own name even before the battle of Chausa

407
Q

Sher Shah: trade facilitation?

A

(custom-dutyfree-HW-treesndwells-sarais-cantontments-muqaddams)

  • He did away with all the internal custom duties with the exception of the two. These two duties were charged at the time of entry of the goods in the kingdom and at the time of the actual sale.
  • Foreign goods were permitted to enter Bengal duty free.
  • Sher Shah paid special attention to the safety and convenience of the merchants.
  • He also improved communications by building several highways.
    • He built the Grand Trunk Road (G.T. Road) that runs from Calcutta to Peshawar.
    • 4 HWs - Sonargaon-Sind; Agra-Burhanpur; Jodhpur-Chittaur; Lahore-Multan
    • Along both sides of these roads, Sher Shah ordered the planting of fruit trees and the sinking of fresh wells.
    • built sarais (rest houses). Soon, the Serais functioned as post offices and marketing centres and Sher Shah posted news-readers in the various Serais to keep abreast of the local gossip.
  • He set up cantonment in various parts of his empire and strong garrison was posted in each cantonments.
  • He introduced the principle of local responsibility for local crimes. Muqaddams were punished for failure to find culprits.
408
Q

Sher Shah: Art and Architecture?

A

(Rohtas-Patna-PuranaQila-Kuhna-octagon-sasaram-Padmavati)

  1. Sher Shah built several monuments including Rohtas Fort (now a UNESCO World Heritage Site in Pakistan), many structures in the Rohtasgarh Fort in Bihar, the Sher Shah Suri Masjid in Patna, the Qila-i-Kuhna mosque inside the Purana Qila complex in Delhi, and the Sher Mandal, an octagonal building also inside the Purana Qila complex, which later served as the library of Humayun
  2. He also built a Mausoleum at Sasaram, which is considered as one of the master pieces of Indian architecture
  3. Malik Muhammad Jayasi wrote the famous Hindi work Padmavat during his reign
409
Q

Akbar: about?

A
  1. 1556-1605
  2. born 1542
  3. ascended throne at 14, in 1556, at Kalanaur, PJ
  4. In 2nd battle of Panipat, Bairam Khan (wakil, Khan-i-Khanan) defeated Hemu, the HIndu general of Muhammad Adil Shah, the last remaining Afghan noble.
  5. ended regency of Bairam Khan in 1560
  6. 1560-62 Petticoat govt since under influence of Maham Anga and Adham Khan Junta
  7. died in 1605; buried at Sikandara near Agra
410
Q

Akbar: dealings with Rajputs?

A
  1. married harakha Bai, daughter of Bharmal, Kutchhwaha Rajput ruler of Amer, capital Jaipur, in 1562
  2. Battle of Haldighati in 1576: Mughal army led by man singh defeated Rana Pratap of Mewar (son of Rana Uday Singh)
411
Q

Akbar: Din-i-Ilahi?

A
  • 1581
  • H+I+J+C
  • did not recognize prophet
  • Birbal only HInud to have converrted
412
Q

Akbar: religious policy?

A
  • influences on his religious policy- his early contacts with the sufi saints, the teachings of his tutor Abdul Latif, his marriage with Rajput women, his association with intellectual giants like Shaikh Mubarak and his two illustrious sons – Abul Faizi and Abul Fazl – and his ambition to establish an empire in Hindustan.
  • Ban on forcible conversion of war prisoners into slaves- 1562
  • abolition of pilgriage tax- 1563
  • abolition of jiziya- 1564
  • Ibadatkhana-built in 1575
  • parliament of Religions in Ibadatkhana - 1578
  • Mahzar- 1579
    • Akbar issued a Declaration or Mahzar aka “infallibility decree”.
    • He removed the Chief Preacher at Fatehpur Sikri and himself mounted the Pulpit of Jama Masjid, Fatehpur Sikri on June 22, 1579 and read the Khutba in his own names as the prophet and caliphs.
    • The Khutba was prepared by Sheikh Mubarak and composed in verse by Faizi.
    • Mahzar was signed by all the prominent Muslim theologians and divines of the Mughal empire.
    • As instituted under the Mahzar, it was decided that Akbar would have the right to be the supreme arbiter or interpreter of Islamic laws, and he could decide in the matter of differing opinions on all religious questions.
  • Ilahi Samvat introduced in 1584
413
Q

Akbar: conquests?

A
  1. 1560-62- Malwa- baz Bahadur
  2. 1561- Chunar- Afghans
  3. 1564- Gondwana (Gadh Katanga)- Rani Durgavati, regent of Bir Narayan and widow of Dalpat Shah
  4. 1568-Chittor- Rana UDay Singh
  5. 1569- Ranthambore- Surjan Hada
  6. 1570-Marwar- Chandrasena, Kalyanmal
  7. 1572- GJ-Bahadur Shah
  8. 1574-76- Bengal-Bihar- Daud Khan Karrani
  9. 1576- Haldighati-Rana Pratap
  10. 1581- Kabul-Mirza Hakim
  11. 1586- Kashmir- Yusuf Khan and Yakub Khan
  12. 1590- Sindh- Jani Beg Mirza
  13. 1591-Khadesh- Ali Khan
  14. 1595- Baluchistan- Yusufzai tribes
  15. 1597-1600- Ahmednagar- Chand Bibi, regent of Bahadur Shah
414
Q

Navratna of Akbar?

A
  1. Birbal- administrator- killed by Yusufzai tribe in 1586
  2. Abul Fazl- scholar and statesman-was murdered by Bir Singh Bundela in 1601
  3. Faizi Fazl- scholar and statesman
  4. Toadrmal- Fin MIn; Dahsala Bandobast and Jabti
  5. Bhagwandas- Mansabdar; son of Bharmal
  6. Man Singh- Mansabdar; Grandson of Bharmal
  7. Tansen
  8. Abdur Rahim Khanekhana- Hindi poet
  9. Mulla do Pyaaza
415
Q

Akbar land rvenue system?

A
  • The land revenue system of Akbar was called Zabti or Bandobast system.
  • It was further improved by Raja Todar Mal. It was known as Dahsala System which was completed in 1580.
  • By this system, Todar Mal introduced a uniform system of land measurement.
  • The revenue was fixed on the average yield of land assessed on the basis of past ten years.
  • The land was also divided into four categories – Polaj (cultivated every year), Parauti (once in two years), Chachar (once in three or four years) and Banjar (once in five or more years).
  • Payment of revenue was made generally in cash.
416
Q

Akbar: Mansabdari system?

