psychopathology

Question 1

what is statistical infrequency

Answer 1

behaviours which are statistically rare= abnorma
most people are categorised by mean avergae
graph of normal distribution shows ts
any person who falls outside the normal distribution is perceived as being abnormal
( around 5% of population)

Question 2

what are the definition sof abnormality

Answer 2

• statistical infrequncy
• deviation from social norms
• failure to function adequently
  -deviation from ideal mental health

Question 3

limitations of statistical infrequency

Answer 3

no qualitative data- lacks detail
cultural differences= biased questions
categories and boundries t roo tight

Question 4

what is an example of how norms are specific to the culture we live in?

Answer 4

a person with antisocial personality disorder is impulsive, aggressive and irresponsible . according to DSM-5 ( manual used by psychiatrists to diagnose patients ). one symptom of antisocial personality is an ‘absence of prosocial internal standards associated with failure to conform to lawful and culturally normative ethical behaviour

we are making social judgements that psychopaths are abnormal due to them not conforming to our moral standards

Question 5

whats a strength of statistical infrequency .

Answer 5

its usefullness.
statistical infrequency is used in clinical practice ( part of a formal diagnosis , way to assess the intensity of individuals symptoms )
eg diagnosis of intellectual disability disorder requires an IQ of below 70 ( bottom 2%)
an example of statistical infrequency used in an assessment tool is the Beck depression inventory ( BPI). a score of 30+ ( top 5%)= indicates severe depression
illustrates the value of statistical infrequency .

Question 6

limitation of statistical infrequency.

Answer 6

some characteristics that are viewed as abnormal at ‘face value’ arent actually frowned upon by society. in fact they are desired
eg high IQ ( above 130).
shows that being unusual at one end of the psychological spectrum doesnt neccesarily make you abnormal,
it is never sufficient as the sole basis for defining abnormality

Question 7

A03 human rights abuses; deviation from social norms

Answer 7

using deviation from social norms to define abnormality carries the risk of unfair labelling , leaving them open to human right abuses .
historically this has been a case eg diagnosis like nymphomania has been used to control and manipulate women

Question 8

what did Rosenham and Seligman suggest people will be abnomal based on having an inability to cope with everyday life
what are the 7 features of abnormality based on failure to function adequately

Answer 8

• suffering
• unconventional
• maladaptive
  -unpredictable
• irrational
• violates moral standards
• observer disconfort

Question 9

what is Jahodas criteria for good mental health

Answer 9

-positive self attitude
- personal growth
- mastery of environment
- ability to cope - integration
- autonomy
- accurate perception of reality
according to this definition . abnormality is identified when the individual has fewer criteria = more abnormal

Question 10

what did Marie jahoda 1958 suggest about defining mental health

Answer 10

suggested we could define mental health in the same way we define physical health; by looking for the positive aspects of functioning . by considering what a person can do rather than what they cannot do

Question 11

whats a limitation of Jahods criteria of ideal mental health

Answer 11

deems ideal mental health is too difficult to achieve
there are always going to be days and times where an individual feels less self confident or dependent on others, doesnt mean they are abnormal , or express abnormal behaviours
social sensitivity. expresses that in order to be healthy you must tick and maintain all of these unrealistic criterias

Question 12

whats a limitation of Jahodas criteria ( cultural differences )

Answer 12

Jahodas criteria is focused on western europe and north american cultures and societies where traits and characteristics differ greatly
in these cultures, independence is praised and encourged however in other cultures dependency and collectivism is the norm
eg Japan and China individualism is deemed abnormal
so Jahodas criteria of ideal mental health will mean individuals are viewed to have poor mental health when in fact it is normal behaviour and characteristics to have in their cultures

Question 13

limitation of failure to function-

Answer 13

its easy to label non standard lifestyle as abnormal . people that simply choose to deviate from social norms .
people with alternate lifestyle choose to live off the grid , similarly ppl that favour high risk leisure activities or unusual spiritual practices may be classified as abnormal
restricts personal freedom and liberty

Question 14

how does failure to function represent a threshold for help

Answer 14

according to the mental health charity mind, around 25% of ppl in the UK will experience a mental health problem in any given year
this criterion means that treatment and services canb targeted to those who need them most

