Memory

Question 1

encoding

Answer 1

changing information into a form so it can be held in the brain

Question 2

visual encoding

Answer 2

encoding information based on how it looks

Question 3

acoustic encoding

Answer 3

encoding information based on how it sounds

Question 4

semantic encoding

Answer 4

encoding information based on it’s meaning

Question 5

tactile encoding

Answer 5

encoding things based on how they feel to the touch

Question 6

olfactory encoding

Answer 6

encoding things based on smell

Question 7

storage

Answer 7

holding information in memory so that it can be retrieved later

Question 8

retrieval

Answer 8

locating and bringing back information into mind

Question 9

recognition

Answer 9

identifying from options

Question 10

cued recall

Answer 10

locating information with a clue (cue)

Question 11

free recall

Answer 11

without cues

Question 12

a study of encoding

Answer 12

baddeley’s study (acoustically and semantically similar / dissimilar word lists)

Question 13

baddeley’s study - aim

Answer 13

to see if there was a difference in the type of encoding used in STM and LTM

Question 14

baddeley’s study - method

Answer 14

participants learned words that were similar or dissimilar sounding (e.g. cat, cab, can, or pit, few, cow) and recalled them immediately

others learned words with similar of dissimilar meanings (e.g. big, large, huge, or cow, purple, sky) and recalled them after 20 minutes

Question 15

baddeley’s study - results

Answer 15

similar sounding words poorly recalled in STM and words with similar meanings were poorly recalled in LTM

Question 16

baddeley’s study - conclusion

Answer 16

this shows STM is encoded by sound and LTM by meaning

Question 17

baddeley’s study - evaluation points

Answer 17

controlled experiment - it is well controlled, as extraneous variables like participants’ hearing were controlled by a hearing test

STM is sometimes visual - encoding in STM does not always involve sound (Brandimonte et al.)

LTM may not have been tested - LTM may not be tested as they only waited 20 minutes before recall, so conclusion lacks validity

Question 18

episodic memory

Answer 18

memory for events from your life

Question 19

semantic memory

Answer 19

memory of what things mean (your own encyclopedia)

Question 20

procedural memory

Answer 20

memory of how to do things

Question 21

declarative vs. non-declarative

Answer 21

declarative = episodic and semantic

non-declarative = procedural

Question 22

different types of LTM - evaluation points

Answer 22

specific locations in the brain - brain scans show different types of LTM relate to different brain locations, e.g. procedural memory associated with motor area

amnesiac patients - amnesiacs like Clive Wearing support LTM types as most of his procedural but not episodic memories were intact

it’s not that simple - distinctive types of LTM are difficult to separate so it may be an oversimplification

Question 23

bartlett’s war of the ghosts study - aim

Answer 23

to see how memory is reconstructed when recalling an unfamiliar story

Question 24

bartlett’s war of the ghosts study - method

Answer 24

the war of the ghosts story was read by one participant and recalled after 15 minutes, and then another, and so on

Question 25

bartlett’s war of the ghosts study - results

Answer 25

participants changed the story to fit cultural expectations, leaving out unfamiliar information

Question 26

bartlett’s war of the ghosts study - conclusion

Answer 26

we use our knowledge of social situations to reconstruct memory

Question 27

bartlett’s war of the ghosts study - evaluation

Answer 27

lacks control - participants were not told that accurate recall was important, which could have affected the results results were biased - Bartlett analysed the recollections himself, so we cannot fully trust the conclusion story was unusual - the story was unusual so the results may not reflect everyday memory processes

Question 28

the theory of reconstructive memory

Answer 28

people rebuild memory as an active process

Question 29

memory is inaccurate

Answer 29

memory is not a process of exact reproduction of experiences

Question 30

reconstruction

Answer 30

record key pieces of information and recombine them to tell the whole story

Question 31

social and cultural influences

Answer 31

expectations come from the world / culture we live in, and affect storage and recall

Question 32

effort after meaning

Answer 32

we focus on the meaning of events and make an effort afterwards to make sense of fragments of memory

Question 33

theory of reconstructive memory - evaluation points

Answer 33

more realistic research - (Bartlett’s study) reflects how we use memory on every day because it uses a story not word lists some memories are accurate - not all recall is reconsructed as some memories of the story are accurate real-world application - it explains problems with eyewitness testimony as people do not always recall accurately

