memory - explanations of forgetting: retrieval failure.

Question 1

What is meant by “retrieval failure”?

Answer 1

Where memory is available but just not accessible.

Question 2

What is meant by “cue”?

Answer 2

A stimulus, event or object that serves to guide behaviour such as a retrieval cue or unconditioned stimulus.

Question 3

What is meant by “encoding specificity principle (ESP)”?

Answer 3

If a cue is to help us recall information, it has to be present at the time of encoding (when we learn the material) and at retrieval (when we are recalling it).

Question 4

What is meant by “context-dependent forgetting”?

Answer 4

Occurs when the environment during recall is different from the environment you were in when you were learning.

Question 5

What is meant by “state-dependent forgetting”?

Answer 5

Occurs when your mood or physiological state during recall is different from the mood you were in when you were learning.

Question 6

What is “retrieval failure”?

Answer 6

• explanation for forgetting.
• memory and associated cues are stored
  ↳ if appropriate cues are not present during recall it is difficult to retrieve that memory.
• we forget due to insufficient cues.

Question 7

Who found the encoding specificity principle and when?

Answer 7

Tulving in 1983.

Question 8

What did Tulving (1983) find regarding the encoding specificity principle?

Answer 8

• reviewed the literature into retrieval failure.
• found a consistent pattern with findings.
• there will be forgetting if the cues that are available at encoding and at retrieval are different.

Question 9

What does the encoding specificity principle state?

Answer 9

“If a cue is to help us recall information, it has to be present at the time of encoding (when we learn the material) and at retrieval (when we are recalling it).”

Question 10

What are the types of cues?

Answer 10

• context-dependent forgetting.
• state-dependent forgetting.

Question 11

What experiment researches context-dependent forgetting and when?

Answer 11

Godden and Baddeley in 1975.

Question 12

What was the aim of Godden and Baddeley’s CDF experiment?

Answer 12

• investigate the effects of context cues on recall.
• see if words learned in the same environment they are recalled in are recalled better than in a different environment to learning.

Question 13

What is the procedure of Godden and Baddeley’s CDF experiment?

Answer 13

1. divers learnt a list of words either underwater or on land.
   
   2. asked to recall words either underwater or on land.
      
      3. 4 conditions:
         ↳ learn on land – recall on land.
         ➝ learn on land – recall underwater.
         ➝ learn underwater – recall underwater.
         ➝ learn underwater – recall on land.

Question 14

What are the findings of Godden and Baddeley’s CDF experiment?

Answer 14

Accurate recall was 40% lower in the non-matching conditions.

Question 15

What experiment researches state-dependent forgetting and when?

Answer 15

Carter and Cassaday in 1998.

Question 16

What was the aim of Carter and Cassaday’s SDF experiment?

Answer 16

Investigate if the state information encoded in can affect an individual’s recall when in a different state.

Question 17

What is the procedure of Carter and Cassaday’s SDF experiment?

Answer 17

1. gave anti-histamine drugs to participants.
   
   2. anti-histamine had mild sedatives making participants feel drowsy.
      
      3. creates an internal physiological state different from the normal state of being awake and alert.
         
         4. task was to learn words then recall was tested.
            
            5. 4 conditions:
               ↳ learn on drug – recall when on it.
               ➝ learn on drug – recall when not on it.
               ➝ learn not on drug – recall when on it.
               ➝ learn not on drug – recall when not on it.

Question 18

What are the findings of Carter and Cassaday’s SDF experiment?

Answer 18

Conditions where there was a mismatch between internal state at learning and recall performance was significantly worse.

Question 19

What are the strengths of the retrieval failure?

Answer 19

• supporting evidence.
• real life application.

Question 20

What are the weaknesses of retrieval failure?

Answer 20

• questioning context effects.
• recall versus recognition.

Question 21

What is the evaluation of retrieval failure - supporting evidence?

Answer 21

POINT - one strength is it has supporting evidence especially for context-dependent forgetting.
EVIDENCE - Abernathy (1940) found students who were tested in the same room with the same instructor scored the best in their results.
EXPLANATION - in order to recall information we need to ensure we recall it in the same environment in which we encoded the information. Retrieval failure is prevalent in real life as well as highly controlled conditions as study resembles activities we may witness in day-to-day life.
LINK - supporting studies conducted in real-life setting has enabled it to establish reliability and external validity.

Question 22

What is the evaluation of retrieval failure - real life application?

