memory

Question 1

what is coding?

Answer 1

information is stored in the memory in different forms.
coding is the process of converting between these forms.

Question 2

Alan Baddeley (coding study)

When was this?
What was the procedure? (different list)
What were the findings?

Evaluate.

after20 minutes….. pariticipants did worse on….

showing that info is …..

Answer 2

1966

procedure:
gave different lists of words to 4 groups
participants shown and asked to recall

findings:
when recall was asked immediately, participants did worse with acoustically similar words

when asked after 20mins, participants did worse with semantically similar words.

conc:
info is stored acoustically in STM and semantically in LTM

eval:
+clear difference between two memory stores
-artificial stimulus.

Question 3

Jacobs (capacity research-digit span)

reads out 4 digits then….

findings?

evaluate

Answer 3

1887
found the capacity of STM by measuring ‘digit span’

procedure:
researcher reads out 4 digits, askes for recall
if correct, another digit added and so on until recall is incorrect

findings:
mean digit span was 9.3 numbers

+has been replicated in more controlled conditions, proven to be a valid test

Question 4

Miller (capacity research-chunking)
(STM)

noted things come in….
span of STM is….
most people can….

who criticised this?

Answer 4

1956
noted things come in 7s
span of STM is 7 + or - 2
noted people can recall 5 digits easily, using chunking
STM ‘chunks’ information

• over estimated STM - Cowan 2001, suggests its 4 plus or minus 1

Question 5

Peterson and Peterson (duration of STM)

how many students?

given syllable … asked to count down to prevent

results? this suggests STM duration is

con of this study?

Answer 5

1959

tested 24 students in 8 trials (tests)

given syllable and 3 digit number students counted back told to stop (prevents mental rehearsal)
on each test, they were told to stop after different times

after 3 seconds- 80% average recall
after 18 seconds- 3% average recall

suggests STM is about 18 seconds unless verbal rehearsal takes place

-stimulus artificial, lacks external validity

Question 6

Bahrick (duration of LTM)

Answer 6

1975

obtained yearbooks
free recall of people in graduating class
ALSO
showed pictures (separately)

recall of those who graduated more recently was better, however even those who graduated 70 years ago had good recall- shows some memory may last a lifetime in LTM

+high external validity, as they are meaningful memories so more ‘real’ estimate of LTM

Question 7

describe the ‘multi-store model’ of memory (MSM)

by who? A… and S….

suggests memory is made up of … stores all linked by p….

Answer 7

Atkinson (1968) and Shiffrin (1971)

suggest memory is made up of three stores, all linked by processing.

sensory register:
info automatically detected and registered
each coding is modality specific
large capacity, short duration
goes to STM by paying attention to info

STM:
acoustic
7 items (+ or - 2)
duration 18-30 seconds
maintenance rehearsal keeps info in STM
if rehearsed long enough, goes to LTM

LTM:
coded semantically (in terms of meaning)
when info from LTM needs to be recalled, it has to be transferred back to STM in ‘retrieval’

Question 8

explain :
maintenance rehearsal
elaborative rehearsal

Answer 8

maintenance rehearsal is when you keep repeating the information

elaborative rehearsal is linking the new information with pre-existing information in the LTM

Question 9

evaluate the ‘multi-store model’ of memory

Answer 9

+ research shows that STM and LTM are different
(Baddeley’s 1966 study shows reasons we mess up words in STM and LTM are different)

-there is evidence that there is more that one STM store
Shallice and Warrington (1970)- studied patient KF, recall poor when digits read out but when he read them much better

• MSM does not mention elaborative rehearsal states all that matters is the time you rehearse
  Craik and Watkins (1973) say the most important thing is the type of rehearsal
  MSM does not fully explain how long term storage is achieved

Question 10

types of LTM

who suggested there were three types of LTM? (T….)

What are they?

Answer 10

Tulving (1985), a cognitive [psychologist, suggested thst MSM was too simplistic in regards to LTM. said there were three types of LTM

episodic-
ability to recall events
time stamped
memories have to be consciously retrieved

semantic-
shared knowledge of the world
less vulnerable to distortion/forgetting

procedural-
memory for actions/skilled
eventually recalled without conscious awareness

Question 11

evaluate the suggestion that there are different types of LTM

+ c…. evidence (two case studies)
+ r… w… a…. (helps psychologists..)
-conflicting n…. (linked…)

Answer 11

+clinical evidence
HM and Clive Wearing both had brain damage
episodic memory affected but semantic memory fine

+real-world application
understanding LTM allows psychologists to help people with memory problems
age, memory loss, specific to episodic memory
distinguishing between types of LTM helps treatment develop

-conflicting neuroimaging evidence
different psychologists have ,linked different areas of the brain to different types of LTM - therefore this is not conclusive

Question 12

describe the working memory model (WMM)

Answer 12

sub units which are controlled by a central decision making system

central executive (CE)-
supvisory role
monitors incoming info and devides attention to ‘slave items’

phonological loop-
deals with auditory information
divides into : phonological store (storage) and articulatory process (maintenance rehearsal)

visuo-spatial sketchpad-
limited capacity 3/4 items
stores visual/spatial info
visual cache (storage) and inner scribe (records arrangements)

episodic buffer-
added by Baddeley in 2000
temporary store
brings info from other subsystems into a single memory
links working memory to LTM

Question 13

evaluate the working memory model

+c…e…. (case study of … damage to …. so couldn’t….. but fine …. so could…..)

