aggression

Question 1

neural and hormonal explanations of aggression AO1

Answer 1

limbic system:

amygdala, hypothalamus, and parts of the hippocampus - amygdala reactivity regulates emotional behaviours and aggression
benzodiazepine intake reduces both amygdala activity and so aggression

serotonin = inhibitory effect
Normal serotonin levels in the orbitofrontal cortex = enhanced self-control

low levels = impulsivity and aggression
research found low levels of serotonin breakdown in impulsive behaviour in offenders = link with serotonin and aggression

hormonal:
testosterone = male androgen
castration of animal experiments -> reduced aggression due to lower testosterone levels
injections raised levels again
sample of 60 offenders in max security prisons (violent) showed high levels of testosterone
had personality disorders and history of offences

low progesterone = aggression in women
lowest during and after menstruation

Question 2

neural and hormonal explanations of aggression eval -other brain structures besides amygdala

Answer 2

other brain structures, besides the amygdala, involved in determining aggressive behaviour
OFC is not part of the limbic system but is involved in self-control, impulse regulation and inhibition of aggressive behaviour
patients with psychiatric disorders with aggressive behaviour, there is a decrease in OFC activity
aggressive behaviour is more complex than seems
sole focus on amygdala - reductionist (Aggression influenced by multiple factors)
ignores environmental triggers - oversimplifies

Question 3

neural and hormonal explanations of aggression eval -research support for testosterone/serotonin affecting aggression

Answer 3

research support for testosterone and serotonin (neural and hormonal) affecting aggression
serotonin levels increased by paroxetine drug
game of electric shocks found ppts given the drugs consistently gave fewer, less intense shocks compared to the placebo group
testosterone support in rat castration
but not a causal relationship
many people have high testosterone and are not aggressive
situational factors also influences relationship
eg: SLT theory highlights how aggression is learned via observation (bobo doll)
but could be due to biological dispositions (cant distinguish between the 2)

Question 4

neural and hormonal explanations of aggression eval - dual hormone explanation BUT cultural variations

Answer 4

dual hormone explanation
overlooks role of other hormones (oversimplifies)
high levels of testosterone leads to aggression, but only when levels of cortisol are low
high levels of cortisol will block testosterone’s influence (stress hormone)

BUT cultural variations
different cultures have different levels of accepted aggression according to norms
this influences how aggressive behaviour is expressed eg: passive males may have high testosterone but do not express it

Question 5

genetic explanation of aggression AO1

Answer 5

twin studies - biological factors should be responsible for 50% of aggressive behaviour
coccaro studied MZ (100% shared dna) and DZ twins (50% shared dna)
found concordance rates of 50% in MZ twins and only 19% in DZ twins so biology has an impact on aggression
low activity variant MAOA-L gene leads to low enzyme activity causing MAO-A deficiency -> highly aggressive behaviour
brunner found similar findings in family of 28 dutch offenders (MAOA-L gene)

but diathesis-stress model = environment triggers the gene so there’s an interaction of biology and the environment causing aggression

genetic predispositions often require environmental triggers to manifest fully

Question 6

genetic explanation of aggression eval - twin studies lack validity

Answer 6

twin studies lack validity
twins share the same environment to a certain degree so equal environment assumption may be incorrect
MZ twins sharing 100% of DNA are likely to be treated more similar than DZ twins with 50% same DNA
concordance rates may be inflated as results may be due to differences in environment and praise from family
genetic predispositions dont always lead to aggressive behaviour
environmental factors influence
biological determinism

Question 7

genetic explanation of aggression eval - interactionist viewpoint

Answer 7

interactionist viewpoint
research showed participants with the low-activity MAOA variant (MAOA-L) exhibited cooperative behaviour rather than aggression when made aware of cooperative behaviour among others
indicates that environmental factors, such as social norms and awareness of others’ behaviour, play a significant role in modulating the expression of aggression
BUT reliant on direct observation
may have been affected by observer bias - questions validity of findings and its generalisability

Question 7

genetic explanation of aggression eval - support from animal studies

Answer 7

support from animal studies
gene deletion in mice - removal of MAOA-L gene increased serotonin and led to hyper aggression
when serotonin was blocked by fluoxetine, the mice reverted back to their non-aggressive behaviour
BUT generalisability issues
humans may use SLT to learn via observation but mice are more biologically focused
conclusions cant be drawn properly.