Question 15

what are phobias

Answer 15

defined as an anxiety disorder chatergorised by excessive fear and anxiety triggered by an option,place or situation

Question 16

what characterisation does DM use for phobias

Answer 16

1) specific phobias
2) social phobias
3) agoraphobia

characteristics; -
- behavioural ( how we act )
- emotional ( how we feel)
- cognitive ( how we process info )

Question 17

describe the 3 characteristics

Answer 17

1) behavioural ;
- panic ( crying, screaming, running away) , children react differently they freeze and tantrum
avoidence , endurance if unable to avoid, sufferer may remain in presence of phobic stimulus but experience anxiety and panoic

2) emotional
- anxiety, excessive fear, unreasonable ( anxiety is disproportionate to any threat imposed

3) cognitive
- selective attention
-unable to focus on anmything other than phobic stimulus . unable to misdirect attention.irrational belief

Question 18

how does behaviourist approach explain phobias?

Answer 18

classical conditioning = association
operant = reinforcement

Mower 2 process model ; classical conditioning = aquisition ( onset )
operant = maintenance ( avoidence )
eg phobia of dogs
- being bitten (UCS) creates fear ( UCR)
- dog ( NS) associated with being bitten ( UCS)
- dog = ( CS) produces fear response ( CR)

Question 19

what is watson and raynor support 1920 ( lil albert )

Answer 19

criticised for being reductionist, over simplistic . ignores cognition in formation of phobias.
perhaps a holistic approach would be better

Question 20

A03 for the incomplete explanation of phobias

Answer 20

Bouton ( 2007) phobias develop through evolution, why phobias of guns/cars are less common than dark and heights
able to apply this explanation to treatments,applicable to real life.
undermines and reduces validity of behaviourist explanation

Question 21

what is reductionism

Answer 21

belief complezhuman behaviour can be broken down into simpler,smaller parts. behaviourist explanation breaks phobias down into simply learning thru conditioning

Question 22

limitation of statisticla infrequency

Answer 22

behaviours that are statistically infrequent in one culture may be statistically more frequent in another
eg Latino Americans where more than three times more likely to be diagnosed with Schizophrenia than Euro-Americans.

Question 23

how is deviation from social norms susceptible to abuse

Answer 23

homosexuality was included under sexual and gender identity disorders in DSM
similarly 50 yrs ago in Russia, any1 who disagreed with state ran the risk of being regarded as insane and placed in a mental institution
Thomas Szaz claimed the concept of mental illness was simply a way of excluding non conformists from society

Question 24

strengths of deviation from social norms

Answer 24

distinguishes between desirable and undesirable behavior - feature that was absent from the statistically infequent model
considers how behaviour can effect others . allowing social rules to be a means of allowing ppl to live together

Question 25

how does failure to function adequently mean subjective experience is recognised

Answer 25

allows us to view mental disorder from the point of view of the person experiencing it failure to function= easily detectable and easy to judge and thus judge abnormality objectively

Question 26

how does cultural relativism effect jahodas ideal mental health

Answer 26

eg goal of self actualisation - individualist cultures but not collectivist if we apply these criterias to collectivist cultures there would be a large percentage of abnormality

Question 27

strenght of jahodas criter a

Answer 27

offers alternative perspective on mental disorders focusing on 'ideal' even tho jahodas ideas werent really taken up by mental health professionals the ideas have had some influence and reflect with the positive psychology movement

Question 28

statistics of mental health disorders

Answer 28

according to mental health charity mind 1/4 ppl in UK experience mental health problems 2019 ; phobias = 2.6% depression= 2.6% OCD= 1.3%

Question 29

explain Watson and Rayner 1920 study

Answer 29

demonstrate that an irrational fear can be induced by use of association - placid baby boy 'lil albert' 9 months= no fear of white lab rat 11 months = rat on alberts lap, watson made a loud noise by banging together 2 steel bars watson did ts 7 times loud noise = UCS. crying= UCR. rat before conditioning- NS third trial= albert showed fear wheneve he saw rat