+d… t… p… (Baddeley, what were participants asked to do?)

-lack of clarity over….. (Baddeley quotation)

Answer 13

+clinical evidence
KF has poor processing of auditory info (phonological loop damaged) but could process visual info (visuo-spatial sketchpad)

+dual-task performance
Baddeley (1975)
participants did visual and verbal task separately
when same task (visual and visual) was done at same time, performance declined
because both tasks competed for same slave system

-lack of clarity over central executive
Baddeley (2003) ‘most important but least understood component of the working memory’

Question 14

explain how ‘interference’ may cause forgetting

Answer 14

interference is when two pieces of information disrupt each other.

this means that one or both pieces of information are forgotten, or distortion is experienced

can explain forgetting info from LTM as although arguably the information is permanent, it is now harder to access due to interference

Question 15

describe the two types of interference

Answer 15

proactive interference (PI)
older memories interfere with new ones

retroactive interference (RI)
new memories interfere with old ones

Question 16

explain what McGeoch and Mcdonald found about interference (and similarity)

explainhow they investigated this

Answer 16

found that interference is worse when the memory/learning is similar

studied RI by changing similarities between two sets of materials

participants had to learn 10 words until 100% accurate, then given new list

interreference was strongest when memories were similar

Question 17

explain the effects of similarity on interference (used to explain forgetting)

what two types of inteference could this be due to?

Answer 17

could be due to:

proactive interference (PI)- old info making it difficult to store new information

retroactive interference (RI)- new info overriding previous similar memories

(due to similarities in content)

Question 18

using interference to explain forgetting- evaluation

+real world (rugby players)
+support from ….. (what did this prevent?)
- c…

Answer 18

+ real-world evidence
Badeley and Hitch (1977)
used rugby players
those who had played the most games (so most interference) had worst recall of team names

+support from drug studies
evidence of retrograde facilitation
participants given list of words and asked to recall (once time had gone so interference had happened)
some participants were given drug
drug improved recall as it prohibited new info from reaching the brain

-cues

interference is temporary and can be overcome by cues
Tulving and Psotka (1971)- learn list of words, when participants given cue, recall rose by 70%

Question 19

explain the effect of cues on forgetting and how the lack of them may contribute to retrieval failure

Answer 19

when info is first placed in the memory, it is associated to cues

if these cues are not available at the time of recall, it may cause retrieval failure

Question 20

Explain what is meant by ‘encoding specificity principle’ (ESP)

who came up with this?

Answer 20

Tulving (1983)

a cue must be present at (1) time of coding and at (2) the time of recall

if cues at encoding and recall are different, there will be some forgetting

Question 21

explain:

context-dependent forgetting
state-dependent forgetting

Answer 21

context dependent forgetting:

recall depends on external cue (weather/place)

recall depends on internal cue
(feeling sad/drunk)

Question 22

Godden and Baddeley - research on context-dependent forgetting

Answer 22

1975

studied deep sea divers to see if learning on land helped or hindered their learning

4 different conditions- recall 40% worse in non-matching conditions

learn land-recall land
learn land-recall sea
learn sea- recall land
learn sea-recall sea

demonstrates that if external cues are different at time of learning and retrieval, it can lead to retrieval failure

Question 23

Carter and Cassaday (research on state-dependent forgetting)

Answer 23

1998
gave antihistamine drug to some participants
when there was a mismatch between learning and recall, performance was significantly worse

learn on drug, recall on drug
learn on drug, recall no drug
learn no drug, recall on drug
learn no drug, recall on no drug

Question 24

retrieval failure (used as explanation for forgetting) - evaluation

+real world application
+research support
- r… vs r….

Answer 24

+ real-world application
see that cues can help overcome forgetting everyday forgetting

+research-support
lots of research that suggests retrieval failure is a big contributor to forgetting

-recall VS recognition
only applies when a person has to recall information not recognise it
may depend what type of memory is being tested

Godden and Baddeley repeated underwater experiment, when only recognition was being tested, there was no context-dependent effect

Question 25

define ‘eye-witness testimony’ (EWT)

Answer 25

ability for people to remember details of events, such as a crime or an accident, which they themselves observed

Question 26

explain research on misleading questions and how this may affect EWT

L….and P…

what was their study? (videos)
what were the findings? ‘contacted’/’smashed’

Answer 26

police may ‘direct’ a witness to give a particular answer

Loftus and Palmer (1974)
students shown same clip of car crash, when asked questioned, different verb was used…. smashed/collided/bumped

those who heard
‘contacted’- said mean speed was 31.8mph

‘smashed’ said mean speed was 40.5 mph

Question 27

EWT:

explain

response-bias explanation

substitution explanation

Answer 27

response bias explanation-

has no effect on participants memories but changes the way in which they choose to answer

substitution explanation-

leading question changes memory of event
(those who heard ‘smashed’ more likely to report broken glass)

Question 28

Research on post-event discussion (PED) and the impact on EWT

Gabbert- what was the study and what were the findings?