Question 8

genetic explanation of aggression eval - diathesis stress model

Answer 8

frazzeto found a link between antisocial behaviour and MAOA-L gene BUT only when they experienced serious trauma

+ those without trauma did not show antisocial behaviour despite having gene

= complex link and environmental influence may be more important

Question 9

ethological explanation AO1

Answer 9

aggression is adaptive

beneficial for survival as it can force a defeated animal to establish territory elsewhere, allowing the victor greater access to resources

establishes dominance hierarchies, which facilitates access to mates

minimal physical aggression - reliant on ritualistic aggression

includes appeasement displays of defeat (wolf shows jugular vein)

adaptive as it prevents the extinction of a species if every aggressive encounter would end in a death

An innate release mechanism (IRM) is a physiological process (e.g. network of neurons) that can trigger a fixed action pattern (FAP) following an environmental stimulus
FAP = sequence of stereotyped, preprogrammed behaviours triggered by IRM (stereotyped, universal, unaffected by learning, single purpose, occur in response to stimulus, ballistic - once sequence starts it cant be stopped till complete)
timbergen - male stickleback fish are triggered by red underbellies triggering FAP in mating season

Question 10

ethological explanation eval -cultural differences

Answer 10

cultural differences
Twin studies have proved that genetics influence aggression supporting the ethology
belief that aggression is innate, hereditary and adaptive
BUT cultural differences counters this
nisbett found homicide as a result of reactive aggression was more common in the south of the US than the north in white men - difference due to culture of honour in the south
aggression comes from learned social norm so isn’t instinctive or innate
innate influences cant have cultural changes - culture overrides innate predispositions

Question 11

ethological explanation eval - challenging evidence

Answer 11

challenging evidence
studies of territorial animals proves aggression is innate and crucial for survival
BUT
studies of chimpanzees in Tanzania found that one community systematically slaughtered members of another group
ethology argues aggression is rarely physical
despite the victims displaying appeasement signals and showing defencelessness
challenges the validity of the ethological explanation that same-species aggression evolved into harmless ritualistic behaviours
BUT newer research into lethal aggression (hunting of same species)
adaptive - reduces competition, food source, and ability to pass on genetics

Question 12

ethological explanation eval - ecological validity

Answer 12

ecological validity
aggression observed in natural settings
authentic observations compared to lab studies of aggression
works hand in hand with other research support such as twin studies proving genetic influence of aggression (innate)
BUT difficult to generalise findings to humans
humans = greater cognitive capacity
learn through environment SLT
reductionist viewpoint + determinist

Question 13

evolutionary explanation of aggression eval - cultural differences

Answer 13

cultural differences

aggression believed to be universal
but kung san people show no aggressiveness
those who are aggressive are ridiculed and ostracised
cultural/social norms reduce aggression from childhood through to adulthood
if all cultures don’t show aggressiveness it may not be adaptive
BUT homicide rates are high suggesting external views can lead to observer bias
Yanomamo - Brazil = ‘the fierce people’
aggression is an accepted and required behaviour to settle disputes and gain status

therefore human aggression is influenced by culture, individual experiences and learning which varies between societies

Question 13

evolutionary explanations of aggression AO1

Answer 13

evolutionary aggressive males due to sexual jealousy and paternity uncertainty
threat for male of cuckoldry (waste of resources on another man’s child, survival of a rivals genes, less resources for own offspring)
survival mechanisms evolved to reduce cuckoldry - adaptive to keep partner

mate retention strategies: direct guarding = male vigilance over partner eg: tracker on car
negative inducements = issuing threats or dire consequences eg: i’ll die without you
mate retention strategies linked with violence: 53% of women said they feared for their lives and 73% needed medical attention after suffering violence linked to statements on mate retention strategies

research found that there was a strong positive correlation between the men’s mate retention behaviours and the women’s reports of their partner’s physical violence.
bullying occurs due to power imbalance
adaptive to increase chance of survival + getting a mate
men:volk et al argues bullying traits attractive to female (dominance/strength)
naturally selected bullying behaviours to increase reproductive success
+ reputation of bullying means less aggressive behaviour to self - reducing stress for health
women: bullying in a relationship to maintain partner secures partners fidelity to provide resources for future offspring
naturally selected behaviour to enhance reproductive success

Question 14

evolutionary explanation of aggression eval - accounts for gender differences

Answer 14

accounts for gender differences in aggression

higher levels of physical aggression in men than women. Physical aggression of woman puts herself and child in danger
females use verbal aggression as a means of mate retention (linked to biology of being weaker)
males show aggression for dominance over other men + reduces threat of cuckoldry
research from evolutionary approach understand the gender differences and can be used as an intervention process to work from the root of the cause in extreme cases
BUT these insights dont consider todays worlds social factors (media, peers etcs influence aggression) so outdated theory?