A
  • Under this system every officer was assigned a rank (mansab).
  • The lowest rank was 10 and the highest was 5000 for the nobles.
  • Princes of royal blood received even higher ranks.
  • The ranks were divided into two – zat and sawar.
    • Zat means personal and it fixed the personal status of a person.
    • Sawar rank indicated the number of cavalrymen of a person who was required to maintain.
    • Every sawar had to maintain at least two horses.
  • The mansab rank was not hereditary.
  • All appointments and promotions as well as dismissals were directly made by the emperor.
417
Q

Jahangir?

A

1605-1627

  1. 12 ordinances
  2. lover of justice
  3. marriage
  4. British rep
  5. Rajputs
  6. Deccan
  7. Revolts
  8. religious policy
418
Q

Jahangir: 12 ordinances?

A

Soon after accession to the throne, Jahangir tried to win the hearts of all the people by various measures.

i) Prohibition of cesses.
ii) Regulations about highway robbery and theft
iii) Free inheritance of property of deceased person
iv) Prohibition of sale of wine and of all kinds of intoxicating liquor
v) Abolition of inhuman corporal punishments
vi) Prohibition of forcible seizure of property
vii) Building of hospitals and appointment of physicians to attend the sick
viii) Prohibition of slaughter of animals on certain days
ix) Respect pay to Sunday
x) General confirmation of mansabs and jagirs
xi) Confirmation of aima lands i.e. lands devoted to the purposes of prayer and praise (of God)
xii) Amnesty to all prisoners in forts and prisons of all kinds.

419
Q

Jahangir: justice lover?

A

Jahangir also set up a famous chain of justice between the Shah Burj in the fort of Agra and a stone pillar fixed on the banks of Yamuna to enable the people to approach him without any servant.

420
Q

Jahangir: marriage?

A

In 1611, Jahangir married Mihar-un-nisa, widow of Sher Afghan, a Persian nobleman of Bengal. Later on she was given the title Nurjahan. Nurjahan exercised tremendous influence over the state affairs. She was made the official Padshah Begum. Jahangir issued coins jointly in Nurjahan’s name and his own.

Jahangir also married Manmati/Jagat Gosai/JodhaBai of Marwar and a Kachhwaha princess.

421
Q

Jahangir: British Rep?

A

John Hawkins resided at Agra for two years and the emperor called him Inglish Khan.

Sir Thomas Roe arrived in India in September A.D. 1615 and was granted audience at Ajmer. He was granted a Farman by prince Khurram (Shahjahan), which gave the English reasonable facilities for trade.

422
Q

Jahangir: Rajputs?

A

a political triumph of Jahangir was submission of Rana Amar singh of Mewar in 1615

423
Q

Jahangir: Deccan?

A

During the reign of Jahangir there was no addition to the Mughal territory in Deccan. In fact the Deccani rulers weakened the Mughal authority in their states.

Initially, managed to defeat Mughal forces and captured Berar, Balaghat and parts of Ahmednagar. The Mughals could not regain control of the lost territories. In alliance with Shahjahan, he made an attempt to capture Ahmednagar; but failing there, he took away Sholapur from Adil Shah.

Once peace was established between Jahangir and Shah Jahan. Malik Ambar was also pacified and ceded back the territory of Balaghat

424
Q

Jahangir: revolt?

A
  1. Main revolt was from Shahjahan i.e. Khurram
    1. lost Kandhar to Persians because of it.
  2. His son Khusrau, who received patronage of 5th Sikh Guru Arjun Dev, revolted against Jahangir (1605). Arjun Dev was later sentenced to death for his blessing to the rebel prince (1606).
  3. During his last period, Khurram (Shahjahan) and Mahavat Khan, military general of Jahangir also revolted (Khurram 1622-25 and Mahavat Khan: 1626-27).
425
Q

Jahangir: Religious POlicy?

A
  1. Jahangir was born of a Rajput mother and had grown in the atmosphere of ‘Idabat khana’ debates. The result was that Jahangir imbibed these liberal tendencies and his religious views became enlightened and liberal
  2. He was friendly to the Christians.
  3. He held religious discourses with a Hindu saint named Yadurup and participated in the celebration of Hindu festivals
  4. He did not seek to revive the Jizya or the Pilgrim Tax and the Hindus still occupied high office and enjoyed the freedom to erect new temples.
  5. But some of his acts reflects of his harshness and discrimination
    1. After the conquest of Kangra, he destroyed the local Jwalamukhi temple
    2. Similarly, he ordered destruction of the Varah temple at Pushkar near Ajmer because he was convinced that God could never have incarnated himself in that form.
    3. He suspected the Jains of having sided with Khusrau and on that ground banished them from empire.
    4. On the same charge, he imposed a fine of two lakhs of rupees on Guru Arjun and when he refused to pay the fine he put him to death on charge of treason.
    5. When offended by the conduct of Christians, he had their church closed down
426
Q

Nur Jahan?

A
  1. In 1611, Jahangir married Mehrunnisa who was known as Nur Jahan, widow of Sher Afghan, a Persian nobleman of Bengal.
  2. Mirza Ghiyas Beg, a Persian immigrant, father of Noor Jahan received the office of the imperial Dewan with the title of Itimad-Ud-Dula.
  3. Nur Jahan’s elder brother Asaf Khan was appointed as Khan-i-Saman, a post reserved for the nobles. In 1612, Asaf Khan’s daughter, Arjumand Banu Begum (later known as Mumtaj), married Jahangir’s third son, prince Khurram (later Shah Jahan).
  4. It was believed by some historians that Nur Jahan formed a group of “junta” and this led to two factions in the Mughal court. This drove Shah Jahan into rebellion against his father in 1622, since he felt that Jahangir was completely under Nur Jahan’s influence. She was a constant companion of Jahangir and even joined him in his hunting
  5. She encouraged Persian art and culture in the court
427
Q

Shahjahan: headings?

A
  1. about
  2. military conquests
  3. foreigners
  4. religious policy
  5. war of succession
428
Q

Shahjahan: about?

A

1627-1658

married Arzumand Bano in 1631, also called Mumtaj Mahal. Built Taj Mahal betn 1632-1653

429
Q

Shahjahan: military conquests?

A
  • Revolt in BUndelkhand led by Jujhar Singh Bundela 1628-35
  • Revolt by Khan Jahan Lodhi, Guv of Deccan 1629-31
  • Finally in 1636 treaties were signed with Bijapur and Golconda which ended the conflicts in the Deccan. Also Nizam Shahi’s dynasty of Ahmednagar was brought under Mughal control in 1633.
  • A distinct change in Mughal policy came towards 1656–57 when the treaties were ignored. Shah Jahan asked Aurangzeb to conquer and annex the territories of Deccan kingdoms. It is argued by some historians that this change of policy was to exploit resources of the Deccan states for Mughals. However, this change did not benefit the Mughal empire in any substantial way and created more problems for future
  • Shah Jahan launched a prolonged campaign in the northwest frontier to recover Kandahar and other ancestral lands. The Mughal army lost more than five thousand lives during the successive invasions between 1639 and 1647. Then Shah Jahan realized the futility of his ambition and stopped fighting.
430
Q

Shahjahan: foreigners?

