memory Flashcards

Question

research support for msm using case studies

Answer 1

- HM ( scoville and milner 1957) - brain damage - removal of hippo - his personality and intellect remained intact but coudnmt form new LTM , although he could remmeber things from before his surgery - support for MSM notion of seperate stores as HM was unable to transfer info from his STM and LTM but was able to retrieve info from before surgery ( LTM)

Answer 2

Baddeley and hitch 1974 found that the STM was not just one store but a number of diff stores - consists of central executive, episodic buffer, phonological loop, visuo spacial sketchap

Answer 3

- monitors and coordinates all other mental functions in working memory - direct attention to particular tasks , determing how the brains ' slave systems' - limited capacity

Answer 4

- codes speech sounds in working memory, typically involving maintenance rehearsal - limited capacity - deals with auditory information , preserves the order of information baddeley subdividied this loop into 1)n phonological store = inner ear, holds the words you hear 2) the articulatory process = words heard or seen , silently repeated ( inner voice ) . form of maintenance rehearsal

Answer 5

- used when you have to plan a spatial task eg getting from one place to another - visual and or spatial information is temproarily stored here ( visual info= what things look like, spatial info= physical relationship between things . - Logie 1995 suggestedthat the visuo spatial sketchap can be divided into; 1)visual cache = stores info about visual items eg form and colour 2) inner scribe= stores the arrangement of objects in the visual fieldv

Answer 6

- added by Baddeley in 2000) as he realised the model needed a general store - as there was no where to hold info that relates to both visual and acoustic info - intergrates info from the CE the PL and the CSS. maintains a sense of time sequencing ( ultimately it records episodes that are happends - sends info to LTM

Answer 7

- theres bare research support for the WMM which comes from case studies - process of brain injury is traumatic which may in it self change behaviour so that the person may become worse on certain tasks - individual differences; some people may have other issues like difficulty concentrating and therefore underperfom on tasks - case studies are of unique individuals and cannot be generalised to the population

Answer 8

- Shallice and Warrington 1970 studied KF - he was able to see but he had bare forgetting of auditory info - his auditory problems were limited to verbal material such as letters and digits but not meaningful sounds ( like the phone ringing) - theefore his brain damage seemed to be restricted to the PL - another patient SC had good learning abilities but unable to learn word pairs that were presented out loud ( suggesting damage to the PL- Troano and Grossi 1995) - anothe patient LH who had been involved in a road accident perfomed better on sptial tasks than those involving visual imagery ( Farah et al 1988) - ts supports the ideaof seperate visual and spatial systems as suggested by the WMM

Answer 9

- some psychologists say its too vague and simplistic - it only allocates resources and is essentially the same as 'attention' - critics also feel that the notion of a single CE is wrong and that there should be multiple componenets - Eslinger and Damasio 1985 studied EVR , he had a cerebral tumour removed - he perfomed el on tasks requiring reasoning ( suggetsting and intact CE) but he had poor decision making skills, suggestting his CE isnt wholly intact - the CE may be more complex that baddley and hitch illustrated it to be

Answer 10

PET scans have shown that different brain areas are activated during visual and verbal tasks, aligning with the visuospatial sketchpad and phonological loop. - they sugget the left hemisphere of brain is associated with visual tasks - right hemisphere is associated with spatial info

Answer 11

explicit ( declarative memory) and implicit ( procedural )

Answer 12

personal memories of events includes contextual details and emotional tone eg first day of skl time stamped

Answer 13

- knowledge about the world which is shared by everyone eg capital city of france is paris , 2+2=4 may relate to function of objects , social customs, abstract concepts - semantic memories generally begin as episodic memories as we aquire knowledge based on personal experiences . - there is a gradual transition from episodic to semantic memory where the memory slowly loses its association to particular events

Answer 14

concerned with skills , eg knowing how to read or ride a bike - remmebering how to do something rather than remmebering the rules for how to do it - aquired thru repitition and practice - its implicit

Answer 15

brain scans - episodic = hippocampus and other parts of the temporal lobe where the hippocampus is located + activity in the frontal lobe - semantic = temporal lobe - procedural = cerebellum which is involved in the control of fine motor skills as well as motor cortex. + basal ganglia and limbic system

Answer 16

- comes from patients with Alzheimers - research saught to explain relationship between episodic and semantic by studying patients with Alzheimers - found some patients who retain the ability to form new semantic memories but not episodic memories ( Hodges and Patterson 2007) - second dissociation was found by Irish et al 2011 in Alzheimers pateints who have the reverse; poor semantic memories but generally intact episodic memories - ts double dissociation suggests episodic and semantic seperate

