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Cognitive & Social Psychology > Memory > Flashcards

Memory Flashcards

1
Q

What are the encoding, storage and retrieval stages of memory?

A
  • Sensory storage: split-second memory system that stores information coming in through your senses.
  • Encoding: Sensory information is transformed into a form that our neural system can recognize and process. Information can be processed visually, acoustically or semantically.
  • Storage: memories can be stored in short-term or long-term form.
  • Retrieval: STM is stored and retrieved sequentially whereas LTM is stored and retrieved by association.
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2
Q

What are the different levels of description in cognitive psychology’s approach to studying memory?

A
  • Approaches research in terms of levels of description of a complex system
    • Computational level: abstract problem analysis (what needs to be computed)
    • Representation/algorithm level: specifies a formal procedure to perform the task - specify form of information and steps required
      • Cognitive Psychology
    • Hardware level: the physical implementation
      • Cognitive Neuroscience
  • Relationships between levels
    • A certain amount of independence (cannot infer across levels)
    • integration across levels is possible –> corelation of cognitive tasks and fmri data
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3
Q

What is the information processing model of memory?

A
  • 1950-80s Computer metaphor
    • The mind as a single processor
    • “coding” metaphor: use of symbols to represent things in the world
    • Representation: Specify form of symbolic knowledge
    • Algorithms: Specify operations/processes required to manipulate and transform input and retrieve relevant symbolic knowledge
  • Tested by developing a model of a task that generates predictions about observable behaviours
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4
Q

What is the difference between theories/models and frameworks/paradigms?

A
  • Theories/Models: capture fundamental characteristics of empirical phenomena
  • Frameworks/paradigms: much more generalised set of assumptions about the fundamental characteristics and organisation of mental processes
  • Benefits: Generate hypothesis to be tested
  • Restaints: can constrict the answers we consider
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5
Q

What is the connectionist framework?

A
  • 1980s-now
  • Neural metaphor: the mind is a network of interconnected processing units (neurons)
    • Processing consists of transmission of activation and inhibition within these networks
  • Theory takes the form of a computer programme which sets up
    • large numbers of interconnected computing units (nodes)
    • Input units, Output units & hidden units
      • Units can send excitatory or inhibitory signals to other units,
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6
Q

What is the cognitive neuroscience paradigm?

A
  • 1990s-now
  • Neuroimaging: Many cognitive functions can be localised to particular neural regions
  • Involves identifying and investigating how these areas respond to experimental manipulations provides insight into the brain mechanisms underpinning cognitive processes
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7
Q

What are four different approaches to measuring memory processes?

A
  • Experimental cognitive psychology
    • Develop theories of cognitive processes underlying a task
    • Use behavioural evidence to test theories
    • BUT theories often abstract, and tests rely on inferences
  • Cognitive neuropsychology
    • Use patterns of impairment after brain injury to infer the functional organisation of the brain
    • Dissociations between different tasks implies that they rely on different neural systems (especially if double dissociations)
    • BUT have to rely on “single cases”
  • Computational modeling
    • create a computer program based on model of task performance
    • BUT requires lots of specification –> often have to specify details that are not part of theory
  • Cognitive neuroscience
    • take “snapshots” of brain activity while people are performing cognitive tasks (e.g., PET, fMRI)
    • BUT different measures reflect different aspects of brain function; and techniques require effective application of cognitive psychological methods
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8
Q

How do the different measures of memory function relate to behaviour, models and the brain?

A
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9
Q

What is the multistore model of memory?

A

Traditional view of memory - STM and LTM are independent with different properties

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10
Q

How does the influence of semantic information on STM argue against the multistore model of memory?

A
  • The multistore model predicts total independence between LTM and STM, but semantic (LTM) influences on STM are apparent
  • Semantic Influences
    • Von Restoff effect: U curve in recall (primary effect, recency effect)
    • Brown-Peterson: proactive interference (over many trials, interference from previous similar sets of the same semantic type) removed when semantic group is changed eg fruit to colours)
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11
Q

What did Craig and Lockhart determine about levels of processing in memory?

A
  • The experiment
    • investigated incidental memory (not told to try and remember something) for material presented with different orienting tasks
      • print: counting letters in words
      • sound: does this word rhyme with treat?
      • Meaning: do you find these in the city?
  • Memory works best when encoding task requires deep rather than shallow processing - meaning is remembered > sound > print
  • Not due simply to longer encoding time for deeper encoding tasks
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12
Q

What is Andersons interactive Adaptive Control of Thought (ACT) Model of memory?

A
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13
Q

In Andersons ACT model of memory what constitutes declarative, production and working memory?

A
  • LONG-TERM MEMORY
    • DECLARATIVE MEMORY
      • Semantic memory
      • Episodic memory
    • PRODUCTION MEMORY (i.e procedural memory)
      • memory for how to do things
      • not verbalisable or available to conscious awareness
  • WORKING MEMORY
    • A system in which incoming information is processed and integrated with existing declarative and procedural memory
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14
Q

What is Baddeleys model of working memory?