A

Foreign travelers like Frenchmen Bernier, Travernier and Italian Manucci have left accounts about his reign. Peter Mundi described the famine during his reign

Shahjahan destroyed Portugese Hoogly settlement in 1632

431
Q

Shahjahan: religious policy?

A
  • Orthodox Muslims did not like the views of Akbar and Jahangir and there was some resentment among them. In his early years, a policy of religious persecution and religious discrimination in favour of Islam is clearly noticeable.
  • He stopped sijda, forbade the use of the royal portrait as an adornment to the cap or the turban and restored the use of the Hijri era in place of the Ilahi era.
  • In 1633 he ordered wholesale demolition of all newly built temples and in Benaras alone 72 temples were destroyed. Similarly, destruction took place in Allahabad, Gujarat and Kashmir.
  • He established a separate department for securing conversions to Islam. These incidents show that Akbar’s policy of religious liberty and equality was gradually being forsaken and religious discrimination, began under Jahangir, was gaining in virulence and scope.
  • But even under Shahjahan, there was no permanent adoption of religious persecution as an integral element of state policy. He too did not revive the Jizya.
  • During the later part of his reign there is no reference to temple destruction or any other form of religious persecution.
  • He continued Jharokha darshan (a daily practice of addressing the public audience (darshan) at the balcony (jharokha) at the forts; started by Akbar; it was contrary to Islamic injunctions), tula dan (practice of weighing the emperor in Gold; started by Akbar) and tilak.
  • Nor did he deprive the Hindus of high office. 20% to 25% of the higher mansabs were still given to the Hindus. Nor did he deprive the Hindu poets, artists and scholars of state patronage.
  • It thus appears that in his early years he issued certain orders and did certain acts on grounds of political expediency which proved harmful to certain individuals and localities. But he never adopted a general policy of discrimination, persecution and hatred and retained the affections of his Hindu subjects till the end of his reign.
432
Q

Shahjahan: war of succession?

A

chronological order:

War of Bahadurpur near Benares- Dara and Shah Shuja- 1658

War of Dharmat near Ujjain- Dara and Aurangzeb- 1658

War of Sumugarh near Agra- Dara and Aurangzeb- 1658- The decisive battle

War of Khajua near allahabad- Shah Shuja and Aurangzeb- 1658

War of Deorai near Ajmer- Dara and Aurangzeb- 1659- The last battle

433
Q

Aurangzeb: about?

A

1658-1707

He assumed the title Alamgir (World Conqueror).

In his private life, Aurangazeb was industrious and disciplined. He was very simple in food and dress. He did not consume wine. He was called Zinda Pir

He earned money for his personal expenses by copying Quran and selling those copies.

He was learned and proficient in Arabic and Persian languages. He was a lover of books.

He was devoted to his religion and conducted prayers five times a day. He strictly observed the Ramzan fasting.

In the political field, Aurangazeb committed serious mistakes. He misunderstood the true nature of the Maratha movement and antagonized them. Also, he failed to solve the Maratha problem and left an open sore. His policy towards Shia Deccan Sultanates also proved to be a wrong policy.

His religious policy was also not successful. Aurangazeb was an orthodox Sunni Muslim. But his move to apply his religious thought rigidly in a non-Muslim society was a failure. His antagonistic policies towards non-Muslims did not help him to rally the Muslims to his side.

He died in 1707 and was buried at Khuldabad i.e. Daulatabad

434
Q

Aurangzeb: policy in NOrth India?

A
  • During the first 23 years of the rule (1658-81) Aurangazeb concentrated on North India. During this period the Marathas under Shivaji rose to power and were a force to reckon with.
  • Revolts of Jats
  • Revolts of Bundelas
  • Revolts of Satnamis
  • Revolts of Sikhs
435
Q

Aurangzeb: policy in NOrth India: Jats?

A
  • In 1669 A.D. the Jats under their leader Gokul, revolted. They killed the Faujdar and plundered the Pargana of Sadabad. The rebellion soon spread to other districts.
  • Aurangzeb ruthlessly suppress the rebellion. Gokul and his limbs were publicly displayed.
  • The Jats, however, remained defiant and in 1686 A.D. once again rose in revolt, under Rajaram. He too, was slain but his nephew, Churaman, continued the Jat resistance till Aurangzeb’s death.
  • cause: Agrarian policy
436
Q

Aurangzeb: policy in NOrth India: Bundelas?

A

1671

led by CHampat Rai and Chhatrasal

cause: political and religious

437
Q

Aurangzeb: policy in NOrth India: Satnamis?

A
  • They were a peasant religious brotherbood who resided in Narnol. Its other memebrs belonged to the low professions.
  • when a Satnami cultivator was killed by a Muslim soldier, the whole tribe arose to seek to seek revenge and broke into rebellion.
  • When, of the Mughal efforts, they could not be quelled, the Mughals resorted to ruthless warfare.Over a thousand Satnamis were slain before peace was secured in the region.
  • The Jats and the Satnamis revolts only convinced Aurangzeb of the disloyalty of the Hindus to the Mughals state who therefore needed to be ruthlessly suppressed. Moreover, it also convinced him that only the emergence of an Islamic state would reduce the Hindus to their proper place in State.
438
Q

Aurangzeb: policy in NOrth India: Sikhs (along with a timeline of Mughal-Sikh rivalry)?

A
  1. The relations of Mughals with first 4 Sikh gurus were cordial. Akbar granted Guru Ram Das a piece of land which became renowned as Amritsar.
  2. 5th Guru Arjan Singh wielded the community into one compact whole. He also was the first Guru who actively participated in politics. Jahangir ordered Arjan Singh’s execution. This was done on purely grounds for sheltering the fugitive Khusrau and in no way was it accompanied by the religious persecution of the Sikhs. Nevertheless, the act deeply embittered the Sikhs against the Mughals
  3. Under the leader, Har Gobind, the character of the Sikh movement, for the first time, became more militant, while its democratic social set up attracted the Jat peasantry in large numbers. Henceforth, any harshness towards the peasantry was regarded as an oppression by the Mughal state towards the Sikhs. The military character was further developed under Guru Teg Bahadur
  4. In the earlier years of Aurangzeb’s reign, there was no conflict between Teg Bahadur and Aurangzeb. However once the Guru publicly condemned Aurangzeb’s anti-Hindu measures as is clearly evident from the support that he rendered to the Hindu population of Kashmir, Aurangzeb became suspicious of the Guru’s motives. Their relation rapidly deteriorated and ultimately resulted in the gruesome murder of Teg Bahadur in 1675 A.D.
  5. Guru Gobind Singh’s expansionist activities inevitably led ta a clash of arms with the Mughals. The Sikhs were defeated, his two sons were executed while the Guru ultimately escaped and settled at Anandpur. Guru Govind Singh was murdered by an Afghan in 1708 A.D.
439
Q

Aurangzeb: Deccan policy (along with some timeline of earlier Mughals in deccan)?