Question 34

mutli-store model

Answer 34

three memory stores - different coding, capacity, and duration. information moves through attentian and prolonged rehearsal

Question 35

sensory memory

Answer 35

very short duration, large capacity attention transfers information to STM

Question 36

STM

Answer 36

limited duration (30 seconds) and capacity (5-9 items), acoustic encoding

Question 37

role of rehearsal

Answer 37

rehearsal keeps information in STM prolonged rehearsal transfers STM into LTM

Question 38

LTM

Answer 38

semantic encoding, unlimited capacity and stored up to a lifetime

Question 39

mutli-store model - evaluation points

Answer 39

supported by research - Baddeley’s study of encoding shows differences between STM and LTM too simple - having one STM and one LTM store is too simplistic, e.g. more than one LTM store artificial materials - supporting research uses word lists and consonant syllables, i.e. lacks validity

Question 40

primacy and recency effects

Answer 40

primacy effect - words at beginning are remembered more (rehearsed, so in LTM) recency effect - words at end are remembered more (heard recently, so in STM)

Question 41

murdock’s study - aim

Answer 41

to see if memory of words is affected by location in a list

Question 42

murdock’s study - method

Answer 42

participants listened to 20 word lists with 10-40 words on them, recalled words after each list

Question 43

murdock’s study - conclusion

Answer 43

shows the serial position effect and | supports the MSM stores

Question 44

murdock’s study - evaluation points

Answer 44

controlled lab study - there was a high level of control so it could be concluded position of words determined recall artificial task - word lists were used which is only one type of memory, so the study lacks validity supporting research - some amnesiacs can’t store LTM and don’t display a primacy effect, which shows the primacy effect is related to it (Carlesimo et al.)

Question 45

mcgeoch and mcdonald’s study - aim

Answer 45

to see the effect of doing two activities on accuracy of memory

Question 46

mcgeoch and mcdonald’s study - method

Answer 46

learned a list of 10 words and then another list of varying types, e.g. synonyms and antonyms

Question 47

mcgeoch and mcdonald’s study - results

Answer 47

memory was affected by the second list, most of all if second list had similar meaning (synonyms)

Question 48

mcgeoch and mcdonald’s study - conclusions

Answer 48

shows interference affects accuracy of memory and is strongest when you try remember two similar things

Question 49

mcgeoch and mcdonald’s study - evaluation points

Answer 49

controlled research - high control, e.g. counterbalancing, was used to reduce bias artificial task - it does not reflect real-life memory as we don’t often have to remember very similar words not really forgetting - it mau be information but just cannot be accessed, so isn’t actually forgotten (Tulving and Psotka)

Question 50

godden and baddeley’s study - aim

Answer 50

to see if context improved recall

Question 51

godden and baddeley’s study - method

Answer 51

divers listened to and recalled words in the dame or different settings on the beach and underwater

Question 52

godden and baddeley’s study - results

Answer 52

recall was highest in the same environment for learning and recall

Question 53

godden and baddeley’s study - conclusions

Answer 53

context of learning acts as a trigger, or cue, improving the accuracy of memory

Question 54

godden and baddeley’s study - evaluation points

Answer 54

artificial task - lists of words were used. when more complex materials were used, better recall was found recall was short term - participants recalled the words almost immediately, unlike in everyday life similar context - context only acts as a cue if context at learning and recall are very similar, which rarely happens (Smith)

Question 55

loftus and pickrell’s study - aim

Answer 55

to see if false memories could be created in participants through suggestion

Question 56

loftus and pickrell’s study - method

Answer 56

four stories about childhood events were read where three were true and one was false (shopping mall)

Question 57

loftus and pickrell’s study - results

Answer 57

6 out of 24 (25%) of participants recalled the story fully or partially

Question 58

loftus and pickrell’s study - conclusions

Answer 58

imagining an event can implant a false memory in a person, reducing accuracy of memory

Question 59

loftus and pickrell’s study - evaluation points

Answer 59

artificial tasks - harmless events could be implanted easily but traumatic events may not, so conclusions are limited ethical issues - participants may be left with implanted false memories which lingered after the study, causing distress real-world application - this research has implications for eyewitness testimony as police questioning could accidentally implant false memories