Memory Model Flashcards
(229 cards)
1
Q
What is coding
A
The format in which information is stored in the various memory stores
2
Q
What is capacity
A
The amount of information that can be stored in a memory store
3
Q
What is duration
A
The length of time information can be held in memory
4
Q
What is short term memory
A
The limited capacity memory store
Coding is mainly acoustic (sounds)
Capacity is between 5 and 9 items
on average duration is between 18 and 30 seconds
5
Q
What is long term memory
A
The permanent memory store
Coding is mainly semantic (meaning)
It has unlimited capacity
can store memories for up to a lifetime
6
Q
What is memeory
A
Process by which we retain and recall information about events that have happened in the past
7
Q
What is short term memory
A
STM
Your memory for immediate events which disappear if not rehearsed
It is something called working memory
8
Q
What type of coding is used in Short-term memory
A
Acoustic
9
Q
What is long-term memory
A
Your memory for events that have happened in the past from anywhere between 2 minutes and 100 years ago
It is permanent storage
10
Q
What is the sensory register
A
Stores a huge amount of data from our sense for a very brief amount of time ( about half a second)
11
Q
How long does the sensory register store data
A
Half a second
12
Q
What is capacity
A
The amount of information that can be stored
13
Q
What is duration
A
The length of time information can be held in the memory store
14
Q
What is coding
A
The format in which information is stored in the memory stores
Its the process of converting information from one format to another
15
Q
What is acoustic coding
A
Means that information is stored in the form of sounds
16
Q
What is semantic coding
A
Means that information is stored in the form of meaning of the experience
17
Q
What is coding the process of
A
Converting information from one format into another
18
Q
What are the studies for capacity
A
Jacob’s and miller
19
Q
What did Jacob’s do
A
Developed a technique to measure digit and letter span
20
Q
What was Jacob’s procedure
A
Researcher gives 4 digits/letters and the participant is asked to recall these in the correct order out loud
If this is correct the researcher reads out five digits/letters and so until the participant cannot recall the order correctly
This determined the individuals digit span
21
Q
What did Jacob’s find
A
Mean span of letters is 7.3
Mean span of digits is 9.3
22
Q
What are some weaknesses of Jacob’s study
A
Lacks adequate control
Some participants may have been distracted while they were being tested so they didn’t perform as well as they could have
This means results wouldn’t be valid due to confounding variables
Result have been supported in other research supporting its validity
23
Q
What is true about the capacity in the long term memory
A
Capacity in the long term memory is potential unlimited
24
Q
What did miller do
A
Made observations of everday practices
He noted that things come in sevens ( 7 notes on the music scale 7 days of the week 7 deadly sins)
25
What did miller suggest and find
Suggests that the span of(or capacity) of STM is about 7 items(plus or minus 2)
Miller also noted that people can recall 5 words as well as they can recall 5 letter
Do this by chunking
26
How do people remember 5 letter as well as 5 words
Chunking
27
What is chunking
Grouping sets of digits or letter into units or chunks
28
What are the studies for duration and what memeory do they focus on
Peterson and Peterson (STM or short-term memory)
Bahrick et al (LTM or long term memory)
29
What were Peterson and Peterson aim
To investigate the duration of short term memeory and provide empirical evidence for the multi store model
30
What was Peterson and Peterson procedure
A lab experiment was conducted in which 24 undergraduate students took part in 8 trails (8 sets)
Each trail they were given a constant syllable or trigram (meaningless there constant syllables e.g TGH) to remember and a there digit number
Student was asked to count backwards from the number in either 3s or 4s until told to stop
On each trail they were told to stop after a different amount of time - 3,6,9,12,15 or 18 seconds
After they were asked to stop counting and to repeat the trigram
The percentage of trigrams correctly recalled was recorded for each retention interval
31
Why did Peterson and Peterson get the participants to count backwards from the number in either 3 or 4s
Counting backwards was to prevent mental rehearsal of the constant syllable (which would increase the students memory)
32
What is a retention interval
On each trail they were told to stop after a different amount of time - 3,6,9,12,15 or 18 seconds
33
How did Peterson and Peterson measure there procedure
The percentage of trigrams correctly recalled was recorded for each retention interval
34
What were Peterson and Peterson findings
The longer the interval delay the less trigrams were recalled