A
  • The Deccan policy of the Mughals started from the reign of Akbar, who conquered Khandesh and Berar. Jahangir fought against Malik Amber of Ahmadnagar. During the Shah Jahan’s reign, Aurangazeb, as governor of Deccan, followed an aggressive Deccan policy
  • During the first 23 years of the rule (1658-81) Aurangazeb concentrated on North India. During this period the Marathas under Shivaji rose to power and were a force to reckon with. Aurangzeb left the North in 1682 and for the next 25 years (1682-1707) made desperate bids to crush the Marathas.
  • Annexation of Bijapur
  • Annexation of Golconda
  • Maratha policy
440
Q

Aurangzeb: Deccan policy: Annexation of Bijapur?

A

defeated Sikander Shah of Bijapur in 1686

441
Q

Aurangzeb: Deccan policy: Annexation of Golconda?

A

Defeated Abul Hasan Kutub Shah in 1687

442
Q

Aurangzeb: Deccan policy: rivalry with marathas?

A
  1. Aurangzeb sent Shaista Khan, the viceroy of the Deccan, with a big army against Shivaji and the Treaty of Purandhar (1665) was signed between the two. Out of the 35 forts held by Shivaji, he agreed to surrender 23 forts to the Mughals. The remaining 12 forts (with annual income of one lakh of huns) were to be left with Shivaji
  2. Shivaji was asked to pay a visit to the Mughal court at Agra. But, when Shivaji went there, he was ill-treated and was taken a prisoner. He managed to escape, reaching Raigarh in 1666. Soon he conquered all the forts which he had surrendered to the Mughals
  3. In 1674, Shivaji made Raigarh his Capital and celebrated his coronation, and assumed the title of Chatrapati, effectively an independent monarch.
  4. He died at Raigarh in 1680 after ruling for only six years. He was succeeded by his son, Shambhaji, who was executed by Aurangzeb in 1689
  5. Sambhaji was succeeded by Rajaram as his son Sahu was still young. Rajaram died in 1700 and was succeeded by his minor son Shivaji III under the regency of Tara Bai, his mother. The failure of Aurangzeb against the Marathas was largely due to Tara Bai’s energy and administrative genius.
  6. The Mughals, however, succeeded in dividing the Marathas into two rival camps – one under Tara Bai and the other under Sambhaji’s son, Sahu. Sahu, who for long was in the Mughal court, was released. He succeeded in deposing Tara Bai with the help of a Chitpavan Brahman named Balaji Vishwanath.
443
Q

Aurangzeb: Religious policy?

A
  • Aurangazeb was a staunch and orthodox Muslim in his personal life.
  • His ideal was to transform India into an Islamic state.
  • He created a separate department to enforce moral codes under a high-powered officer called Muhtasib.
  • Drinking was prohibited.
  • Cultivation and use of bhang and other drugs were banned.
  • Aurangazeb forbade music in the Mughal court.
  • He discontinued the practice of Jarokha-darshan. Also banned Tuladan
  • banned Sati in 1663
  • He also discontinued the celebration of Dasarah and royal astronomers and astrologers were also dismissed from service.
  • Initially Aurangazeb banned the construction of new Hindu temples and repair of old temples. Then he began a policy of destroying Hindu temples. The celebrated temples at Mathura and Benares were reduced to ruins.
  • In 1679, he reimposed jiziya and pilgrim tax.
  • He was also not tolerant of other Muslim sects. The celebration of Muharram and Navroz was stopped.
  • He was also against the Sikhs and he executed the ninth Sikh Guru Tej Bahadur. This had resulted in the transformation of Sikhs into a warring community.
444
Q

Mughal Administration: Central ministers?

A
  1. Wakil and Wazir
  2. Diwan i Kul
  3. Mir Bakshi
  4. Sadr us Sudur
  5. Chief Qazi
  6. Mir Saman
445
Q

Mughal Administration: Central ministers: Wazir?

A
  • The institution of Wizarat (or Wikalat since both were used interchangeably) was present in some form during the Delhi Sultanate also. The position of Wazir had lost its prominent position during the period of Afghan rulers in the Delhi Sultanate.The position of the wazir was revived under the Mughals.
  • Babur’s and Humayun’s wazir enjoyed great powers.
  • The period during which Bairam Khan (1556–60) was regent of Akbar, saw the rise of wakil-wazir with unlimited powers.
  • Akbar in his determination to curb the powers of wazir later on took away the financial powers from him which was a big jolt to wazir’s power
446
Q

Mughal Administration: Central ministers: Diwan i Kul?

A
  • Diwan-i Kul was the chief diwan and was responsible for revenue and finances.
  • Akbar strengthened the office of diwan by entrusting the revenue powers to the diwan.
  • The diwan used to inspect all transaction and payments in all departments and supervised the provincial diwans.
  • The entire revenue collection and expenditure of the empire was under his charge.
  • The diwans were to report about state finance to the Emperor on daily basis
447
Q

Mughal Administration: Central ministers: Mir Bakshi?

A
  • Mir Bakshi looked after all matters pertaining to the military administration.
  • Recommendations for appointment to mansabs, their salary papers or for promotions, etc. were made to the emperor through him.
  • He kept a strict watch over proper maintenance of the sanctioned size of armed contingents and war equipage by the mansabdars.
  • The new entrants seeking service were presented to the Emperor by the Mir Bakshi.
  • The Mir Bakshi was also the head of the intelligence and information agencies of the empire. Intelligence officers (basids) and news reports (wakia navis) were posted to all parts of the empire. Their reports were presented to the emperor at the court through the Mir Bakhshi.
448
Q

Mughal Administration: Central ministers: Sadr us Sudur?

A
  • The Sadr-us Sudur was the head of the ecclesiastical department and his chief duty was to protect the laws of the Shariat.
  • The office of the Sadr used to distribute allowances and stipends to the eligible persons and religious institutions.
  • It made this office very lucrative during the first twenty-five years of Akbar’s reign.
  • The promulgation of Mahzar in 1580 restricted his authority. According to Mahzar Akbar’s view was to prevail in case of conflicting views among religious scholars.
  • This officer also regulated the matters of revenue free grants given for religious and charitable purposes.
    • Later several restrictions were placed on the authority of the Sadr for award of revenue free grants also.
    • Muhtasibs (censors of public morals) were appointed to ensure the general observance of the rules of morality.
  • He also used to examine weights and measures and enforce fair prices etc.
449
Q

Mughal Administration: Central ministers: Chief Qazi?