Question 15

evolutionary explanation of aggression eval - deterministic

Answer 15

deterministic

ignores environmental factors influence on aggression
eg: children raised in violent abusive households may exibit greater aggression as a result
but could argue diathesis stress model (gene only expressed in the presence of a trigger)
BUT practical applications to help those naturally aggressive (no matter the cause)
aggressive males encouraged to play sport to exhibit dominance and competition as required without harming others
suggests evolutionary explanation should regard biological explanations too but can still explain behaviour

Question 16

SLT of aggression AO1

Answer 16

SLT of aggression

aggression can be learned directly (reinforcement and punishment) or indirectly (vicarious reinforcement) via observation of a social environment

Vicarious reinforcement = likelihood of imitating behaviour increases if the behaviour is rewarded and decreases if behaviour is punished. If a child learns (directly or indirectly) that aggressive behaviour can bring rewards -> increases self-efficacy = extent to which we believe our actions will achieve a desired goal

4 mediational processes - attention, retention, motor reproduction and motivation

Bandura’s Bobo doll = children who observed an aggressive model were more likely to behave aggressively towards a bobo doll compared to a non-aggressive model

children who observed an aggressive model being rewarded for their behaviour were more likely to display aggressive behaviour compared to those who saw the behaviour being punished

Question 16

SLT of aggression eval - ignores biological basis

Answer 16

ignores biological basis
reductionist view
ignores the nature part of aggression eg MAOA gene (MAOA-L)
plus serotonin levels and hormones like progesterone and testosterone also lead to aggression
SLT ignores all biological influences of aggression and underpins its importance

eg: kungsan people do not encourage aggression (parents dont discipline children using aggression) so no models of aggression
but aggressive behaviour is still displayed (innate?)

Question 17

SLT of aggression eval -research support

Answer 17

research support:
poulin and bolvin found aggressive boys (9-12yrs) are more likely to be friends with other aggressive boys
friendships mutually reinforced each others aggressive behaviour via modelling
boys saw each other successfully using proactive aggression to get what they want so positively reinforces the behaviour
reinforcement of reward from the rest of the group as well (aggression could be linked to NSI in large aggressive friend groups)

+ research took place in real settings unlike controlled bobo doll so supports SLT (high external validity)

BUT weak explanation for reactive aggression

boys with higher levels of testosterone are more likely to be friends with other boys with higher testosterone as they share similar traits like assertiveness

unclear if aggressive behaviour is what makes boys friends or other biological underpinnings

Question 18

SLT of aggression eval - practical applications

Answer 18

practical applications
can help reduce aggression in children as children imitate role models behaviour particularly when positively reinforced and if they identify with them (vicarious reinforcement)
TV shows can be modified to positively reinforce good behaviour that the children will then imitate punishing bad behaviour like being aggressive when you dont get a toy will reduce the rate of aggression in children if a child identifies with a character
media laws can be changed to benefit childrens aggression from SLTs research
+interventions can create prosocial environments by encouraging children to befriend those who dont model aggressive behaviour
concept of reciprocal determinism = environment shapes behaviour

Question 19

deindividualisation of aggression AO1

Answer 19

De-individualisation

De-individuation explains behaviour of individuals in crowds

When we join a crowd we lose the restraints that we have. Responsibility becomes shared throughout the crowd so we feel less personal guilt at directing aggression at others

Zimbardo - people shift from an individuated state (behaviour that conforms to social norms) to a de-individuated state (lose self-awareness and ignore social norms) under conditions such as darkness, drugs, alcohol.

crowd = gains anonymity which provides fewer opportunities for others to judge you negatively

The consequences of anonymity affect our private self-awareness (joining a crowd makes us pay less attention to our own beliefs) and our public self-awareness (no longer care what others think of us)

Dodd asked ppts what they would do if not held responsible
Results showed 36% antisocial behaviour, 26% criminal acts and only 9% were prosocial

This demonstrated the link between anonymity and aggressive behaviour

Question 19

deindividualisation of aggression eval - explains real world behaviour

Answer 19

explains real world behaviour
can explain the behaviour of those in “baiting crowds”
21 reported instances of US suicides involving baiters occured at night and in a large crowd
baiters encourage suiciders to jump - particularly when there is a large distance between themselves
research of online chat rooms found strong correlation between anonymity and ‘flaming’
BUT nature could also explain such crowd behaviour
crowds could instead bring stress releasing adrenaline sparking the aggressive behaviour
interactions of hormones and environment together can lead to deindividualisation