Answer 17

- HMs ability to form new LTM affected by destruction of hippocampus but he retainerd pre existing LTMS - after surgery he could still form procedural memories but not episodic or semantic eg he was able to learn to draw a figure by looking at its reflection in a mirror ( AKA mirror drawing ) ( Corkin 2002); this is procedural memory but he had no memory that he learnd this - this supports the distinction ebtween procedural and declarative memories ; support existince of multipe types of LTM

Answer 18

- difficulty with studies of amnesiacs including HM is that its difficult to be certain of the exact parts of the brain that have been affected until the patient has died ; most studies are conducted using living patients - damage to a particular area of the brain doesnt necessarily mean that its responsible for a specific behaviour ; may be acting as a relay station - suggetss we cannot establish a causal relationship between a particular brain region and type of LTM

Answer 19

current attemps at learning something interferes with past learning

Answer 20

- georg Muller and his student ( Muller and pilzecker 1900) were first to identify retroactive interference - gave ps a list of random syllables to learn for 6min and den after a retention interval asked ps to recall the lists - performance was shit if ps had been given intervening tasks between initial learning and recall ( they were shown three landscape paintings and asked to describe them) - the intervening tas produced RI coz the later task ( describing pics ) interfered w what has been previously learnt

Answer 21

past learning interferes with current attempts at learning sum

Answer 22

- Benton Underwood 1957 showed that proactive interference could be equally significant - analysed findings from bare studies - found that when p's have to learn a series of world lists tey do not learn the lists of words encountered later on in the sequence as well as the lists encountered earlier on - he found that if p's memories 10 or more world lists after 24h recall= 20% - if they only learned one list recall= 70%

Answer 23

- McGeoch and Mcdonald 1931 experimented with the effects of similarity of materials - gave ps list A ( list of adjectives - after ts was learnt they was an interval where they learnt list B followed by recall - if List b was sysnonym of list A, recall= 12% - if list B was bs = 26% recall - if list b was numbers this had 36% recall

Answer 24

- artificial lists of words or nonesense syllables - dont relate to everyday life - low mundane realism and ecological validity - ps may lack motivation to remember the links in such studies this may allow interference affects to appear stronger than they really are

Answer 25

- it only explains some situations of forgetting - while interference occurs in daily life, not often - eg the 2 memories must be similar may not be the best explanation for everyday forgetting - Anderson 2000 concluded that interference deffo plays role in forgetting but how much forgetting can be attributed to it is unknown - means theories are needed to provide a complete explanation of forgetting

Answer 26

- researchers have questioned whether interference effects cause a memory to dissappear or whether interference effects are only temporary - Ceraso 1967 found that if memory was tested again after 24h recognition ( accessibility ) showed considerable recovery,whereas recall ( availabiltiy ) remained the same - may suggest that interference occurs as memories are temporarily not accessibly rather than actually being lost

Answer 27

- Kane and Engle 2000 showed ppl better working memory were less susceptible to proactive interference - they gave p's 3 word lists to learn ; p's w lower WM span showed more proactive interference when recalling the second and third lists compared to p's with higher spans

Answer 28

occurs due to absence of cues explanation for forgetting ( lack of accessibility rather than availability)

Answer 29

- Endel Tulving and Donald Thomson 1973 proposed that memory is most effective if information that was present at encoding is also available at retrieval. - the closer it is to the original the more useful it will be

Answer 30

- in a study where p's had to learn 48 words belonging to 1 categories eg fruit- apple, fruit- orange - 2 diff recall conditions - either had to free recall or they were given cues in the form of category names - free recall condition = 40% of words were recalled on average - cue recall- 60% of words

Answer 31

- eg by Ethel Abernethy 1940 . she arranged for group of students to be tested before a certain course has begun. they were tested each week - some students tested in their teaching room by usual instructor. others tested by a diff instructor others tested in a diff room either by usual or diff instructor - 4 experim cond. in ts study - those tested by same instructor in same room performed best due to memory cues

Answer 32

- recruited suba divers as p's amd arranged for them to learn a set of words either on land or underwater . - results= highest recall pccured when the initial context matched the recall environment

Answer 33

the mental state ur at in time of learning Goodwin et al 1969 asked males to remember a list of words when they were either drunk or sober (those in drunk condition imbibed 3 times the UK driving limit) - the p's were asked to recall the lists 24h later - recall when drunk is more available when in the same state later