A
  • Though the emperor was the highest judge in the empire, he was assisted by the chief qazi at the capital.
  • The qazi tried all cases in matters of religious disputes according to the Islamic law.
  • On his recommendations, the emperor appointed qazis at the provincial and district level
  • Similarly large towns and cities had their own qazis.
  • The Mufti was an authority on the Quranic law and advised and assisted the Qazi
450
Q

Mughal Administration: Central ministers: Mir Saman?

A
  • The Mir Saman was the officer in-charge of the royal Karkhanas.
  • He was responsible for all kinds of purchases and their storage for the royal household.
  • He was also to supervise the manufacturing of different articles for the use of royal household
451
Q

Mughal Administration: Provincial Administration?

A
  • Akbar divided the empire into twelve subas. These were Bengal, Bihar, Allahabad, Avadh, Agra, Delhi, Lahore, Multan, Kabul, Ajmer, Malwa and Gujarat.
    • Later on Ahmednagar, Bearar and Khandesh were added.
    • With the expansion of Mughal empire the number of provinces increased to twenty.
  • A governor (subedar), a diwan a bakshshi, a sadr, a qazi and a waqia novis were appointed to each of the provinces. Thus, orderly government based on the principle of checks and balances was extended to the provinces.
  • The Subedar or provincial governor was directly appointed by the Emperor. The subedar was head of the province and responsible for maintenance of general law and order. He was to encourage agriculture, trade and commerce and take steps to enhance the revenue of the state. He was also to suppress rebellions and provide army for expeditions.
  • The head of the revenue department in the suba was the Diwan. He was appointed by the Emperor and was an independent officer. He was to supervise the revenue collection in the suba and maintain an account of all expenditures. He was also expected to increase the area under cultivation. In many cases advance loans (taqavi) were given to peasants through his office.
  • The Bakshi in the province performed the same functions as were performed by Mir Bakshi at the centre. He was appointed by the imperial court at the recommendations of the Mir Bakshi. He was responsible for checking and inspecting the horses and soldiers maintained by the mansabdars in the suba.
452
Q

Mughal Administration: Local Administration: Sarkars?

A
  • The provinces or subas were divided into Sarkars. The Sarkars were divided into Parganas. The village was the smallest unit of administration.
  • At the level of Sarkar, there were two important functionaries, the faujdar and the Amalguzar.
  • The Faujdar was appointed by the imperial order. Sometimes within a Sarkar a number of Faujdars existed. At times, their jurisdiction spread over two Sarkars even if these belonged to two different subas.
  • Faujdari was an administrative division whereas Sarkar was a territorial and revenue division. The primary duty of the faujdar was to safeguard the life and property of the residents of the areas under his jurisdiction. He was to take care of law and order problem in his areas and assist in the timely collection of revenue whenever force was required.
  • The Amalguzar or Amil was the revenue collector. His duty was to assess and supervise the revenue collection. He was expected to increase the land under cultivation and induce the peasants to pay revenue willingly. He used to maintain all accounts and send the daily receipt and expenditure report to the provincial Diwan.
453
Q

Mughal Administration: Local Administration: Parganas?

A
  • At the level of Pragana, the Shiqdar was the executive officer. He assisted the amils in the task of revenue collection. •
  • The amils looked after the revenue collection at the Pargana level.
  • The Quanungo kept all the records of land in the pargana.
454
Q

Mughal Administration: Local Administration: village, town, forts and port?

A
  • The Kotwals were appointed mainly in towns by the imperial government and were incharge of law and order. He was to maintain a register for keeping records of people coming and going out of the towns.
  • The Muqaddam was the village head man and the Patwari looked after the village revenue records.
  • The services of the Zamindars were utilized for the maintenance of law and order in their areas as well as in the collection of revenue.
  • The forts were placed under an officer called Qiladar. He was incharge of the general administration of the fort and the areas assigned in Jagir to him.
  • The port administration was independent of the provincial authority. The governor of the port was called Mutasaddi who was directly appointed by the Emperor. The Mutasaddi collected taxes on merchandise and maintained a custom house. He also supervised the mint house at the port.
455
Q

Mughal administration: Military?

A
  • Mughal state was a military state.
  • The Mughal Emperor was the supreme commander of the armed forces.
  • The military department of the empire was under the charge of the officer known as the mir bakshi.
  • The different branches of the Mughal army were the infantry, cavalry, artillery, elephants and war-boats.
  • The infantry was not a well-organized force though its numerical strength was large.
  • The cavalry formed an important branch of the army. It consisted of two classes- the bargir who were paid and equipped by the state and the silahdars, the troopers who brought their own horses and equipments.
    • The salary of silahdars was much higher than that of the bargirs as they had to look after the horses and that they would have to replace horses more often.
  • The artillery was under the charge of daroga-i-topkhana or the mir atish.
    • The Mughals tried to enlist the services of Europeans who had superior skills in handling artillery.
    • An officer called the hazari commanded a unit of artillery of thousand men.
    • The artillery was divided into two wings – heavy and light pieces. Heavy guns were used to defend or assault a fort. Light guns were mobile and moved with the emperor.
    • Artillery or swivel guns were mounted on elephants and camels.
    • Babur began the use of artillery on a large scale in India and his successors continued the practice with success.
  • Elephants were widely used by the Mughals. These were useful in breaking the enemies’ military formations. They were used to opening gates of palaces or forts and for transporting goods.
    • As artillery was more commonly used, there was greater possibility of elephants running amuck and injuring their own side. The elephants were used more as beasts of burden.
  • The navy of the Mughals was more useful for river warfare. In lower Bengal there was a flotilla of war boats carrying artillery up and down the river.
    • On the western coast naval defense was in the hands of the Abyssinian immigrants, the Siddis of Janjira. Foreigners were employed in the Mughal navy.
    • Agra and Allahabad were important river ports.
    • There was an officer called the mir bahr at important river ports. He had to supply the emperor with boats or make a bridge across the river for the army to cross over.
456
Q

Mughal administration: Land revenue system: pre Dahsala?

A

The system of administration elaborated by Sher Shah had fallen into confusion after the death of Islam Shah. Akbar, therefore, had to start afresh.

In the beginning Akbar adopted Sher Shah’s system. But was soon found that the fixing of a central (ray) schedule of prices annually often led to considerable delays, and resulted in great hardships to the peasantry. Apart from this the prices fixed were generally those prevailing at the Imperial Court, and thus were higher than in the country-side, the peasants had to part with a larger share of their produce.

Akbar, therefore, reverted to a system of annual assessment.

Officials called ‘Karoris’ were appointed all over north India. They were responsible for the collection of a crore of dams (Rs. 250,000) and also checked the facts and figures supplied to the ‘quanungos’.