Question 30

explain 2 process model of phobia aquisition

Answer 30

Mowrer suggested phobias aquired as a result of classical conditioning and mantained by operant conditioning phobia of spiders= they will run away escape and reduction of fear = negative reinforcement . increases likelihood that this phobia will be maintained when individual avoids a situation which is unpleasant, the behaviour results in a positive consequence consequence = behaviour likely to be repeated

Question 31

A03 = how is behavioural approach an incomplete explanation for phobias

Answer 31

if a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a fearful experience the result should be phobia . ts doesnt always happen not everyone attacked by a dog, develops a phobia ( Di Nardo et al) - suggests the diathesis stress model = genetic vulnerability

Question 32

what is support for social learning

Answer 32

Bandura and Rosenthal supported. experiment a model acted as if he was in pain everytime a buzzer sounded later , those p's showed an emotional reaction to buzzer ' fear response'

Question 33

whatt is systematic desensitisation

Answer 33

one of reasons phobias is that ppl avoid stimulus , no opportunity to learn that the stimlus isnt harmful. Joseph Wolpe 1958 developed ts technique 1) counter conditioning; - patient taught new association that runs counter to the original association - associate phobic stimulus with relaxing ( reduces the anxiety ) - Wolpe also called this reciprocal inhibition ; relaxation inhibits response of anxiety 2) therapist teaches patient relaxation techniques . breathing techniques . being present in the moment + focusing on a particular object or imagining a peaceful scene 3) desensitisation hierarchy - SD works by gradually introducing person to phobic stimulus . one step at a time each stage = relaxation tactics hiarachy made ; from least feared situation to the most fear stimulating one

Question 34

what is flooding

Answer 34

person immersed in experience in one long session , experiencing the worst case scenario person must remain in position and stay calm procedure can be conducted in vivo ( actual exposure ) or virtual reality a persons fear response ( release of adrelanine ) has a time limit. as adrenaline levels naturally decrease , a new stimulus response link can be learned . phobic stimulus associated with non anxious response

Question 35

strengths of flooding

Answer 35

cheaper more straight forward and less steps, reducing long term treatment costs . Lowering NHS spending. money goes for better use

Question 36

A03 for the effectiveness of flooding

Answer 36

McGarth et al 1990 reported that about 75% of patients w phobias respond to SD - key to success= actual contact with feared stimulus so vivo techniques are most successful that using pics or virtual tings ( Choy et al)

Question 37

explain how SD isnt appropiate for all phobias

Answer 37

Ohman et al 1965 suggests that it aint effective in treating phobias that have an underlying evolutionary survival component ( fear or dark, snake , heights ) + may

Question 38

A03 for the effectiveness of flooding

Answer 38

effective treatment for those who stick with it and is relatively quick compared to CBT Choy et al reported that both SD and flooding were effective but flooding more effective on other hand Craske et al conducted that SD and flooding were equally efective in treatment of phobias + individual differences ; limitation

Question 39

symptom substitution A03

Answer 39

if symptoms removed the cause still remains, symptoms may resurface maybe in another form (symptom substitution) Freud 1909 recorded case of little Hans who developed a phobia of horses ;boys acc problem was intense envy of his father , wasnt able to express ts directly . anxiety was projected onto horses

Question 40

what is depression

Answer 40

mental health disorder chategorised by low moods, low energy and losing interest in things previously enjoyed. persistent and more than just feeling 'sad or down'

Question 41

what are the DSM types of depression

Answer 41

- major depressive disorder - persistent depressive disorder -premenstrual disphoric disorder

Question 42

explain the cateogories of depression

Answer 42

1) emotional = hopelessness, emptiness, dread, isolsted, anger, low self esteem 2)behavioural= no appetite, irritable, demotivated, masking, avoidence of social events, disruption to sleep, aggression and SH 3) cognitive = effect on memory, difficulty concentrating - devoid of meaning and purpose - pessimistic outlook - absolutist thinking; black or white

Question 43

expand on the assumptions of the cognitive approach

Answer 43

- out internal processes should be studied scientifically eg perception, attention, memory - cognitive processes are private and cannot be observed - psychologists study them indirectly by making inferences based on behaviours to see whats happening inside - eg of cognitive approach = schema

Question 44

what is Becks theory

Answer 44

some people are more vulnerable to depression 1) faulty info processing 2) negative self schemas - 3) negative triad= - negative view of self negative view about future, negative view about the world