Answer 34

- lot of research support - high ecological validity

Answer 35

danger of circularity - dange between encoding cues and later retrieval is a correlation rather than a cause - Nairrine 2002 calls this the 'myth of the encoding retrieval match' - Baddeley made a similar criticism ; if a stimulusleads to the retrieval of a memory then it mustve been encoded if it doesnt lead to retrieval, according to the encoding specificity principle it cant have been encoded - suggests that the cues dont cause retrieval they are associated with retrieval

Answer 36

real world application Smith 1979 showed just by thinking of the room where you did original learning ( mental reinstatement ) was as effective as actually being in room - shows research itno retrieval failure can suggest straegiues for improving recall in real life eg taking exams, eye witmess testimony

Answer 37

Overemphasis on Context: The theory can overemphasize the role of context, potentially neglecting other factors that influence forgetting, such as interference or the passage of time,

Answer 38

- hghlighted by the innocence project who claim that 72% of convicts overturned by DNA testing involved inaccurate eye witness testimony

Answer 39

-45 students showed 7 films of diff traffic accidents - after each, p's given Qstonaire which asked them to describe the accident and asked bare Q about it - there was one critical Q ' about how fast were the cars going when they hit eachother ' one group of p's were given ts - the 4 other groups were given the verbs ( smashed collided bumped and contacted ) - ts is a leading Q as it suggested the answer the P's might give

Answer 40

smashed= 40.8 collided= 39.3 bumped= 38.1 hit= 34.0 contacted= 1.8 suggests leading Q may bias a p's resonse or may cause info to be altered

Answer 41

- new set of p's divided into 3 groups and shown a film of a car accident lasting 1 min and again asked questions about speed - the p's came back a week later. asked 10 Q including a critical Q ' did you see any broken glass' - there was no broken glass.. results show that the leading Q did change the memory of the event for eg 16 of the people who said the cars ' smashed' into eachother said that there was broken glass

Answer 42

CONFORMITY EFFECT: - co witnesses may reach a consensus view of what happened. this was investigated by Fiona Gabbert and colleagues ( 2003 ) - p's were in pairs where each parner watched a diff video of the same event . - pairs in one condition were encouraged to discuss the event before each partner individuallly recalled what they wached - 71% of witnesses who had discussed the event went on to mistakenly recall items aquired in the discussion repeat interviewing; each time an eyewitness interviewed- comments of interviewer may be incorpoeratedinto their recollection of events - interviewers might use leading Q and thus alter individuals memory of events. especially the case in children being interviewed about crime ( LaRooy et al 2005 )

Answer 43

-Oklahoma bombing was infamous crime i US 1995 - one witness claimed to see the murderer Timothy McVeigh with an accomplice initially no witnesses could describe ts person but later theytoo claimed to recall them. eventually the first witness realised that their recollection was wrong. why did the 2 othe witnesses make the same mistake ? conformity influence. led them to believe that there was a second man too

Answer 44

asked people the Q ' do you get headaches often' = reported average of 2.2 headaches per week those asked ' do you get headaches occasionally and if so how often'= 0.7headaches

Answer 45

- application to the criminal justice system. relies heavily on eye witness identification for investigating and prosecuting crimes - psychologisical research has been used to warn the justice system of provlems with EWT. EWT was the largest single factor contributing to the conviction of innocent ppl ( Wells and Olson 2003)

Answer 46

number of studies ( Schacter et al 1991 ) found that comared to younger subjects, old pl have difficulty remebering source of info .even tho their memony for the info itself is unimpaired . - they become more prone to effect of misleading info when giving testimony - suggests individual differences are a important factor when assessing reliability of EWT

Answer 47

lab exp such as Loftus = may not represent real life. low mundane realism and low ecological validity. - take it less seriously than if it happened irl - Foster et al 1994 found that if p's thought they were watching a real life robbery and thought they there responses would influence the trial ; their identification of robber was more accurate - Yuille and Cutshell 1986 also found that witnesses to an armed robbery in canada gave very accurate reports of te crime 4 months later despite initially being given 2 leading Q

Answer 48

Loftus conducted a memorable study involving cut outs of Bugs Bunny ( Braun et al 2002). colly student who had visited disney land as children were asked to evaluate advertising material about disnye land; containing misleading info abuout Bugs Bunny ( not a disney character ) or Ariel ( wasnt introduced at the time of their childhood ) - p's assigned to the Bugs or Ariel group were more likely to report shaking hands with these characters than the control group - misleading info= false memory

Answer 49

an unpleasant e otional state that is often accompanies by increased heart rate and rapid breathing

Answer 50

- weapon focus effect - weapon in criminals hand distracts attention because of anxiety, from other features therfore reducing the accuracy of identification