On the basis of information provided regarding the actual produce, local prices, productivity etc. in 1580, Akbar instituted a new system called the ‘dahsla

457
Q

Mughal administration: Land revenue system: Dahsala?

A

Under Dahsla system, the average produce of different crops as well as average prices prevailing over the different crops as well as average prices prevailing over the last ten (dah) years were calculated.

One third of the average produce was the state share.

The state demand was, however, stated in cash. This was done by converting the state share into money on the basis of a schedule of average prices over the past ten years.

458
Q

Mughal administration: Land revenue system: zabti system?

A

Under this system Parganas having same type of productivity and similar prices were grouped into separate assessment circles. Thus, the peasant was required to pay on the basis of local produce as well as local prices.

There was a number of advantages of zabti system. As soon as the area sown by the peasant had been measured by means of the bamboos linked with iron rings, the peasant as well as the state knew what the dues were.

The peasant was given remission in the land revenue, if crops failed on account of drought, floods etc. Akbar introduced this system in the area from Lahore to Allahabad, and in Malwa and Gujarat.

The ‘zapti’ system is associated with Raja Todar Mal, and is sometimes called Todar Mal’s bandobast

459
Q

Mughal administration: Land revenue system: other systems?

A

A number of other systems of assessment were also followed under Akbar.

The most common and, perhaps, the oldest was called ‘batai’ or ghalla bakhshi. In this system, the produce was divided between the peasants and the state in fixed proportion. The crop was divided after it had been thrashed, or when it had been cut and tied in stacks, or while it was standing in the field. This system was considered a very fair one, but it needed an army of honest officials to be present at the time of the ripening or the reaping of the crops.

A third system which was widely used in Akbar’s time was ‘nasaq’. Some modern historians think that it was merely a system of computing the peasant’s dues, not a different system of assessment. Others think that it meant rough appraisement both on the basis of the inspection of the crops and past experience, and thereby fixing the amount to be paid by the village as a whole. It is called ‘kankut’. • Other local methods of assessment also continued in some areas.

460
Q

Mughal administration: Land revenue system: continuity of cultivation as a criteria?

A

(i) Land, which remained under cultivation almost every year, was called ‘Pohaj’. Thus it was cultivated annually.
(ii) Parati (fallow) or land occasionally left fallow to recuperate its productive strength.
(iii) Chachar or land left fallow for three or four years.
(iv) Banjar or land remaining uncultivated for five years and more.

Land was classified further into good, middling and bad. One-third of the average produce was the state demand, but it varied according to the productivity of the land, the method of assessment etc.

461
Q

Mughal administration: Land revenue system: prmote, aid and support to agriculture?

A

Akbar was deeply interested in the improvement and extension of cultivation.

He asked the amil to act like a father to the peasants.

He advanced taccavi loans to the peasants for seed, implements, animals etc.

Akbar used to try and induce the peasants to plough as much land as possible and to sow superior quality crops.

The zamindars of the area were also enjoined to co-operate in the task. The zamindars had a hereditary right to take a share of the produce. The peasant, too, had a hereditary right to cultivate their land and could not be ejected as long as they paid the land revenue.

With some changes, Akbar’s settlement remained the basis of the land revenue system of the Mughal Empire till the end of the seventeenth century.

462
Q

Mughal administration: Mansabdari system?

A
  • Mansab is an Arabic word meaning ‘office’, ‘rank’, or ‘dignity’.
  • Mansab was the measure of status of a Mughal official which determined rank, salary and office.
  • By all account it was instituted by Akbar in 1577 A.D.
  • The system was the steel frame of Mughal administration in which the nobility, bureaucracy and the army were all rolled into one.
  • It was based on the Mongols system of decimal org. of army.
  • Under Mansab system, every officer was assigned a rank (Mansab); the lowest being 10 and the highest being 10,000.
  • The ranks were divided into two – Zat and Sawar.
  • Zat was the personal rank and fixed the person’s status, and also the salary due to him.
  • Sawar indicated the number of cavalrymen (Sawars) a person was required to maintain.
  • At Akbar’s time no one could have a higher quota of Sawars than his Zat rank.
    • But Jahangir introduced a system whereby a Mansabdar holding this rank had to maintain, and was paid for, double the quota of troops indicated by his Sawar rank. This was called the “Du-aspa Sihaspa System”.
    • In the time of Shah Jahan an opposite modification aimed at reducing the number of Sawars – a Mansabdar was required to maintain. A Mansabdar was expected to maintain a quota of 1/3rd, 1/4th or even 1/5th of this Sawar rank according to the location of his Jagir and place of his service.
    • Another experiment which is called ‘Month Scale’ was introduced by Shah Jahan. The salaries of Mansabdars were put on month-scale – 10 months, 8 months and 6 months or even less, and their obligations of maintenance of Sawars were brought down accordingly.
    • Above mentioned measures were apparently aimed at cutting down the state’s expenditure
  • The Mansabdars could not be paid cash salaries out of the central treasury.
  • Each Mansabdar was assigned an area that was officially estimated to yield revenue equivalent to his salary. The land so assigned was ‘Jagir’.
  • For purpose of assignment estimates (Jamadani) were preponed for administrative divisions down to the village. The estimates were called ‘Jamadani’ as they were worked out in dues and not rupees.
  • A Jagirdar had no permanent rights in the assignment. He merely had the right to collect land revenue on behalf of the state.
  • Moreover, he was liable to transfers. It was also imperative was Mansabs were revised from time to time calling for change in Jagirs
463
Q

Mughal administration: Mansabdari system: merits?

A
  1. A systematic and progressive system to reorganize the army within the fold of despotic monarchy
  2. First such system of tribal chieftainship and feudalism
  3. Officers were not hereditary
  4. Every mansabdar was held personally responsible to the monarch
  5. This eliminated all chances of dis-affection and revolts by the military officers
464
Q

Mughal administration: Mansabdari system: demerits?

A
  1. This system did not give birth to a national army
  2. About 2/3rd of the mansabdars were either foreigners or the immediate descendents of the foreign immigrants
  3. Non-regimentation of the army
  4. Hesitation on the part of the imperial govt to recruit all the soldiers of the mansabdars
  5. No uniform rules were prescribed for systematic training of the soldiers
  6. The nature and the quality of the war weapons borne by them different from contingent to contingent
465
Q

Economic and social life under Mughals?