Question 20

deindividualisation of aggression eval - deindividualisation isnt always negative and aggressive

Answer 20

deindividualisation isnt always negative and aggressive

can support social norms

anonymity shifts an individuals identity from private inner self to social identitiy as a group member promoting prosocial behaviour

BUT could argue modelling occurs and it isnt the crowd behaviour (deindividualisation theory) causing the action but rather reinforcement

gergen placed 9 strangers in a dark room - allowed to do anything and wouldn’t meet

began kissing rather than act aggressively

kissing decreased when told they’d meet again later

Question 21

institutional aggression AO1

Answer 21

institutional aggression Institutional explanation explains aggressive behaviour in the contexts of prisons 2 theories: importation model = dispositional explanation emphasises the individual’s aggressive personality Violence in prisons reflects the beliefs, values and norms of prisoners from the outside world, so they ‘import’ aggressive behaviours so an inmate predisposed to using violence will do so in any setting (outside and inside of prison) Research into juvenile delinquents showed that those who experienced childhood trauma, substance abuse, high levels of anger and a history of violent behaviour = more likely to commit an increased number of physical violence compared to control deprivation model = situational explanation of aggression focuses on the harsh and stressful prison conditions as the cause of aggressive behaviour lack of freedom, independence, safety and heterosexual activity etc deprivation of these creates frustration which makes violence more likely to happen Research has shown that inmate-on-inmate violence was more common in prisons that were overcrowded

Question 22

deindividualisation of aggression eval - oversimplifies behaviour

Answer 22

oversimplfies behaviour doesnt account for individual differences not everyone in a mob partakes in aggressive behaviour (even one person acting prosocially in a football crowd can restore order) some people maintain moral compass despite crowd around them aggression may occur in situations where a person feels provoked regardless if theyre in a group frustration aggression hypothesis can explain behaviour better aggression cant be explained from one viewpoint alone - multitude of factors can affect behaviour

Question 23

institutional aggression eval - support for deprivation model

Answer 23

Support for deprivation model: there is evidence which supports this situational explanation Cunningham analysed 35 inmate homicides in Texas prisons to investigate motivations for the behaviour found that some of the reasons were linked to arguments over drugs, homosexual relationships and personal possessions Therefore, as these are all factors proposed by the deprivation model that predict violence, it adds validity to the explanation Anderson found extreme overcrowding exhibited higher levels of aggression and violence This highlights the importance of the environment in shaping behavior, providing a clear illustration of how institutional factors can lead to aggressive outcomes

Question 24

institutional aggression eval - challenging evidence

Answer 24

challenging evidence: Eg: Hensley investigated 250 male and female inmates of two prisons, both of which allowed conjugal visits (visits from partners to have sex) found no link between having these visits and reduced aggressive behaviour this goes against predictions made by the deprivation model that lack of heterosexual contact leads to increased violence and thus challenges the situational explanation

Question 25

institutional aggression eval - interactionist

Answer 25

Interactionist Deprivation + importation Violence heightened by overcrowded prison conditions but influenced by background like gang affiliation Research emphasizes that without considering both individual histories and environmental conditions, interventions may fail to address the root causes of aggressive behavior, leading to insufficient outcomes

Question 26

institutional aggression eval - support for importation model

Answer 26

Support for importation model 560 male inmates with similar criminal histories placed in either a low-security prison or in the second-highest category prison results showed no significant difference in the number of prisoners involved in aggressive conduct between the two prisons (33% and 36%, respectively) Therefore, taking into consideration the experimental nature of the study with random allocation to the prisons, it provides strong evidence which adds more validity to this explanation compared to correlational or natural experiments BUT alternative model looks at how poor management, a culture of informal and unofficial rules, distant staff and lack of education opportunities all contribute more to serious forms of inmate violence than just the importation theory explains

Question 27

media influence of aggression eval - correlational research

Answer 27

Correlational research: does not allow cause-and-effect conclusions to be drawn Eg: research showing a correlation does not tell us whether it is due to the socialisation hypothesis or the selection hypothesis. link could either exist because violent media actually causes aggression (socialisation) or that already aggressive people choose to consume violent media (selection) direction of causality cannot be established in correlational research and there might be another third variable which can explain the change in bot