Participants were able to recall 80% of trigrams after a 3 second delay
However 18 seconds less than 10% of trigrams frames were recalled correctly
35
36
What does Peterson and Peterson graph look like
A negative coefficient
37
What was Bahrick aim
To investigate the duration of LTM
38
What was Bahrick procedure
The participants were an opportunity sample of 392 American ex-high school students aged 17-74
High school yearbooks were obtained from the participants directly or from some school’s
Recall was tested in various ways:
Free recall test - where participants recalled the name of as many of their former classmates as possible
Photo recognition test - where they were asked to identify former classmates in a set of 50 where some were their yearbook and some weren’t
39
What were the ways Bahrick et al study LTM( long term memory)
Free recall
Photo recognition
40
What is free recall test
Where participants recalled the name of as many of their former classmates as possible
41
What is a photo recognisation test
Where they were asked to identify former classmate in a set of 50 where some were from their yearbook and some weren’t
42
What were Bahrick et al findings
Particulate swerve tested within 15 years of graduation were about 90% accurate in photo recognition
After 48 years recall declined to about 70% for photo recognition
After 15 years this was about 60 accuracy dropped to 30% after 48 years
43
What was the conclusion of Bahrick et al
LTM has a seemingly unlimited
44
What is the evaluation for Bahrick et al strengths
The study has high external validity as real life memories were studied
When studies on LTM have used meaningless pictures recall rates were lower
45
What happened when people used meaningless photos in Bahrick studies
Recall rather were lower
46
What was a weakness of Bahrick et al
The downside of such real life research is that confounding variables are not controlled
(Participants may have looked at their yearbook photos and rehearsed their memory over the years)
47
What was a confounding variable in bahricks study
Participants may have looked at their yearbook photos and rehearsed their memory over the years
48
How many groups were in baddeleys study
4
49
What did the 4 groups do
Group 1 - acoustically similar
Group 2 - acoustically dissimilar
Group 3 semantically similar
Group 4 - semantically dissimilar
50
What did group 1 do in baddeley
Read acoustically similar words - words that sounded similar
Cat cab can
51
What did group 2 do in baddeley study
Read acoustically dissimilar words - words that sounded different e.g pit few cow
52
What did group 3 do in baddeleys study
Read semantically similar words - words with similar meanings e.g great large big
53
What did group 4 do in baddeleys study
Read semantically dissimilar - words with different meanings (e.g good,huge , hot)
54
What did baddeleys show the participants and ask them
Participants were shown the original list of words and asked to recall them in correct order
55
What were baddeleys findings for short term memory (STM)
When they had to do this recall task immediately after hearing it (STM recall)
They tended to do worse with acoustically similar words
This suggests that information is coded acoustically
56
What were baddeleys findings for long term memory (LTM)
If participants were asked to recall the word list after a time interval of 20 minutes (LTM recall)
They did worse with the semantically similar words
This suggests that information is coded semantically in LTM
57
What is a weakness of baddeleys study
The study used quite artificial stimuli rather than meaningful material
58
Why is this a weakness of baddeley study
The word list had no personal meaning to participants
Means that we should be cautious about generalising the findings to different kinds of memory task (when process more meaningful information people may use semantic coding even for STM task)
Suggests that findings from this study have limited application
59
What is a weakness of millers study
Cowan - capacity of STM = 4
Chunks suggests lower end of miller estimate is more appropriate than 7 times
60
What did Cowan find
Capacity of STM = 4
Chunks suggests lower end of miller estimate is more appropriate than 7 items
61
What is the multi-store memory model
A representation of how memory works in terms of three stores called:
sensory register
Short term memory(STM)
Long term memory (LTM)
It also describes how information is transferred from one store to another and how it is forgotten
62
What is the sensory register
The memory store for each of the five senses such as vision(iconic store) and hearing (echoic store)
Coding in the iconic sensory register is visual and in the echoic store is acoustic
The capacity of the sensory registers is huge (millions of receptors) and information lasts for a very short time (les than half a second
63
What is a model
Not an exact copy of the thing being described
It is a representation
64
What is a memory model