Question 45

what is Ellis cognitive explanation for depression based

Answer 45

she based it on irrational thinking. depression arises when individual experiences irrational thoughts which are any thought that interefere w us being happy and free of pain. aint based on reason , logic and understanding

Question 46

Ellis ABC theory

Answer 46

A= activating event B= beliefs ( irrational thoughts) C= consequences ( characteristics of depression

Question 47

what are the basic elements of CBT

Answer 47

1) initial assessment- identifying the severity of symptoms 2)goal setting; ( patient does this ) -both long term and short term 3) identification; of irrational thoughts 4) challanging using Becks cognitive therapy and Ellis rational emotive behavioural therapy REBT 5) homework; given to patient, tass outside of therapy for patient to complete in between sessions

Question 48

what is Becks cognitive therapy for CBT

Answer 48

- individuals must identify the automatic negative thoughts that make up negative triad, what are the views about self, world, future - testing reality of these negative thoughts and beliefs - complete hw by keeping record of positive aspects of life rather than negative. client is viewed as the 'scientist' investigating reality - hw used as evidence to challange the negative thoughts of the triad - replacing the thoughts with more realistic ones

Question 49

what is Ellis rational emotive behaviour therapy REBT

Answer 49

identify and dispute challenge irrational thoughts breaking link between the negative life event ( A) irrational belief ( B) and depression (C) - use empirical and logical arguments

Question 50

what is behavioural activation

Answer 50

any additional tasks outside of CBT to help improve your mental health eg excersize

Question 51

whats a limitation of CBT

Answer 51

not all patients engage w it eg those with severe depression , cant motive themselves to engage with the cognitive work of CBT , Peter Sturmey 2005 sugested that any formof psychotherapy ( talking ) isnt suitable for ppl w learning difficulities - therefore CBT = appropiate only for specific range of ppl

Question 52

explain how CBT ignores the root cause of depression

Answer 52

focuses only on present and future,not past / cause of it only treats present symptoms and ignores root cause . often patients want to delve into past eg childhood traumas which may have been a catalyst for their depression alternative therapies eg psychoanalysis may be preferred over CBT therefore patients who begin treatmentwith CBT may feel dissatisfied and drop out

Question 53

explain how cognitive treatment of depression is a reductionist treatment

Answer 53

too much emphasis on cognition and not enough focus on other factors affecting depression, childhood trauma, biological predisposition, ignores 3rd party facotrs . could be incomplete reductionist perception of depression

Question 54

what is OCD

Answer 54

defined as an anxiety disorder when you have ecurring and repititive behaviours that you cant control

Question 55

what are the emotional,behavioural and cognitive characteristics of OCD

Answer 55

1)emotional; -anxiety,depression, guilt and disgust ( directed against themsleves or towards others) 2) behavioural; - behaviours completed to reduce anxiety, they are repititive; involve avoidence 3) cognitive ; - obsessive thoughts, irrational,uncontrollable and intrusive - cognitive strategies to deal with obsessions, relaxation techniques - insight into ecessive anxiety ; aware of irrationality, hypervigilant and constant altertness

Question 56

recap on the biological approach

Answer 56

behaviour due to nature behaviour has a physical cause inherit DNA and genetics from biological parents other biological factors could explain behaviour eg neurotransmitters, brain activity/ structure and hormones

Question 57

what did Lewis findaboutOCD patients

Answer 57

genes make individuals more vulnerable to OCD Lewis found that 37% of his OCD patientss had parents with OCD.

Question 58

what does the diathesis stress model sate

Answer 58

certain genes make individuals morevulnerable to disorders like OCD but environmental factors are alsorequired to trigger the disorder

Question 59

what is the term used for genes that make individuals more vulnerable

Answer 59

candidate genes . some genes identified are involved in regulating the neurotransmitter serotonin such as SERT

Question 60

is the behavioural explanation for phobias an incomplete explanation

Answer 60

- if neutral stimulus becomes associated w fearful experience the result should be phobia, ts don't always happen - research found, not everyone who is bitten by a dog develops a phobia of dogs ( DI NArdo et al ) - ts could be explained by the diathesis stress model . proposes we inherit a genetic vulnerability for developing mental disorders. his disorder manifests itself if triggered by life event