A
  • Working memory is comprised of three specialist components
  • The Central Executive
    • Limited capacity, modality free control system responsible for co-ordination, selection, allocation of attentional resources etc
  • The 2 Slave Systems
    • Phonological loop: maintains verbal information
    • Visuospatial sketchpad: maintains visual/spatial information
  • Addition: Episodic Buffer: interface of WM with LTM
    • multimodal but limited capacity
    • ‘flashbulb’ memories
  • Evaluation: heuristically useful, difficulty in researching the ‘central executive’ properly
    • *
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15
Q

What did Miyaki et al contribute to the excutive functions approach to working memory?

A
  • Executive processes:
    • control and regulate thought and action
    • Are associated with frontal lobes e.g. deficits in people with brain injury
  • Miyake et al. (2000) identified three independent executive processes:
    • updating; 2-back task
    • shifting; task changing (identify colour or letter)
    • inhibition: Antisacade Task (Avoid irrelevant stimuli)
  • These processes show different relationships with cognitive development and intelligence
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16
Q

How can we measure the work done by WM?

A
  • A valid measure of the role of working memorycapacity in ‘real world tasks’ need to assess SIMULTANEOUS demands of BOTH storage and processing
  • Simple vs. complex span tasks:
    • complex spans require both processing and storage that are implemented in different domains e.g. verbal, numerical and spatial.
    • Statistically there is a higher correlation between complex tasks than simple span.
  • Individual differences in working memory:
    • individuals with higher WM are less vulnerable to seductive details andmind wandering
    • This makes their task performance more efficient.
17
Q

What is Propsective memory and what processes are involved?

A
  • Prospective memory involves remembering to perform a planned action or recall a planned intention at some future point in time
    • As opposed to retrospective memory - just remembering the past
  • Stages
    • Intent formation
    • Monitoring for time or event cue; this is the delay period, time cues (33%) are less accurate than event cues (52%), requires WM
    • Cue detection and intention retrieval: retrieval from LTM
    • Intention recall
    • Intention execution​
18
Q

What is the Preparatory Attentional and Memory (PAM) theory of prospective memory?

A
  • Preparatory Attentional and Memory Processes (PAM): 2 stages
    1. Monitoring until action performed: Requires WM/attention capacity, tasks during period performed more slowly
    2. Retrospective memory required to remember the action to be performed
19
Q

How can prospective memory be improved?

A
  • Overcoming interruptions: form explicit intention to resume task after interruption
  • Place distinctive reminder cues where they will be seen at the correct times
  • Make implementation intentions: specify when, how, where responses will be carried out to meet goal
    • 54% cues detected in implementation intention condition, and better performance of ongoing task, vs 31% cues detected in control condition
20
Q

What is the Multi-process theory of prospective memory?

A
  • Multi-Process theory: effect of concurrent task type
    • Focal tasks: automatic detection of cues allowed by current task.
    • Non-focal tasks: monitoring for cues required when current task interfers
  • Evidence:
    • Brain imaging: spike (focal task) vs continuous activation (nonfocal)
    • lesion studies: damage in specific requirements: retrospective vs monitoring component
21
Q

What is the Dynamic-Multi-process theory of prospective memory?

A
  • Dynamic Multi-process theory: builds on multiprocess
    • Monitoring using attentional control.
      • Since effort is required, only monitor when cue is expected
      • Experimental evidence: task performance not slowed when told not to expect a cue
    • When cue processed, retrieval is automatic
22
Q

What are the different subtypes of long term memory?

A
  • Implicit Memory: nondeclarative, unconscious
    • Classical conditioning,
    • Procedural memory
    • Priming effects
  • Explicit Memory: declarative, conscious
    • Episodic: ones own experiences
      • encompasses many encoded memory types (visual/audio etc)
      • Often has “autonoetic” quality (reliving)
    • Semantic: facts, general knowledge
      • not linked to time it was learnt
23
Q

How does double dissociation and neuroimaging support the theory that semantic and episodic memory are localised?

A
  • Dissociation: damage studies
    • Single dissociation: Brain damage affects episodic memory but not semantic memory. Could be due to task difficultly
    • Double dissociation: different types of brain damage can affect only one of the two types respectively
  • Neuropsychological double dissociations
    • WKS: amnesic syndrome, damaged episodic memory, preserved WM, preserved sematic knowledge
      • Anterograde (no new info) vs Etrograde (no old info)
    • Semantic dementia: loss of semantic knowledge, no impact on episodic or WM
    • The two sydromes damage different parts of the brain
  • Neuroimaging evidence in people without cognitive impairments
    • Left prefrontal: activated in semantic retrieval > episodic retrieval
    • Right prefrontal: activated in episodic retrieval > semantic retrieval
24
Q

What is semantic dementia and how does it impact the model of semantic memory?