Question 27

media influence of aggression eval - lack of control over variable

Answer 27

Lack of control over variables: Eg: other factors such as aggressive role models (e.g. family and friends) may interact with media influence. longitudinal studies become vulnerable to the effects of confounding variables difficult to separate and control all such variables and assess their impact on aggressive behaviour (i.e. we cannot isolate effects of media alone) Individual differences affect aggression eg: age affects a persons ability to be affected by media aggression Or those with predispositions of hostile attitudes are more negateively affected by violent media Cant be generalised to all audiences BUT correlational evidence has led to more stringent media rules on content available to children + increase in use of parental controls etc (practical applications)

Question 28

media influence of aggression AO1

Answer 28

media influence Bartholow and Anderson - students who played Mortal Kombat (violent) compared to a non-violent game were more likely to deliver noise blasts to punish an opponent (measure of aggression) DeLisi used structured interviews and found a significant relationship between aggressive behaviour and how often and how much they enjoyed playing violent computer games - positive correlation Robertson followed people for 26 years in New Zealand and found that time spent watching TV was a reliable predictor of aggressive behaviour - longitudinal study meta-analysis compiled results from 136 studies and found that violent media exposure was associated with increases in aggressive behaviours, thoughts and feeling m

Question 28

media influence of aggression eval - lab studies artificial

Answer 28

Lab studies are artificial: A limitation of using experiments to measure the link between aggressive media and aggressive behaviour is that it is often artificial and unrealistic Eg the aylor Competitive Reaction Time Task which measured aggression by how much loud noise was blasted at an opponent unlike realistic forms of aggression in the real world, where often there is fear of retaliation affects the internal validity of the studies conducted in lab experiments because it is unable to measure real forms of aggression (due to ethical reasons)

Question 29

media influence of aggression eval - media affected by publication bias

Answer 29

Media affected by publication bias: in scientific research there is a tendency to only publish findings that are statistically significant so any nonsignificant results are left out (also referred to as the file drawer problem) in meta-analyses as they generally only include published studies This has serious consequences in terms of creating a false impression that the effects of violent media on aggression are greater than they actually are

Question 30

Desensitisation, disinhibition, cognitive primings influence on aggression AO1

Answer 30

Desensitisation, disinhibition, cognitive primings influence on aggression: desensitisation = prolonged exposure to aggressive media diminishes the physiological arousal (heart rate, skin conductance rate linked to sympathetic nervous system) we experience + psychological changes (less sympathy for victims) Disinhibition = change from people viewing violence and aggression as antisocial because of social norms to aggression appearing normative due to exposure of violent media (appears justified). Creates a new social norm for viewers where aggression can be used to solve interpersonal issues. This results in them feeling less inhibited to use aggression Cognitive priming = violent media provides us with ‘scripts’ (how violent situations play out) which are stored in our memory and can be triggered by cues we perceive as aggressive. A study found that male participants who listened to songs with aggressively derogatory lyrics about women subsequently recalled more negatively qualities about women (same for women with men hating songs) script automatically primes us for aggressive behaviour

Question 31

Desensitisation, disinhibition, cognitive primings influence on aggression eval -

Answer 31

Supporting evidence of disinhibition: Berkowitz and Alioto showed that participants that saw a film depicting aggression as vengeance gave more shocks of longer duration to a confederate This is because the vengeance is presented as justified aggression which is seen as more socially acceptable adds validity to the explanation as it demonstrates the link between removing social constraints of aggression and subsequent aggressive behaviour Anderson and dill found ppts who played more violent video games exhibited a greater willingness to engage in aggressive behaviour BUT individual differences eg personality, social norms and previous experiences confluence how people respond to media violence (more nuanced hypothesis needed)

Question 32

Desensitisation, disinhibition, cognitive primings influence on aggression eval - Cognitive priming has supporting research BUT confounding variables:

Answer 32

Cognitive priming has supporting research BUT confounding variables: Research found children exposed to violent TV were more likely to interpret ambiguous situations as hostile (behaved aggress But some research argues that violent games tend to have much more complex gameplay compared to non-violent games, which could act as a confounding variable when complexity was controlled, the priming effect of violent video games disappeared questions the validity of studies into priming as the results may be partly because of confounding variables

Question 32

Desensitisation, disinhibition, cognitive primings influence on aggression eval - desensitisation research support

Answer 32

Desensitisation research support: Krahe measured skin conductance (measure of physiological arousal) of participants while watching violent and non-violent films habitual viewers of violent media showed lower levels of physical and anxious arousal when watching the violent films and this lower arousal was also correlated with proactive aggression in a ‘noise blast’ task adds validity to this explanation as desensitised individuals were more likely to engage in aggressive behaviour BUT critics aregue not everyone reacts with skin conductance and may have decreased emotional reactions in general Effects of desensitisation differ from individual to individual