A
  1. glaring disparity between the highly osetentious life style of the ruling classes, on the one hand, and acute poverty and want of the people – the peasants, the artisans and the labourers on the other
  2. Babur was struck by the scanty clothes worn by the common people. He observed that “peasants and people of low standing go about naked”. Similar remarks have been made by other foreign travelers
  3. Socially and economically, the Mughal nobility formed a privileged class. Most of them were foreigners such as Turks and Afghans. However, many of them settled down in India and made it their permanent home. Theoretically, the doors of the Mughal nobility were open to everyone. In practice, persons belonging to aristocratic families, whatever they were, Indians or foreigners, had a decided advantage.
  4. From the time of Akbar, the Hindus, particularly the Rajputs were included in the nobility. For example, mention may be made about Raja Man Singh, Raja Birbal and Raja Todar Mal. Later, the Marathas also joined the Mughal service and rose to the position of nobles
  5. Nikitin observed that the people of Deccan were bare-footed. It might be due to high cost of leather. Rice, millets and pulses were the staple food of the common people. Fish was popular on the coastal region. While ghee and oil were cheaper, salt and sugar were more expensive. As plenty of cattle were kept by the rural people, milk and milk products were available in plenty
466
Q

Economic and social life under Mughals: Muslim society?

A
  • As a result of continuous immigration from the Muslim countries of central and West Asia the Muslim population retained the mixed character which it had acquired during the previous centuries.
    • In the north-western region the central Asians and Persians, who entered India during the reigns of Babur and his successors, lived side by side with the Muslim immigrants of the pre-Mughal period.
    • In coastal regions the immigrants were primarily traders, hailing originally form Arabia and the Persian Gulf. As a result of their regular or irregular unions with the local Hindus or converts a number of Muslim communities of mixed origin had come into existence, e.g., the Navayats of western India, the Mappillas or Moplabar, and the Labbais of the Coromandel cost. •
    • There were also a considerable number of Muslims of Abyssinian origin, most of whose ancestors were originally imported as slaves.
    • As large parts of Afghanistan formed an integral part of the Mughal Empire, Afghans living in India could hardly be placed in the category of immigrants.
  • Muslims of foreign origin, formally united by Islam, had racial and religious differences which influenced politics and society. The Turanis (Central Asians) and the Afghans were Sunnis; the Persians (Iranians) were Shias
  • However, Muslims of foreign origin considered as a distinct group, constituted the principal element in the ruling class of the Mughal period. They claimed superiority to the Hindustani Muslims, i.e., Hindu converts and their descendants on the basis of birth, race and culture
  • The overwhelming majority of the Muslims were descendants of Hindu converts; but there was a tendency on their part to claim foreign descent with a view to securing political and social advantages. They were generally looked down upon by bona fide Turanians and Iranians
  • There was no bar to inter-marriage on racial on racial grounds. A Muslim of low birth could rise to a high rank in the nobility by dint of ability of through the favour of fortune. The Muslim society had far greater internal mobility than the Hindu society
467
Q

Economic and social life under Mughals: Hindu society?

A

Conflicting trends of liberalism in competition with exclusiveness and conservatism.

Some of the Vaishnava and Tantric teachers recognized, to some extent, the religious and social rights of women as also of the Sudras.

Some non-Brahmin followers of Chaitanya become spiritual perceptors (gurus) not only of the three lower castes but also of Brahmins.

In Maharashtra Tukaram, a Sudra, and Madhavdev, who was Kayastha, had Brahmin disciples.

But the Brahmin authors of the nibandhas tried to maintain the integrity of the ancient socio- religious system (Varnasrama dharma) by regulating the life and conduct of all classes of Hindus in the minutest details in conformity with traditional caste rules. Some writers of the Smriti nibandhas had royal patrons and their injunction carried political sanction. One of them, Keshava Pandit, was judge under the Maratha King Sambhaji.

But there were eminent authors like Raghunandan and Ramnath of Bengal. Pitambar of Kmarup and Kamalakar Bhatta of Maharashtra whose authority was accepted by the Hindu society even though it was not backed by royal patronage. Their influence effectively counteracted the liberal trends. They raised their voice against the usurping of the privileges of the Brahmins by the lower castes

468
Q

Economic and social life under Mughals: position of women?

A
  • Strict veiling of women was the common practice among the Muslim in their native land. Naturally in a foreign country like India, greater stress was laid upon it.
  • The Hindus adopted purdah as a protective measure. The tendency to imitate the ruling class was another factor which operated in favour of introducing purdah among the Hindu families. Seclusion thus became a sign of respect and was strictly observed among the high-class families of both communities.
  • In the Vijayanagar Empire, purdah was confined only to the members of the royal household.
  • No such coercive purdah system was observed among the Hindu middle class and certainly not among the Hindu masses.
  • The custom, in those days, did not allow girls to remain in their parents’ home for more than six to eight years after birth. The rigidity of the custom together with the celebration of the marriage at a very early age left no room whatsoever for either the bride or bridegroom to have time to think of a partner of their own choice.
  • Dowry was demanded while in some castes and localities the bride-price was also known to be prevalent.
  • Monogamy seems to have been the rule among the lower strata of society in both communities during the medieval period.
  • Polygamy was the privilege of the rich. In spite of the decision of ulema in the Ibadat Khana in Akbar’s times, that a man might marry any number of wives by mutah but only four by nikah. Akbar had issued definite orders that a man of ordinary means should not possess more than one wife unless the first proved to be barren.
  • Divorce and remarriage, common among Muslims, were prohibited for Hindu women.
  • Widow-remarriage, except amongst the lower caste people, had completely disappeared in Hindu society during the medieval age.
  • The custom of sati was prevalent.
    • Even betrothed girl had to commit sati on the funeral pyres of their would-be-husbands. Those widows who would not burn themselves with their husbands were treated harshly by society.
    • Some of the Delhi Sultans did try to discourage the custom of sati which prevailed among a large section of the Hindu population, particularly the upper classes and the Rajputs.
    • Though sati was only voluntary in the south and not enjoined upon widows, it is difficult to account for its wide popularity in the Viajayanagar Empire, whose rules do not seem to have put up any restriction on its observance.
    • Muhammad Tughluq was, in all probability, the first medieval ruler who place restrictions on sati.
    • Though Akbar did not forbid the sati altogether, he had issued definite orders to the kotwals that they should not allow a woman to be burnt against her inclination.
    • Aurangzeb was the only Mughal who issued definite orders (1664) forbidding sati in his realm altogether.
  • Economically, a Muslim woman was entitled to a share in the inheritance with absolute right to dispose it off. Unlike her Hindu sister, she retained the right even after marriage.
  • Mehr, or entente nuptial settlement, was another safeguard for Muslim women whereas a Hindu woman had no right to the property of her husband’s parents.
  • A Hindu woman was only entitled to maintenance and residence expenses besides movable property like ornaments, jewellery, etc. Thus, from the legal point of view, women were reduced to a position of dependency in every sphere of life.
  • The women in the south under the Cholas (8th to 13th century), however, had the right to inherit property
469
Q

Trade under Mughals?