Answer 51

procedure ; - to test weapon focus effect Johnson and Scott asked p's to sit in a waiting room where they heard an argument in an adjoining room and then saw a man run through carrying either a pen covered in grease , or a knife covered in blood - p's later asked to identify man from photos

Answer 52

- finding supported idea of weapon focus effeect. - mean accuracy was 49% in identifying the man in the pen condition , compared with 33& accuracy in the knife condition - Loftus et al 1987 showed that anxiety does focus attention to be drawn to weapon itself and away from other things like the guys face

Answer 53

arousal or anxiety has a negative effect on performance such as memory recall when its very low or very high but modeate levels are beneficial . hence the U shape

Answer 54

evolutionary argument suggests that it would be adaptive to remember events that are emotionally important so that you could identify similar situations in the future and know how to respond eg escaping a lion

Answer 55

- found evidence of enhanced recall when they questionned 58 real witnesses to bank robberies in sweden. - witnesses were either victims ( bank teller ) or bystander ( customer) - interviews conducted 4-15 months after the robbery - all witnessed showed good recall ( better than 75%) those witnesses who were most anxious ( victims ) had the best recall of all - suggetss anxiety doesnt reduce accuracy

Answer 56

21 studies of the accuracy of the effects of anxiety . - 10 of these studies had results that linked higher arousal levels to increased EWT while 11 of them showed opposite - Deffenbacher suggested that the Yerkes Dodsoneffect can account for this apparant inconsistency

Answer 57

- Pickel 1998 proposed reduced accuracy of identification could be due to surprise - to test ts he arranged for p's to watch a thief enter a hair salon carrying ( scissors ; high threat, low surprise ), ( handgun; high threat, high surprise ) ,( wallet ; ( low threat, low surprise ), or a raw whole chicken ( low threat, high surprise ) - identification was least accuate in the high surprise conditions rather than high threat

Answer 58

- stated that 1 extraneous variable in bare studies is emotional sensitivity - Bothwell et al 1987 p's were tested for peronality characteristics and were labelled either ' neurotic ' or 'stable' - shown that the ' stable' p's showed rising levels of accuracy as stress increased . opposite was true for ' neurotics'

Answer 59

real life vs lab studies ; - strength oc CHristianson and Hubinette ( bank robberies in sweden ting ) - study of anxiety in real life - lab studies dont create the real levels of anxiety experiences by real eyewitnesses in a real crime - Deffenbacher et al 2004 agreed w ts but found from a review of 34 studies; lab studies = demonstrated anxiety = reduced accuracy and that real life studies= even greater loss - these findings at odds with Christianson and Hubinette but suggest that individual diff may matter

Answer 60

These are vivid and detailed memories associated with emotionally charged and shocking events, suggesting they might be more reliable than other memories, despite the high anxiety associated with the event. -The idea of flashbulb memories contradicts the general understanding that high anxiety impairs memory, suggesting that anxiety's impact on EWT might be complex and context-dependent.

Answer 61

1)mental reinstatement ; mentally recreate both the physical and psychological environment ofincident . = accessible memories . gives contextual and emotional ciues 2) report everything ; every single detail even irrelevant . coz memories are interconnected with another 3) change order ; eg reversing timelineof events , cause recollections are influenced by schemas 4) change perspective ; for eg imagining how it would appear to other witnesses as time. disrupting schemas . ts approach suggested by Anderson and Pichert

Answer 62

- meta analysis 53 studies dound an increaseof 34% in amount of correct info generated in CI compared to standard interview techniques ( Kohnken et al) - however effectiveness of CI may be due to some individual elements rather than the whole thing. Mine and Bull 2002 found that when p's were interviewed using a combo of 'report everything' and ' mental reinstatement ' components of CI= recall was bare high than just using an individual component

Answer 63

- Kebbel and Wagstaff report issues with CI - feds say that this technique requires more time and special training, bare forces have not been able to provide more than a few hours ( Kebbel and Wagstaff),; not cost effective

Answer 64

procedure designed to enahnce quantity of correct recall without compromising quality Kohnken et al 1999 found an 81% increase of correct info but also an 61% increase of incorrect info ( false positives ) when CI compared to standard interview - CI don't guarantee accuracy

Answer 65

: To investigate the capacity of short-term memory (STM). • Method: Participants were shown sequences of letters or numbers and asked to repeat them back in the correct order. The sequences increased in length until they could no longer recall them accurately. • Findings: The average span for digits was about 9.3 items, and for letters about 7.3 items. • Conclusion: STM has a limited capacity, and people can typically remember 7 ± 2 items, supporting Miller’s theory.

memory Flashcards

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