issues and debates Flashcards
gender bias AO1
Gender bias in psychological research manifests as either alpha bias or beta bias
Alpha bias exaggerates gender differences, often presenting them as fixed and inevitable
These biases typically devalue women compared to men
Eg: Freud’s theory of psychosexual development argues that boys develop strong castration anxiety and identify with their fathers, resulting in a stronger superego
Beta bias ignores or underestimates gender differences, often by assuming research findings apply equally to both sexes even when women are excluded from studies
Eg: early research on the fight or flight response used primarily male animals and assumed similar responses in females
Later work revealed that women might exhibit a tend and befriend response due to higher oxytocin levels
Both alpha and beta biases stem from androcentrism, where male perspectives dominate psychology.
led to misunderstandings and pathologization of women’s behaviour, like the diagnosis of premenstrual syndrome for medicalizing women’s emotions, while men’s anger is often rationalised
gender bias eval - publication bias
Publication bias:
research challenging gender biases may not be published
Formanowicz found that studies on gender bias are less likely to be funded and published in prestigious journals compared to other forms of bias research
fewer academics and scholars become aware of it or apply it within their own research
This suggests that gender bias in psychological research may not receive the same level of attention as other biases, potentially hindering progress in addressing gender inequality
gender bias eval - methodological issues
Methodological issues:
gender bias promotes sexism in the research process
Murphy found that women are underrepresented in psychology departments, leading to research conducted predominantly by men, potentially biassing study outcomes
Male researchers may hold biases that affect their expectations of female participants, leading to underperformance by women in research studies
indicates that gender bias within the field of psychology can influence research outcomes, perpetuating gender stereotypes
Many laboratory experiments draw conclusions using predominantly male samples, failing to generalize results to women
can lead to incomplete or skewed findings about behavior, memory, and cognition
Recognizing and addressing these methodological biases is essential to improving the validity of psychological research and ensuring that findings are applicable to both genders, leading to more comprehensive theories
gender bias eval - research may have been published as it supports social stereotypes
Biology vs social explanations
One problem with research in gender bias is that gender differences are often presented as fixed and enduring (i.e. alpha bias) when they are not
Maccoby and Jacklin suggested that gender differences in verbal and spatial abilities are hardwired into the brain before birth, contributing to the perpetuation of stereotypes (girls greater verbal ability)
However, Joel found no significant sex differences in brain structure or processing, suggesting previous findings were widely popularised as they fit the stereotype of girls as speakers and boys as doers.
this suggests that caution should be exercised in accepting gender differences as biological facts, as they may be better explained as social stereotypes
Gender bias normalises stereotypes particularly against women - damaging effects
BUT theres research that women are better at multitasking so certain biases may be true between genders
gender bias conclusion
conclusion:
Encouraging the participation of women in research and leadership roles within the field can also lead to the development of theories and practices that are more reflective of both genders. These efforts can enhance the credibility and applicability of psychological research by ensuring that it accounts for the diverse experiences of all individuals.
culture bias AO1
Psychology’s gender and cultural biases stem from a focus on male-dominated research and a limited scope of cultural representation, primarily from Western, educated, industrialised, rich, democratic (WEIRD) populations
This can lead to ethnocentric views of human behaviour, where non-Western, less educated, or poorer cultures are labelled as abnormal or inferior
eg: Ainsworth’s Strange Situation study on attachment reflected Western norms
led to misinterpretations of child-rearing practices in cultures like Japan, where infants, rarely separated from their mothers, showed more distress and were thus wrongly classified as insecurely attached
etic approach = examines behaviour from outside a culture, attempting to describe it universally
emic approach = studies behaviour within a culture, identifying culture-specific behaviours
Ainsworth’s research = imposed etic, as they assumed their findings on American attachment norms were universal. Psychology often commits the error of imposed etic, treating theories developed within a single culture as universally applicable.
