memory Flashcards

Question

retrieval theory AO1

Answer 1

occurs when we dont have the necessary cues to access memory (cue = trigger of info to access memories) tulvings encoding specificity principle = cue must be present at time of encoding and time of recall 2 types of non-meaningful cues: context dependent forgetting - recall dependent on external cue eg: place/weather state dependent forgetting - recall depends on internal cue eg: emotions research on context dependent forgetting: godden + baddeley = divers learnt a list of words underwater or on land and recalled words on land or water (4 conditions) accurate recall was 40% lower in different environments suggests accurate cues present at retrieval were different to encoding cues leading to retrieval failure research on state dependent forgetting: carter + cassady = ppts given antihistamine drug (made them drowsy) 4 different conditions (learn on drug recall when not on drug) etc mismatch of internal state affected recall - retrieval failure

Answer 2

Context doesnt have as large of an effect in daily life: unlike land vs sea in godden + baddeleys research, context dependent forgetting requires very different environments of cues to affect memory recall in one room compared to encoding in another doesnt have as much of a difference extreme scenarios were tested - lacking external validity therefore results not applicable to all scenarios Context effects dependent on type of memory being tested: Godden and Baddeley replicated their underwater study using a recognition test instead of recall They found no context-dependent effect when participants were tested using recognition as performance was the same in all conditions limited explanation of forgetting - only applies when information is recalled not recognised not applicable to many real world situations suggests that the applicability of retrieval failure theory may be restricted to specific memory retrieval tasks BUT no way of knowing if a cue was established at recall or not - all based on assumptions Therefore encoding specificity principle may be over simplistic view of memory

Answer 3

Real world applications: cues may not have a large impact on forgetting BUT it is still important to use them in everyday situations Baddeley says that returning to the environment (physically or mentally) in which the information was learned improves memory necessary to overcome retrieval failure research can be implemented in schools for students when studying - strategies to reduce forgetting eg spaced repetition reinforces memory via retrieval cues suggests research on cues to prevent retrieval failure are useful in real life as well as in highly controlled lab conditions Psychotherapy: Patients can retrieve past experiences in memory in therapeutic contexts through the use of cues Therefore, this suggests that understanding retrieval cues can be beneficial for enhancing memory performance

Answer 4

Doesnt explain false memories: Retrieval failure argues forgetting occurs due to a lack of appropriate cues to retrieve encoded info But research proves memory retrieval can sometimes lead to inaccurate or distorted reccolection (wasnt encoded) Eg: eye witness testimonies Memory retrieval has a complex reconstruction process Memories are vividly recalled yet factually incorrect Theory needs to include the interplay between enoding, storage and retrieval.

Answer 5

misleading questions usually presented after an event leading questions or post event discussion mostly affects eyewitness testimonies research on leading questions: loftus and palmer - 45 ppts watched film clips of car accidents and were given misleading information critical question of the collision changed in 5 ways - hit, smashed, contacted, collided etc findings - smashed verb = higher average speed of 40.5 vs 31.8 in contacted so leading questions created bias in testimonies loftus palmer redid experiment asking if glass was seen (wasnt true) - those who said smashed were likely to say there was - suggests the actual memory changed for ppts research on post event discussion: gabbert et al - each ppt saw video of same crime from different angles allowed to confer with pair after - discussion found 71% of ppts noted things they didn't see but heard from discussion (control group had 0%)

Answer 6

Real world applications in judicial systems: loftus found leading questions can distort the memory of witnesses police officers must be careful with their wording in interviews can help provide training for police - ensures the correct person is trialled as a result - psychologists tell jury about limitations of EWT research meant EWT has reduced in importance compared to factual evidence Pressure of providing accurate testimonies may be overwhelming for clients Adopting techniques such as cognitive interview reduces effect of leading questions Witnesses recall events without suggestive questioning Therefore understanding power of misleading information enhances our comprehension and informs practices to promote justice

Answer 7

Methodological and generalisability issues: loftus and palmer - made ppts watch film clips which were a less stressful situation (memory could be affected by stress normally lack of stress meant participants may have been less careful with their facts (exaggerations etc) but in real life, may have not have included discussion events as their own less motivation to be accurate as no ones life is involved loftus' research not as valid for all types of testimonies reliability of EWT dependent on other factors too + loftus research was in a lab - subject to demand characteristics which means results arent valid + social desirbaility bias Could argue it didn't change memory but just influenced answer

Answer 8

Evidence that post event discussion distorts memory: (substitution theory) Skagerberg + wright - participants shown film clips of 2 versions (light vs dark brown hair). after discussion - participants did not report what they had seen but created a blend between the 2 responses (medium brown hair) suggests the memory itself is distorted through contamination by misleading questions not conformity challenging the memory conformity explanation