Question 61

A03 effectiveness of SD

Answer 61

- McGarth et al reported that about 75% of patients w phobias respond to SD. - key to success appears to lie with actual contact w feared stimulus

Question 62

A03 aint appropiate to all phobias

Answer 62

- Ohman et al suggested its not effective for all types of phobias . eg social

Question 63

A03 of cognitive approach to explaining depression

Answer 63

irrationals beliefs may not be irrational Alloy and Abramson 1979 suggested that depressive realists tend to see things for what tey are ( normal ppl seeing world thru rose tinted glasses ) - found that emo ppl = accurate estimates of likelihood of disaster than normal ppl - called sadder but wiser effect

Question 64

A03 alternative explanation to cognitive approach

Answer 64

- maybe bio explanation better - suggests low levels of neurotransmitter serotonin in emo .+ a gene related to this is 10 more common in people with depression ( Zhang et al 2005) - success of drug therapies for treating depression suggests neurotransmitters are important + another limitation is that it blames the client rather than situational factors

Question 65

what is CBT ( cognitive behavioural therapy )

Answer 65

- albert ellis and few others developed form of CBT . ellis renamed his therapy 'rational emotive therapy ' 1) challenging irrational thoughts - ellis extended his ABC model to ACBDEF D= disputing ittational thoughts E= effects of disputing F= feeling that are produced - effective disputing moves client from catastrphosising ( no one like me ) to rational interpretations - homework ; client given hw eg looking for new job. vital in testing irrational beliefs - behavioural activation; CBT encourages emo to work out and active . belief that active= rewards that act as antidote to depression - unconditional positive regard= ellis recognised important part of successful therapy was convincing client their value

Question 66

A03 cognitive approach to treating depression

Answer 66

- ellis claimed 0% success rate for REBT . taking 27 sessions to complete - REBT and CBT done well for emo and depress - eg Cuijpers et al did review of 75 studies and found that CBT was superior to no treatment - ellis recog that therapy ain't always effective - suggests REBT is effective but other factors relating to client and therapist limits it

Question 67

individual diff cbt

Answer 67

cbt less suitable to ppl who have bare irrational belies that are rigidi and resistant to change ( Elkin et al ) - also less suitable in situations here high levels of stress in the inidivual reflect realistic stresses in persons life that therapy cant sove ( simons et al ) - lack of success in terms of suitability some ppl prefer toshare worries w therapist rather than get involved in the cognitive effort associated with recovery

Question 68

define neurotransmitter

Answer 68

- chemical substances that lay an important part in the workings of the nervous system by transmitting nerve impulses across synpases

Question 69

briefly explain the genetic explanation of ocd

Answer 69

1) COMT gene ; its called comt gene as its involved in production of catechol-)- methyltransferase . comt gene regulates the production of neurotransmitter dopamine that has implicated OCD . comt gene has been found to be more common in OCD patients . this variation produces lower activity of COMT gene and more dopamine( Tukel et al) 2) SERT GENE ; AKA 5-HTT effects transport for serotonin creating lower levels of this neurotransmitter . one study found mutation of this gene in 2 unrelated fam where 6 of the 7 fam had OCD (Ozaki et al)

Question 70

whats the diathesis - stress

Answer 70

each individual gene only creates vulnerability ( diathesis ) for OCD and other issues only factors ( stressors ) affect what condition develops or indeed whether any mental illness develops

Question 71

whats the neural explanations to explaining OCD

Answer 71

1) abnormal levels of neurotransmitters ; dopamine is bare high in ocd. based on animal studies ( high doses of drugs that enhance dopamine induce movements esemblimg ocd ( Szechtman ) - + lower levels of serotonin associated w ocd . antidepressant drugs that increase serotonin activity have reduced OCD symptoms ( PIgott et al) 2) Abnormal brain circuits; - caudate nucleus ( in basal ganglia ) surpresses signals from the orbitofrontal cortex . in terms the OFC sends signals to the thalamas about things that are worrying eg bacteria or germs . when the caudate nucleus is damaged , it fails to suppress minor 'worry signals' and the thalamas is alerted. sends a signal to OFC. acting a sa worry circuit - supported by PET scans of patients with OCD , taken while symptoms are still active ( eg when a person w ocd of germs is holding a dingy cloth ), such scans = heightened activity of ofc - Comer 1998 reports serotonin= key role in operation of OFC and caudatenuceli