Memory model is a representation of memory it is based on available evidence
Model provides us with an analogy of how memory works
65
Who found the multi-memory store
Atkinson and shiffrin
66
What did Atkinson and shiffrin suggest
That the Memory is made up of three unitary(separate/ different) stores
67
What are the 3 three unitary stores in the multi-memory store
Sensory register
Short term memory
Long term memory
This is a structural model (representation) of the memory that they call multi-memory store model of memory
68
What does the multi-memory suggest
That each store is different (unitary) and information is transferred from one store to another in a fixed linear sequence
69
What is the key process in the sensory register
Attention
70
What is the sensory register
Is the memory for store for each of the five senses iconic store for visual information echoic store for sound information each of the stores are coded differently
A stimulus form the environment passes into the sensory register it receives all of the information and holds it very briefly the duration of the sensory register is less than half a second
Very little of what goes into the sensory register passes further into the memory system
But it will if you pay attention
71
What is the process of the memory model
Stimulus from the environment
Sensory register:
Iconic
Echoic
Other sensory store haptic
Short term memory
Long term memory store
72
What happens if you don’t pay attention at the sensory store/register
Forgetting
73
What happens if you pay attention at the sensory store/register
Moves to the short term memory
74
What is the short term memory responsible for
The response
75
How does something from the short term memory to the long term memory
Rehearsal of a response
76
How does something go from the long term memory store to short term memory store
Retrieval
77
78
What happened to patient HM
Cracked head as a child suffered seizures
Referred to dr soiville(neurosurgeon)
Bi lateral removal of hippocampus
79
What did patient HM suffer from
Retrograde amnesia
Anterograde amnesia
80
What is retrograde amnesia in relation to patient HM
Forgetting 10 years of past experiences
81
What is anterograde amnesia in relation to patient HM
Could not from new memories
82
What could HM do
He was able to learn new skills
83
What is episodic memory
A long term memory store for personal events
It includes memories of when the events occurred and of the people objects places and behaviours involved
Memories from this store have to be retrieved consciously and with effort
84
85
What is semantic memory
A long term memory store for our knowledge of the world
This includes facts and our knowledge of what words and concepts mean
These memories usually also need to be recalled deliberately
86
What is procedural memory
A long term memory store for our knowledge of how to do things
This includes out memories of learned skills
We usually recall these memories without making conscious or deliberate effort
87
What did tulving realise
Realised that MSMs view of LTM was too simplistic and inflexible
He proposed that there are three LTM stores containing information:
Episodic memory - memory of personal events s
Semantic memory - memory of facts and information
Procedural - memory of how to do things
88
What does the study of Clive wearing do
Had procedural memory but no semantic/episodic memory hinders the MSM because it reduces LTM to one store
Supports MSM because long term memory and STM are different stores
89
What is the working memory model(WMM)
A representation of short term memory(STM)
It suggests that STM is a dynamic processor of different types of information using sub-units
Co-ordinated by a central decision-making system
90
What is a central executive(CE)
The component of the WMM that co-ordinates the activities of the three sub-systems in memory
It allocates processing resources to those activities
91
What is the phonological loop(PL)
The component of the WMM that process information in terms of sound
This includes both written and spoken material
Its divided into the phonological store and the articulatory process
92
What is the Visio-spatial sketchpad (VSS)
The component of the WMM that process visual and spatial information in a mental space often called our ‘inner eye’
93
What is an episodic buffer (EB)
The component of the WMM that brings together material from other subsystems inti a single memory
Rather than separate strands
It also provides a bridge between working memory and long term memory
94
What is the working memory model
A representation of how short term memory (STM) is organised and how it functions
95
Who proposed the Working memory model
Baddeley and hitch in 1974 as an updated version of STM
96
What does working memory model suggest and how
Suggests that STM is an active processor of different types of information
Using sub units that are co-ordinated by a central decision making system
97
What is the working memory model concerned with