A
  • A loss of encyclopedic information about the world associated with anterior temporal atrophy
  • Deterioration patterns:
    • hierachical loss of information: general properties last longer atypical information lost first
    • episodic/autobiographical memory mostly preserved
  • Comparison of alzhiemers and semantic dementia
    • Alzhiemers damage much more widespread, associated with episodic damage, WM damage, less semantic damage
    • Hub and Spoke Model
      • suggests a semantic hub in the anterior temporal lobe
25
Q

What is the Parallel Distributed Processing (PDP) Model of LTM ?

A
  • Connectionist “neural” network: computer programs inspired by neural metaphor
    • Nodes: set of interconnected processors (~neurones) that “communicate” by sending activation or inhibition
    • “Learning rule” for adjusting connections throughout the network
  • Assumptions
    • ​Knowledge is “distributed” through the system
    • knowledge learned by gradually adjusting connection weights
    • No clear distinction between structure and processes
  • Benefits:
    • explains spontaneous generalisation eg category learning
    • explains graceful degradation eg semantic dementia*
  • Limitations:
    • Cannot model one trial learning,
    • AB-AC learning - catastrophic interference (replaces old associations)
    • Exceptions
26
Q

What are the Error correction and categorical learning models in PDP?

A
  • Error correction: associations initially random, supervised learning reinforces or reduces connections based on accuracy
    • assumes knowledge of accuracy
  • Category: new examples will inherit the properties of similar items.
    • generalisation effect
    • Interference when learning atypical examples
27
Q

How is it claimed that semantic memory is learned from episodic memory? What evidence supports and contradicts this?

A
  • Claim: semantic memory must be aquired from episodes
    • Linton: recorded daily events and recalled regularly - unrecalled events were difficult to distinguish from other similar events
    • Robinson and Swanson: “Event schemas” investigated uni students recall of their holidays
  • Similarity in encoding
    • abstracting the common “fact” from multiple episodes of learning so eventually encoded without episodic detail
    • Personal semantic details - nextdoor neighbour growing up
  • Contradictory evidence
    • Early childhood (1, 4) episodic memory damage patients had no adverse semantic memory effects as adults
      • shows separation
28
Q

How does AB-AC learning display retroactive interference?

A
29
Q

What is the current view of episodic memory?

A
  • Tulving 2002: Episodic memory is a subsystem of semantic memory
    • Recently-evolved, late-developing and early-deteriorating
    • Requires “episodic retrieval mode” -> conscious recollection
    • semantic memory necessary but not sufficient for episodic memory
  • Defining and distinguishing features:
    • quality of recollection
    • “Autonoetic awareness” awareness of ourself
    • Linked to self; autobiographical
  • Dissociations between episodic and semantic memory not due to separate structures, but consolidating factors
    • Episodic memory requires linking or binding together concepts, contexts and the self (hippocampus)
30
Q

What is the self-memory system?

A
  • The self-memory system involves autobiographical infomation to create social bonds, direct future behaviour and create a sense of self
    • ABM as a goal-based system to keep track of progress towards goals
  • Two main components
    • Working self: the currently active goal hierachy + self images, sorts availability of memory based on relevance to goals and self
    • Autobiographical memory knowledge base (ABM) in LTM
  • Demands on Self memory system
    • Coherence: control information to meet self-image
    • Corespondence: memory needs to corespond with experience to promote survival
    • Adaptive coherence: keep info that balances both above
31
Q

How is knowledge structured in ABM?

A
  • Knowledge structures (from most general to least hierachically)
    • Life story: general factual and evaluative information
    • Themes: major life domains
    • Lifetime periods: major ongoing situations
    • General events: Repeated and “grouped” events
    • Episodic memories: event-specific
  • *
32
Q

How is semantic memory consolidated into the neo-cortex?

A
  • It is assumed that the hippocampus functions to bind together
33
Q

How are memories retrieved from the self-memory system (ABM)?

A
  • Direct retrieval: Automatic, based on a cue
  • Generative retrieval: effortful, activates a retrieval model
    • Retrieval model: Specifies knowledge required to form the memory, looks at cue and goal. Accesses elaborated cues (step through hierachy of ABM)
    • Time delay: usually takes max 30s to get to specific memory, 2s to get to themes
  • Neuroimaging
    • early stage: memory retrival frontal regions, some temporal priming
    • mid stage: stronger frontal region, whole brain
34
Q

How can the Sense-Cam be used to aid people with memory problems?

A
  • Sense-Cam: microsoft bodycam that takes pictures every 30s
    • could be replacing the function of the hippocampus
  • Case study: recall of special events woman with encephilitus
    • Sense cam pictures taken, and reviewed daily: recall 80%, retention 11month w/review, 3 months w/o reviewing
    • recording events of day in diary: 48% recall, no retention (<1m)
    • Functional brain imaging: known, familiar or not known - sense cam vastly improved ratio. No sig dif between novel and not reviewed.

Cognitive & Social Psychology (8 decks)

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