Psychologists should embrace cultural relativism, recognizing that their findings may only be relevant within the cultural context in which they were discovered
culture bias eval -influential studies in psychology are culturally-biassed
influential studies in psychology are culturally-biassed:
Studies like Asch’s and Milgram’s were conducted mainly with US participants, leading to cultural biases (white middle class undergrads)
findings of these studies may not apply universally, as demonstrated by higher conformity rates in Asch-type experiments in collectivist cultures (bond and smith)
this suggests that our understanding of psychological phenomena should be contextualised within specific cultural frameworks (eg social influence)
culture bias eval - some behaviour is universal
some behaviour is actually universal
it should not be assumed that all psychology is culturally relative and that there is no such thing as universal human behaviour
Eg: basic facial expressions for emotions (such as happiness or disgust) are the same all over the human and animal world
some features of human attachment (such as imitation and interactional synchrony) are universal
BUT universal view dominated for yearslt
culture bias eval - affected by globalisation
BUT led to emergence of cultural psych
Globalisation:
in an age of increased media globalisation, it is argued that the individualist-collectivist distinction no longer applies
Takano and Osaka found no evidence of clear individualist or collectivist distinctions when comparing the US and Japan in 14/15 cases
indicates that the traditional dichotomy may not fully capture the complexities of cultural differences in modern societies
this suggests cultural bias in research may not be as big of an issue in more recent psychological studies
Enables generalisation of studies
BUT led to emergence of cultural psych:
Involves anthropology, political science and sociology - holistic approach to culture
Avoids ethnocentrism via emic approach using local researchers + cultural techniques
this suggests that modern psychologists offer a promising approach to addressing and mitigating cultural biases in psychological research.
culture bias eval - prejudice
Ethnic stereotyping/prejudice:
Early intelligence tests in the US included many ethnocentric questions which meant south-eastern Europeans and African-Americans performed poorly which was used as evidence of their genetic inferiority
ethnic minorities were deemed mentally unfit and denied educational and professional opportunities, illustrating how cultural biases in research can perpetuate discrimination and justify inequalities in society
this suggests that psychologists must actively confront and address cultural biases to promote fairness and equality in research and practice
freewill/determinism AO1
questions whether human behaviour is governed by free will or determined by internal and external influences
Most psychological approaches lean towards determinism but disagree on the precise causes of behaviour
biological approach emphasises internal factors, while behaviourism focuses on external influences. In contrast, humanism champions free will, suggesting individuals have the autonomy to choose their actions
Determinism states that all behaviour has identifiable causes
hard determinism = every action is predetermined by internal or external forces
aligns with the scientific principle of causality by controlling variables.This allows formulation of laws and predictions to be made
Soft determinism = acknowledges determinism but also recognizes individuals’ capacity for rational choices
Biological determinism focuses on the role of biology in behaviour, considering factors like genetics and the environment
Environmental and psychic determinism both believe free will to be an illusion and attribute behaviour to conditioning and unconscious drives, respectively
freewill/determinism eval -practical value
Practical value:
Roberts found that adolescents who believed in fatalism were at a greater risk of developing depression
indicates that people with an external, rather than an internal, locus of control are less likely to be optimistic
this suggests that even if free will doesn’t objectively exist, believing in it can still yield beneficial psychological effects
Another argument in favour of free will is the position of the legal system on responsibility
legal system holds offenders responsible for their actions based on the assumption of free will
This contradicts the deterministic perspective, as legal frameworks attribute responsibility to individual choices rather than external determinants
this suggests that while determinism may have explanatory power, it is not always consistent with real-world applications such as legal proceedings
BUT ignores predispositions etc
freewill/determinism eval - brain scan evidence for determinsim
Brain scan evidence for determinism:
Libet asked participants to choose a random moment to flick their wrists as their brain activity was measured
results showed that brain activity associated with a decision to move occurred before participants were consciously aware of making the decision (half a second delay)
this suggests that even our basic actions and experiences of free will are determined by activity in our brains before we are aware of them
But the action coming before the conscious awareness of the decision to act doesn’t mean there was no decision to act