The WMM is concerned with the part of the mind that is active when we are temporarily storing and manipulating information ( when working on a maths problem or playing chess)
98
What does the working memory model consist of
The model consists of four main components which are qualitatively different in terms of their capacity and coding
99
What is the central executive
Is a component of the WMM that co-ordinates the activities of the three-sub systems in memory (it has a supervisory function)
It monitors incoming data from the senses and LTM makes decision and allocates the slave system (other components) to tasks
It also allocates processing resources to those tasks
It process information from any sensory modularity
100
What is the phonological loop(inner ear)
This component(slave system) of the WMM that processes information in terms of sound (coding it acoustically) and preserves the Order in which the information arrives
This includes both written and spoken
101
What are the sub divisions of the phonological loop
The phonological store
The articulatory process
102
What is the phonological store(coding)
It stores the words you hear like an inner ear
103
What is the articulacy process
It’s the process used for words that are heard or seen
104
What does the articulacy process allow
It allows maintenance rehearsal(repeating sounds or words in a loop in your head to keep them in the working memory while they are needed like an inner voice)
105
What is the capacity of the phonological loop
It is believed to be 2 seconds worth of what you can say(it has limited capacity)
106
What else can the phonological loop do
The phonological loop contributes to our learning of language (phonology)
It accesses long-term memory to store and retrieve information about language sounds
Allows us to develop our vocabulary as children and in foreign languages
107
What is the capacity of the central executive
It has very limited processing capacity(it can’t at the too many things at once and has no capacity for storing data)
108
What is the Visio-spatial sketchpad (inner eye)
It is the component(slave system) of the WMM that processes visual and spatial information in a mental space often caked our inner eye
109
What is visual information
Information is what things look like
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What is spatial information
The physical relationship between things (if you are asked to work out how many windows there are on your house you visualise it)
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What is the capacity of the Visio sketchpad
It has a limited capacity of about three to four objects
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What is the Visio sketchpad divided into
Logie divided them into the visual cache
The inner Scribe
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What does the visual cache do
Stores visual data
114
What does the inner scribe do
Records the arrangement of objects in the visual field (spatial relations)
115
What else can the Visio-spatial sketchpad do
Contributes to our understanding of
‘visual semantics’ - the meanings of objects in our visual environment
It can access long term memory to store and retrieve visuo-spatial information (if someone says to you think of an object you can sit on we easily retrieve an image of a chair or sofa from long term memory
116
What is the episodic buffer
It is a component that was added by Baddeley 2000
The component(slave system) into a single memory rather than separate strands
(It is a temporary store of information integrating the visual spatial and acoustic information processed by other stores as well as the central executive and maintaining a sense of time sequencing)
117
What does the episodic buffer do
Recorders events (episodes) that are happening
It also provides a bridge between working memory and long term memory
Sending the information to long term memory
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What is the episodic buffer in relation to the executive centre
It can be seen as the storage component of the central executive and has a limited capacity of about four chunks
119
What capacity does the episodic have
Limited capacity of about four chunks
120
What is deja vu
The strange feeling of having been to this/a very place or done this very thing before when you know you haven’t
Accompanied with a feeling of what’s gonna happen next
121
What is interference
Forgetting because one memory blocks another causing one or both memories to be distorted or forgotten
122
What is proactive interference
Forgetting occurs when older memories already stored disrupt the recall of newer memories
The degree of forgetting is greater when memories are similar
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What is retroactive interference
Forgetting occurs when newer memories disrupt the recall of older memories already stored
The degree of forgetting is greater when memories are similar