Answer 9

evidence against substitution theory: memory not actually altered as EWT becomes more accurate for some aspects of an event than others found ppts recall was better for central details compared to peripheral details focus on central features of an event make the memory resistant to misleading information suggests not all memories can be altered like the substitution theory suggests could increase validity of some EWTs as information between the event wont have affected how true it is

Answer 10

anxiety = state of emotional and physical arousal that can effect EWTs research that anxiety has a negative effect on EWT: johnson and scott - ppts taking part in a lab study were seated in waiting room one condition heard calm convo with man holding pen and greasy hands but others heard a heated fight and glass shattering with man holding blood stained knife 49% of ppts could pick out man from pictures in calm conditions but only 33% for the anxiety inducing situation research that anxiety has a positive effect on EWT: Yuille + cutshall - study on actual shooting in vancouver where shop owner shot thief dead 13/21 witnesses took part in study and were interviewed 4-5 months later interviews compared with original police interviews accuracy determined by num of accurate details recorded findings: little change in accuracy but those reporting highest stress levels were more accurate in smaller details (88% vs 75%) = anxiety enhances memory yerkes-dodson law = optimum anxiety level for best memory (too much/little = poor recollection)

Answer 11

May have tested for unusualness rather than anxiety: ppts may have been focused on weapon due to unusual scenario (not expected in a waiting room) pickel conducted experiment using scissors + wallet vs handgun + chicken (low vs high unusualness) EWT significantly poorer in highly unusual condition suggest weapon focus is due to unusualness compared to anxiety or fear johnson + scotts results not applicable to all scenarios - reduces validity

Answer 12

Support for anxiety enhancing memory: hubinette - 58 witnesses to swedish bank robbery (directly or indirectly involved) assumed directly involved ppts = greatest anxiety recall was almost 75% for all ppts no matter their involvement direct ppts had greater accuracy so anxiety enhanced their memory (same with Yuilles experiment in toronto shooting) BUT lack of control over confounding variables: Hubinette interviewed ppts several months after event - no control over post event discussions between the time so effects of anxiety may have been overwhelmed by misleading information so confounding variables effected findings - invalidating support

Answer 13

Anxiety negatively affects memory: valentine supports johnson and scotts research on weapon focus causing poorer recall of other details objective measure of heart rate taken of ppts in london dungeons high heart rate = anxiety = reduced recall of actor in dungeon so high levels of anxiety effect immediate EWTs after stressful event BUT anxiety has many elements - behavioural, cognitive, emotional etc but research on anxiety only focuses on physical anxiety but cognitive anxiety may play an important role in anxiety - research ignores this = partial explanation Research is largely correlational

Answer 14

method of interview for greater retrieval of accurate memories 4 techniques: report everything = even if ppt may think its unecessary - could lead to more important details reinstate the context = return to crimescene in the mind (linked to context/state dependent forgetting) reverse the order = different sequence of events - back to front - prevents ppts going with what they expect would happen next + prevents dishonesty change perspective = others perspective (perpetrator) prevents our schema from generating expectations of what occurred fisher improved CI = enhanced cognitive interview Strategies include regulating eye contact, minimising anxiety and distractions, encouraging slow speech, and using open-ended questions

Answer 15

Support for effectiveness: Empirical support kohnkens meta analysis combined data from 55 studies comparing CI/ECI with police interviews CI = 41% increase in accurate info compared to police interview (only 4 studies showed no difference) CI effective in accessing memories that are stored but not immediately accessible BUT kohnken found a greater increase in inaccurate info reported particularly with ECI implies that cognitive interviews may prioritise quantity over the accuracy of eyewitness testimony police officers should exercise caution when relying on witness evidence obtained through CI or ECI techniques

Answer 16

Time consuming: More resource intensive to train interviewers than standard interviews In high pressure environments like emergencies, officers may prioritise speed over depth CI not useful for all people eg: children or those with learning difficulties who may struggle to view the scenario from another perspective Question whether Ci is universally applicable Need for alternative methods in diverse groups c

Answer 17

Not all techniques are equally as effective: Bull found combining report everything and reinstate the context had the greatest overall recall with richer data Occasionally changing the perspective disrupted relocation processes of those under high levels of stress or trauma Requires careful adaptation and consideration of use in specific contexts More targeted training needed for most benefit in use

Answer 18

Support from encoding specificity principle: Retrieval theory uses cues to stimulate a witnesses memory as they reinstate the context Therefore cognitive interview has an empirical basis linked to an established theory Research proves a greater increase in recall when returning to the context a memory occurs in So CI has theoretical grounding