It means that our unconscious decision to act just took time to reach consciousness
Therefore we cannot take Libet’s findings as evidence to challenge free will
freewill/determinism eval - treatments and therapy
Treatments and therapy:
Humanistic emphasises free will so uses Client centred therapy focusing on personal growth and self actualization
Empowers people to take control of their lives
Deterministic approaches like behaviourism would treat behaviour using reinforcement eg:flooding for phobias
Doesnt consider individual emotional capacity and the psychological context of the behaviour + personal experiences
Diminishes clients sense of agency
Therefore a free will stance is more useful in explaining and changing behaviour in clients
BUT hard determinism aligns with scientific principle of causality
Suggests determinism leads to more effective treatment
Conclude with intercactionist approach
nurture nature AO1
interaction between genetic inheritance (nature) and environmental influences (nurture) on human behaviour
emphasises their interplay rather than prioritising one over the other
Psychologists now focus on understanding how nature and nurture interact, leading to an interactionist approach
The diathesis-stress model illustrates how both biological vulnerabilities (diathesis) and environmental triggers (stressors) contribute to behaviour eg in OCD
Epigenetics adds complexity by demonstrating how environmental factors can modify genetic activity throughout life, influencing not only an individual but also future generations
Various environmental levels have been identified, from prenatal factors to postnatal social conditions, all impacting development eg smoking
Concordance measures the similarity between individuals on a trait, indicating heritability—the proportion of trait variation attributed to genetics. For IQ, heritability estimates around 50%, highlighting the significant influence of both genetic and environmental factors
Nativists hold the view that certain skills and abilities are hard-wired in the brain at birth
They argue that human characteristics and some aspects of knowledge are innate and so the result of heredity
BUT Locke claimed that the mind is a blank slate at birth upon which learning and experience writes. This is a result of our environment alone and no knowledge is innate.
nature nurture eval - adoption studies
Adoption studies:
Adoption studies allow researchers to disentangle the influences of genetics and environment by comparing adopted children with their adoptive and biological parents
Rhee and Waldman’s meta-analysis found that genetic factors accounted for 41% of the variance in aggression
suggests that adoption studies offer a methodological advantage in understanding the complex interaction between genetic and environmental factors in human behaviour
Minnesota adoption study found children’s IQ more closely correlated with biological parents
98
genetic influences play a more significant part in IQ compared to upbringing
BUT adoption agencies often place children with families of similar socio economic backgrounds to their family = confounding variables
nature nurture eval - research evidence for epigenetics
Research evidence for epigenetics:
Susser and Lin demonstrated that prenatal exposure to famine during The Dutch Hunger Winter was associated with increased risk of schizophrenia in offspring (or rats afraid of cherry blossom scent feared it for 7 generations)
stressors in the environment can lead to changes in gene expression
This shows the role of environmental factors in gene expression across generations via changes affecting the brain
This supports the view of long-term impact of environmental exposures on gene expression and health outcomes of future offspring
interactionist as nurture can significantly influence nature
Both needs to be considered
BUT leads to biological reductionism by overemphasising the role of the environment, it ignores genetics i.e schizophrenia could be genetic in dutch family
nature nurture eval - practical applications in treatment
Practical applications - treatment :
Debate = complex so diathesis stress model more appropriate
Triggers lead to the predisposition being expressed leading to schizophrenia (nature influenced by nurture)
For example, using a combination of drugs and CBT is more effective
Atypical antipsychotics block the role of dopamine and reduce symptoms of schizophrenia BUT research found combining meds with CBT had the largest reduction in symptoms
Therefore adopting an interactionist approach is most beneficial in treating disorders
nature nurture eval - support for interactionist
Niche picking = interactionist:
individuals actively shape their environments based on their genetic predispositions, a concept known as niche-picking
This means that individuals select environments that align with their inherent traits, which in turn further influence their behaviour eg: children enjoy and choose music due to genetics
emphasising the need for a more comprehensive understanding of their interplay where nature influences nurture
holism/reductionism AO1
The holism-reductionism debate in psychology contrasts the holistic approach, which considers systems as wholes, with reductionism, which breaks behaviour down into constituent parts
While holism = interconnectedness of elements, reductionism = analysing behaviour at various levels of explanation, from socio-cultural to physical to neurochemical.