A
  • The Indian trading classes were large in numbers and spread throughout the country. They were well organized and highly professional.
  • Seth, bohra traders specialized in long distance trade while local traders were called banik. Another class of traders was known as banjaras, who specialized in carrying bulk goods.
  • The banjaras used to move to long distances with their goods on the back of oxen. Bulk goods were also taken through rivers on boats.
  • The trading community did not belong to one caste or religion.
    • The Gujarathi merchants included the Hindus, Jains and Muslims.
    • Multanis, Khatris and Afghanis conducted trade with central Asia.
    • In south India, the Chettis on the Coramandal coast and the Muslim merchants of Malabar were the most important trading communities. •
  • Bengal exported sugar, rice as well as delicate muslin and silk.
  • The Coramandal coast became a centre of textile production.
  • Gujarat was an entry point of foreign goods. From there, fine textiles and silk were taken to north India. Indigo and food grains were exported from north India through Gujarat. It was also the distribution centre for the luxury products of Kashmir such as shawls and carpets.
  • The major imports into India were certain metals such as tin and copper, war horses and luxury items such as ivory.
  • The balance of trade was maintained by the import of gold and silver.
  • The growth of foreign trade resulted in the increased import of gold and silver in the seventeenth century.
  • The Dutch and English traders who came to Gujarat during the seventeenth century, found that Indian traders were alert and brisk
470
Q

Mughal administration: coinage?

A
  • The standard gold coin of the Mughals was the muhar, of about 170 to 175 grains, the equivalent of nine rupees in Abul Fazl’s time.
  • Half and quarter muhars are known to have been issued by several emperors, and a very few smaller pieces, also.
  • The rupee, adopted from Sher Shah’s currency, is the most famous of all Mughal coins.
  • In addition to the regular gold and silver currency, special small pieces were occasionally struck for largess; the commonest of these is the nisar, struck in silver by Jahangir, Shah Jahan and Aurangzeb.
  • Jahangir also issued similar pieces, which he called nur afshan and khair qabul.
  • The Mughal copper coinage is based on Sher Shah’s dam which with its half, quarter and eighth, continued to be struck until the fifth year of Aurangzeb.
  • The most distinctive feature of the Mughal coinage is the diversity of mints. There were seventy six mints in operation during Akbar’s reign. Copper was struck in fifty nine of these, the largest number recorded for any emperor, while silver is known from thirty nine. Aurangzeb’s conquests in the Deccan raised the silver mints to seventy, whereas copper mints sank to twenty four.
  • Mughals maintained the high standard and purity of its gold and silver for three hundred years.
  • Considering its variety, the number of its mints, the artistic merit of some of its series, the influence it exerted on contemporary and subsequent coinages, and the importance of its standard coin-the rupee- in the commerce of today, the Mughal currency surely deserves to rank as one of the great coinages of the world.
471
Q

Language and Literature under Mughals?

A
  • Persian language became widespread in the Mughal Empire by the time of Akbar’s reign.
  • Abul Fazl was a great scholar and historian of his period. He set a style of prose writing and it was followed by many generations.
  • Many historical works were written during this period. They include Ain-i-Akbari and Akabar Nama authored by Abul Fazl.
  • The leading poet of this period was Abul Faizi. The translation of Mahabharata into the Persian language was done under his supervision.
  • Utbi and Naziri were the two other leading Persian poets. •
  • Jahangir’s autobiography, Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri was famous for its style.
  • Jahangir patronized many scholars like Ghiyas Beg, Naqib Khan and Niamatullah.
  • Shah Jahan also patronized many writers and historians like Abdul Hamid Lahori, author of Padshah Nama and Inayat Khan who wrote Shah Jahan Nama.
  • Shah Jahan’s son Dara Shikoh translated the Bhagavat Gita and Upanishads into the Persian language.
  • Many historical works were written during the reign of Aurangazeb.
  • Regional languages such as Bengali, Oriya, Rajasthani and Gujarathi had also developed during this period. Many devotional works including the Ramayana and Mahabharata were translated into regional languages.
  • From the time of Akbar, Hindi poets were attached to the Mughal court. The most influential Hindi poet was Tulsidas, who wrote the Hindi version of the Ramayana, the Ramcharitmanas.
472
Q

Paintings under Mughals?

A
  • The contribution of Mughals to the art of painting was remarkable.
  • They introduced new themes depicting the court, battle scenes and the chase and added new colours and new forms.
  • They created a living tradition of painting which continued to work in different parts of the country long after the glory of the Mughals had disappeared.
  • The foundation for the Mughal painting was laid by Humayun when he was staying in Persia. He brought with him two painters – Mir Sayyid Ali and Abdal Samad to India. These two painters became famous during Akbar’s reign.
  • Akbar:
    • Under the leadership of Mir Sayyid Ali and Abdal Samad, during the reign of Akbar, painting was organized in one of the imperial establishments (karkhanas).
    • A large number of painters from different parts of the country were invited, many of them from lower castes. From the beginning, both Hindus and Muslims joined in the works.
    • Akbar commissioned the illustrations of several literary and religious texts.
    • Baswan, Miskina and Daswant attained great positions as Akabar’s court artists.
    • Illustrations of Persian versions of Mahabharata and Ramayana were produced in miniature form.
    • Many other Indian fables became the miniature paintings in the Art Studio established by Akbar.
    • Historical works such as Akbar Nama also remained the main themes of Mughal paintings.
    • The most important work is Hamznama, which consisted 1200 paintings. It narrates the legendary exploits of Amir Hamza, or Hamza ibn Abdul-Muttalib, an uncle of .In the West, the work is best known for the enormous illustrated manuscript commissioned by the Mughal emperor Akbar about 1562
    • Indian colours such as peacock blue, Indian red began to be used.
    • Under Akbar, European painting was introduced at the court. Under its influence, the principles of foreshortening, whereby near and distant people and things could be placed in perspective was quietly adopted.
  • Mughal paintings reached its climax during the reign of Jahangir. He employed a number of painters like Abul Hasan, Bishan Das, Madhu, Anant, Manohar, Govardhan and Ustad Mansur. Through painting the scenes of hunting, battles and royal courts, progress was made in portrait painting and paintings of animals.
  • Many albums containing paintings and calligraphy were produced during the Mughal period. Later, the influence of European painting could be seen.
473
Q

Music under Mughals?

A
  • Akbar patronized Tansen of Gwalior. Tansen composed many ragas.
  • Jahangir and Shah Jahan were also fond of music.
  • Raja Mansingh is said to have played an important role in the perfection of the Dhrupad style of North Indian Music.
  • In the south a system of ragas known as the Janaka and Janya ragas existed during this period.
  • The Swaramela Kalanidhi by Ramamatya of Kondavidu written in 1550 describes 20 Janan and 64 Janya ragas.
  • By the 18th century several new forms of music like Tarana, Dadra and Ghazal had come into existence.

GS-1 (17 decks)

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