124
What is retrieval failure
A form of forgetting
It occurs when we don’t have the necessary cues to access memory
The memory is available but not accessible unless a suitable cue is provided
125
What is a cue
A trigger of information that allows us to access a memory
Such cues maybe meaningful or may be indirectly linked by being encoded at the time of learning
Cues may be external (environmental context) or internal(mood degree of drunkenness)
126
What is interference
Where two lots of information becomes confused in memory
And one memory blocks another
127
What does interference cause
One or both memories to be forgotten or distorted
Mainly an explanation for forgetting
128
Why do we forgetting in terms of interference theory
Forgetting is likely because we can’t access the memories even though they are available
129
Why are the memories still available if we forget them
As they are more or less permanent because they are stored in the long term memory
130
What does interference between memories make happen
It’s harder for us to locate them and we experience this as forgetting
131
What’s is proactive interference
Where old learning/memories affect the recall of new information
132
What is retroactive interference
Is where new learning/memories affect the recall of old information
133
What did mcgeoch and McDonald do
A studied retroactive interference by changing the amount of similarity between two sets of materials
134
Who did a study about retroactive interference
Mcgeoch and McDonald
135
What were Mcgeoch and McDonald experiment
Participants had to learn a list of 10 words until they could remember them with 100% accuracy
They then learned a new list
Six groups
Groups 1 - synonymums words with the same meanings as the originals
Group 2 - antonymus -words with the opposite meanings as the originals
Group 3 - words unrelated to the original list
Group 4 - nonsense syllables
Group 5 - three digit numbers
Group 6 - no new list - these participants rested
Participants then recalled the original list of words their performance depended on the nature of the second list
The most similar materials (synonyms) produced worst recall
This suggests that interference is strongest when the memories were similar
136
What did the participants in mcgeoch and McDonald study doing
They had to learn a list of 10 words until they could remove hem with 100% accuracy
They Learned a new list
There were six groups of participants who had learn different types of lists
137
What six groups did mcgeoch and McDonald have
Group 1 - synonymous - words with the same meanings as the originals
Group 2 - antonyms - words with the opposite meanings as the originals
Group 3 - words unrelated to the original list
Group 4 - nonsense syllables
Group 5 - there digit numbers
Group 6 no new list - these participants rested
138
What did group 1 do in McDonald’s and mcgeoch study
Synonymous (words with the same meanings as the originals)
139
What did group 2 do in mcgeoch and McDonald study
Antonyms (words with the opposite meanings as the originals)
140
What did group 3 do in Mcgeoch and McDonald study
Words unrelated to the original list
141
What did group 4 do in Mcgeoch and McDonald study
Nonsense syllables
142
What did group 5 in McDonald and mcgeoch study
Three digit numbers
143
What did group 6 what did mcgeoch and McDonald study
No new list these participants rested
144
What were McDonald and mcgeoch findings
Participants then recalled the original list of words their performance depended on the nature of the second list
The mostly similar materials (synonyms) produced worst recall
145
What did mcgeoch and McDonald’s findings suggests
That interference is strongest when the memories were similar
146
What does retrieval failure argue
Theory argues that forgetting occurs in the absence of appropriate cues
147
What does the encoding specific principle argue
That for a cue to be helpful in recall it has to be present at encoding and retrieval
If they are different cues or the cues completely absent at retrieval there will be some forgetting
It may appear as though we have forgotten the information
This is retrieval failure
The memory is inaccessible
148
What is true about the cues in retrieval failure
For a cue to be helpful in recall it has to present at encoding and retrieval
149
Why does retrieval failure occur
If they are different or the cues completely absent at retrieval there will be some forgetting
(Appears as forgetting)
150
What is true about memory in retrieval failure
The memory is inaccessible due to lack of cues but the memories are available
151
What is context dependent forgetting
Being a different place at recall may inhibit memory
The external cues available at learning (encoding) are different from those at recall which leads to retrieval failure
152
What is cue dependant forgetting
The encoding specificity principle argues that there are two types of forgetting due to the absence of cues