Holistic perspectives focus on individual experiences beyond biological components, using qualitative methods to explore theme
based on the Gestalt view that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts
reductionist approaches, like behaviourism, break behaviour into stimulus-response links, emphasising environmental influences on learning
Biological reductionism extends this approach to genetics, neurochemistry, and evolution, v
For instance, OCD may be reduced to neurotransmitter activity, supporting biological interventions
behaviourists reduce complex phenomena like attachment to learned associations (learning theory) emphasising environmental conditioning = environmental reductionism
Ignores cognitive processes - psychological level
holism/reductionism eval - scientific approach + clear diagnostic criteria
Scientific approach:
Reductionist approaches break down complex behaviours into smaller, measurable components, through operationalization of variables
This means that reductionist methods enable controlled experimentation and observation, allowing for objective and reliable measurements
Eg: in drug studies, reductionist studies provide clear quantifiable outcomes regarding how antidepressants influence mood levels to treat depression
This highlights the importance of reductionist approaches in enhancing the credibility of psychology as a scientific discipline and can be used as treatments based on empirical evidence
Clear diagnostic criteria:
Eg: schizophrenia under DSM5 has structured guidelines to identify and treat psychological disorders
BUT rosenhan found even after acting normal once admitted, they were considered schizophrenic therefore a holistic view of behaviour as well as symptoms may be best
holism/reductionism eval - reductionism oversimplifies complex phenomena
Reductionism oversimplifies complex phenomena:
Reductionist explanations focus on isolated components such as genes or neurotransmitters, neglecting the social context in which behaviour occurs
reductionist perspectives may fail to capture the full complexity of behaviour, particularly its social and contextual dimensions.
Ignores interactions between individual traits and social influences leading to potential misleading conclusions
suggests that while reductionist approaches offer valuable insights, they should be complemented with holistic perspectives to provide a more comprehensive understanding of behaviour
Eg: social conformity might benefit from an understanding of peer pressure/societal norms as well as focusing on individual neurobiological processes for a more holistic approach
eg: genetic predispositions influencing agreeableness or nAffiliators for better understanding of conformity
This means that higher-level explanations, which consider group dynamics and social processes, are necessary to fully understand complex behaviours like conformity.
Asch found peer pressure could override personal beliefs affecting conformity (reductionist view would overlook this)
this suggests that for some behaviours, higher-level and holistic perspectives provide a more valid explanation.
holism/reductionism eval -holism lacks practical value
Holism lacks practical value:
Involves numerous interconnected factors that can include, biological, psychological, social, environmental and cultural influences
Complexity makes it challenging to pinpoint which factor may be the most influential in a case - leads to unfocused analysis
Difficult to establish causal relationships as there arent any Ivs to influence DVs
Practitioners may struggle to prioritise specific factors for interventions
Eg: treatment of depression involves lifestyle changes, therapy, medication and social support
Doesnt indicate where to start or what interventions are most effective
Patients may struggle to find a place to start - ineffective (no straightforward route)
Although holism provides a comprehensive understanding of human behaviour, it fails to provide actionable insights for intervention and may be less beneficial
idiographic vs nomothetic AO1
Idiographic = people studies as unique individuals with subjective experiences and motivation
focuses on studying individuals in-depth to understand human behaviour through detailed information about a single person or small group.
qualitative research from case studies/unstructured interviews
Linked to humanistic approach - everyone moves up hierarchy in own way to self actualisation
Nomothetic = aims to produce general laws of behaviour
Benchmark for which people can be compared measured and classified
Quantitative data from experiments + large sample size so data statistically analysed
aims to study large groups to establish general principles and norms of behaviour
Eg: behaviourist research on learning theory of attachment and Sperry’s biological studies on hemispheric lateralization, which sought to develop generalizable theories
The nomothetic approach emphasises objectivity, aiming for standardised, replicable methods to eliminate bias. The idiographic approach values subjective individual experiences, as opposed to complete objectivity in psychological research.