Answer 22

POINT - one strength is that it has real life applicability.
EVIDENCE - an integral part of the cognitive interview is to reinstate the context.
EXPLANATION - explanation plays an active role when conducting eyewitness testimonies as individuals return to the original crime scene in their mind and imagine the environment such as what the weather was like and what they could see.
LINK - increases external validity as we can see the influence of contextual cues when trying to retrieve information in the outside world.

Question 23

What is the evaluation of retrieval failure - questioning context effects?

Answer 23

POINT - one weakness is the effect of context has been questioned by cognitive psychologists.
EVIDENCE - Baddeley (1997) argued that contexts effects are not actually very strong especially in real life. Different contexts would have to be very different before an effect is seen.
EXPLANATION - memory does not function in the way that has been studied. Learning something in one room and recalling it in another is unlikely to result in much forgetting because these environments are not different enough.
LINK - does not explain much forgetting as of similarity within contexts.

Question 24

What is the evaluation of retrieval failure - recall versus recognition?

Answer 24

POINT - one weakness is context effect may be related to the kind of memory being tested.
EVIDENCE - Godden and Baddeley (1980) replicated their underwater experiment but used a recognition test instead of recall. Participants had to say whether they recognised a word read to them from the list instead of retrieving it for themselves. When recognition was tested, there was no context-dependent effect, performance was the same in all four conditions.
EXPLANATION - if context-dependent forgetting was an accurate theory we would have seen the effect even in the recognition test showing the presence or absence of a cue only affects memory when you test it in a particular way.
LINK - context-dependent forgetting is only applicable to recall rather than recognition. This has not been accounted for by the retrieval failure theory.

Question 25

What is the evaluation point of retrieval failure - supporting evidence?

Answer 25

One strength is it has supporting evidence especially for context-dependent forgetting.

Question 26

What is the evaluation evidence of retrieval failure - supporting evidence?

Answer 26

Abernathy (1940) found students who were tested in the same room with the same instructor scored the best in their results.

Question 27

What is the evaluation explanation of retrieval failure - supporting evidence?

Answer 27

• in order to recall information we need to ensure we recall it in the same environment in which we encoded the information.
• retrieval failure is prevalent in real life as well as highly controlled conditions as study resembles activities we may witness in day-to-day life.

Question 28

What is the evaluation link of retrieval failure - supporting evidence?

Answer 28

Supporting studies conducted in real-life setting has enabled it to establish reliability and external validity.

Question 29

What is the evaluation point of retrieval failure - real life application?

Answer 29

One strength is that it has real life applicability.

Question 30

What is the evaluation evidence of retrieval failure - real life application?

Answer 30

An integral part of the cognitive interview is to reinstate the context.

Question 31

What is the evaluation explanation of retrieval failure - real life application?

Answer 31

Explanation plays an active role when conducting eyewitness testimonies as individuals return to the original crime scene in their mind and imagine the environment such as what the weather was like and what they could see.

Question 32

What is the evaluation link of retrieval failure - real life application?

Answer 32

Increases external validity as we can see the influence of contextual cues when trying to retrieve information in the outside world.

Question 33

What is the evaluation point of retrieval failure - questioning context effects?

Answer 33

One weakness is the effect of context has been questioned by cognitive psychologists.

Question 34

What is the evaluation evidence of retrieval failure - questioning context effects?

Answer 34

• Baddeley (1997) argued that contexts effects are not actually very strong especially in real life.
• different contexts would have to be very different before an effect is seen.

Question 35

What is the evaluation explanation of retrieval failure - questioning context effects?

Answer 35

• memory does not function in the way that has been studied.
• learning something in one room and recalling it in another is unlikely to result in much forgetting because these environments are not different enough.

Question 36

What is the evaluation link of retrieval failure - questioning context effects?

Answer 36

Does not explain much forgetting as of similarity within contexts.

Question 37

What is the evaluation point of retrieval failure - recall versus recognition?

Answer 37

One weakness is context effect may be related to the kind of memory being tested.

Question 38

What is the evaluation evidence of retrieval failure - recall versus recognition?

Answer 38

• Godden and Baddeley (1980) replicated their underwater experiment but used a recognition test instead of recall.
• participants had to say whether they recognised a word read to them from the list instead of retrieving it for themselves.
• when recognition was tested, there was no context-dependent effect, performance was the same in all four conditions.

Question 39

What is the evaluation explanation of retrieval failure - recall versus recognition?

Answer 39

If context-dependent forgetting was an accurate theory we would have seen the effect even in the recognition test showing the presence or absence of a cue only affects memory when you test it in a particular way.

Question 40

What is the evaluation link of retrieval failure - recall versus recognition?

Answer 40

• context-dependent forgetting is only applicable to recall rather than recognition.
• this has not been accounted for by the retrieval failure theory.