Question 72

A03 research support for bio approach ocd

Answer 72

- Menzies et al 007 used MRI to produce images of brain activity in OCD patients and their immediate family members without OCD and also a group of unrelated healthy people ocd patients and close relatives had reduced grey matter in key regions of brain like OFC - supports view of anatomical diff inherited and these may lead to OCD

Question 73

support for bio expl in OCD

Answer 73

- Netatdt et al 2000 = 68% concordane in MZ twins and 31% in DZ twins. suggests bio influence in OCD - it ain't 100% cause environmental factors play key role = diathesis stress model . limits bio explanation as incomplete

Question 74

A03 genetic overlap OCD bio expl.

Answer 74

- similar symtopms occur in tourettes , autism and anorexia .may reflect shared genes or neural mechanisms. supports bio explanation; genetic component. however it suggests OCD my not be a distinct disorder but part of a spectrum of biologically related conditions. challenges OCD as a stand alone biological conditon

Question 75

does the bio expl. of ocd havw real life applcattion

Answer 75

- identified genes e COMT could lead to screening or gene targeted therapies. practical application - but it might be reductionist as ocd is complex and bio expl. may oversimplify and overlook environmental influence

Question 76

what are antidepressants SSRIs ( bio ap. to treating OCD)

Answer 76

- most commonly used drugs for OCD and deression - low levels of serotonin= ocd and depression.drugs can increase levels of serotonin - low levels of serotonin= worry circuit . increasing Serotonin normalise this circuit - antidepressants reduce the anxiety associated with OCD - selective serotonin re uptake inhibitors are the preferred drug to treat anxiety disorders ( choy and Schneier 2008) - serotonin is released into the synapse from one neuromn. targets receptor cells on the recieveving neuron at receptor sites and is reabsorbed by the initial neuron sending the message . in order 2 increase levels of serotonin at the synapse and increase stimulation to receiving neuron. this reuptake is inhibited

Question 77

what are antidepressants; tricyclics

Answer 77

- tricyclic clomipramine( brand name Anafranil) was first antidepressant to be used for OCD . tricyclics block the transporter mechanism that reabsorbs both serotonin and noradrenaline into the pre synaptic cell after its been fires . = more of these neurotransmitters are left pon synapse . prolonging activity - tricyclics can target more than 1 neurotransmitter

Question 78

what are the anti anxiety drugs ( bio approach treat ocd)

Answer 78

Benzodiazepines are used to reduce anxiety slow down activity in central nervous system by enhancing activity of neurotransmitter GABA ( quitening effect on neurons in brain) does this by reacting w special sites called GABA receptors on outside of receiving neuron - it then opens channel that increases the flow of chloride ions into the neuron which make it harder for the neuron to be stimulated by other neurotransmitters

Question 79

A03 drug therapies

Answer 79

- requires little input from user in terms of effort and time - contrasts w shit like CBT - cheaper; reduces long term pressure on health care services . saving resources , people can return to work sooner which boosts economic productivity

Question 80

side effects of drugs

Answer 80

nausaeu , headache insomnia side effectsof SSRIS ( Soomro et al) . can cause the patient to stop taking the drug tricyclic antidepressants have more serious side effects like weird heartbeake and hallucinations - these limit the usefulness of drugs

Question 81

A03 drug therapies ( bio app/ ocd)

Answer 81

not lasting cure Maine et al 2001 found that patients relapse within a few weeks if med is stopped KOran et al 3007 in a comprehensive review of treatments of OCD sponsored by the AMerican Psychiatric Association APA suggested that although drug therapy is commonly used , CBT may gwarn better

Question 82

A03 publication bias drug therapy

Answer 82

Turner et al 2008 claims theres evidence of a publication biastowards studies that show positive outcome of antidepressant treatments, exaggerating benefits of antidepressant drugs . drug companies have strong interest in continuing success of psychotherapeutic driugss