Answer 28

PED is when eye witnesses discuss details/experiences of an event

Gabbert (2003) studied participants in pairs

they watched the same video but from a different perspective
discussed together (PED)
and recalled separately
71% recalled information they did not see

when PED did not happen, 0% misinformation

Question 29

(EWT)

explain :

memory conformity

memory contamination

Answer 29

memory conformity- Gabbert concluded that witnesses often go along with each other for social approval or belief that they are wrong, however the actual memory is not changed

memory contamination- after discussing together, eyewitness testimonies become altered or distorted

Question 30

evaluate misleading information on EWT accuracy

+RWA
L…(197.) - questions have a ? effect

-evidence against s….
Sutherland and H… (2001)
recall was more accurate for ….
original memories were not …

-evidence challenging memory c….

Skagerberg and Wright (200.)
mugger clip , hair , what did they report?

Answer 30

+real-world application
practical use in the criminal justice system
Loftus (1975) argues that misleading questions can have distorting effect on memory, so police officers need to be careful when interviewing and how they phrase questions

-evidence against substitution
EWT is more accurate for some aspects of the event than others
Sutherland and Hayne (2001), found recall was more accurate for central details rather than peripheral ones
original memories were not distorted, an outcome which is not supported by the substitution explanation

• evidence challenging memory conformity
  Skagerberg and Wright (2008)
  participants shown clip, mugger had different hair shade
  reported a ‘blend’ of the two shades, showing memory is distorted by contamination and not conformity

Question 31

explain how anxiety may affect the accuracy of EWT (positive and negative)

Answer 31

positive:
fight or flight response causes alertness
may improve memory of event as we become more aware of cues in situation

Yuille and Cutshall (1986)
studied witnesses from real shooting in canada
those who had the highest anxiety levels, reported the highest amount of accurate information when asked 4-5 moths later (compared with original police interviews)

negative:
creates physiological arousal in body
prevents attention on cues- recall worse
Johnson and Scott (1976)

participants believe they’re taking part in lab study
group 1: casual conversation overheard, man walks out with pen and grease on hands
group 2: loud conversation, breaking glass, man walks out with knife and blood on hands
49% accurate recall for pen group
33% for knife group

Question 32

Explain Yerkes-Dodson Law

(anxiety on EWT)

Answer 32

performance increases with stress up to a certain point, where it decreases drastically
there is an optimum level of anxiety, this is the point of maximum accuracy

Question 33

evaluate anxiety on EWT

Answer 33

+ some evidence to show that anxiety can have a negative impact on recall- especially immediately

+ some evidence to show that anxiety
can have a positive impact on recall, direct victims ( most anxious) had best recall

-unusualness not anxiety
Johnson and Scott study may not have been testing anxiety
Picket (1998) repeated experiment with different objects
EWT poorer in unusual conditions

Question 34

explain what is meant by the ‘tunnel theory’ of memory

Answer 34

people have enhanced memory for central events, for example weapon focus as a result of anxiety

Question 35

explain the cognitive interview in improving the accuracy of EWT

Answer 35

Fisher and Geiselman (1992)
said interview should be based on psychological research into how the memory works

1.report everything
include irrelevant details as they may have substance or trigger new memories
2.reinstate the context
imagine scene ‘in their mind’
context-dependent forgetting
3.reverse the order
recalled in different sequence
stops any expectations of how the event ‘must have’ played out
prevents dishonesty, more difficult to give untruthful account
4.change perspective
disrupts expectations and schema- makes sure actual info is recalled and not pre existing schema

Question 36

explain the enhanced cognitive interview

Answer 36

Fisher (1987)

focussed on social dynamics:

-eye contact (when to establish/relinquish)
-slow speech
-reduce EWT anxiety
-minimise distractions

Question 37

evaluate the cognitive interview on increasing the accuracy of EWT

Answer 37

+support for effectiveness
evidence that it works
Khonken (1999), used metanalysis and showed that CI gave 41% increase in accurate information

-some elements more useful than others
Mile and Bull (2002)- proved that ‘report’ and ‘reinstate’ factors improved recall more than any other stages

-time consuming
takes time and training
‘many forces do not have the resources to provide more than a few hours’ - Kebbell and Wagstaff (1997)
not realistic method for police

Question 38

what is capacity?

Answer 38

the amount of information that can be held in a memory store

Question 39

what is duration?

Answer 39

the length of time information can be held in a memory store