153
What a state dependent forgetting
Being in a different mood/state of arousal at recall may inhibit memory
The internal cues at learning (encoding) are different from those at recall which leads to retrieval
154
What part of forgetting is Context dependent forgetting
The external cues available at learning (encoding) are different from those at recall which leads to retrieval failure
155
What part of forgetting is state dependent
The internal cues at learning (encoding)are different from those at recall which leads to retrieval failure
156
What did godden baddeley do
They carried out a study of deep-sea divers working underwater
In this study the divers learned a list of words either land or underwater
then were asked to recall the words either on land or underwater
157
What were conditions were godden and baddeley
Learn on land - recall on land
Learn on land - recall underwater
Learn underwater - recall on land
Learn underwater - recall underwater
158
What was conditions one of baddeley and godden
Learn on land - recall on land
159
What was the second condition in godden and baddeley study
Learn on land - recall underwater
160
What was the third Conditions godden and baddeley
Learn underwater - recall on land
161
What was the four conditions in baddeley and godden
Learn underwater - recall underwater
162
What were godden and baddeley findings
They found that accurate recall was 40% lower in the non matching context conditions
The external cues available at learning were different from those at recall which led to retrieval failure
163
What is an eyewitness testimony
The ability of people to remember the details of events such as accidents band crimes which they themselves observed
164
What affect eyewitness testimonies
Misleading information
Leading questions
Anxiety
165
What is misleading information
Incorrect information given to the eyewitness usually after the event (hence often called ‘post-event information’)
166
What are the types of misleading information
It can take many forms such as leading questions and post event discussion between co-witness and/or other people
167
What is a leading questions
A question which because of the way its phrased suggests a certain answer
168
An example of a leading question
Was the knife in the accused’s left hand
Suggest in left hand
169
What is PED
Post event discussion
170
What is posts event discussion(PED)
Occurs when there is more than one eyewitness to an event
Witness may discuss what they have seen with their co-witness or with other people
This may influence the accuracy of each witness recall of the event
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When does someone become an eyewitness
An eyewitness is someone who has seen or witnessed a crime usually present at the time of the incident
172
How do eyewitness testimonies work
They use their memory of the crime to give their testimony or a ‘reconstruction’ of hat happened
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What is an eyewitness used for
They provide evidence in court with a view to identify the predator
174
What did loftus and palmer find
The mean estimate speed for contacted was 31.8 mph and for smashed was 40.5 mph
The lead question biased the eyewitness ‘recall of this event
175
What are the two explanations that affected loftus and palmers study
Response bias
Substitution
176
What is response bias explanation
This states that the wording has not changed the memory
It just influences how they choose to answer
177
What is the substitution explanation
This is where the wording changes the participants memory of the film clip
178
What supports the response bias explanation
Smash makes them think faster so they estimate higher
179
What supports substitution explanation
This is supported by the findings of loftus and palmer who here’d smashed were far more likely to report broken glass (when there wasn’t any) then those who heard hit
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When does post event discussion happen
This occurs when a witness to a crime discusses it with another witness of someone else
181
What can post event discussion cause
This means that their eyewitness testimonies may become contaminated and therefore affect the accuracy of the recall of the event
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Why does post event discussion cause
Because the witness combines (mis)information from other witnesses with their own memories
183
What did gabbert et al do
Made each participant watch a video of the same crime but the crime was fill ed from different points of view
This means that each participant cold see elements of the event that the other could not
Only one of the participants could see the title of the book being carried by a young women
Both participates then discussed what they had seen before individually completing a test of recall
184
What were the results of gabbert et al study
0% of control group recall incorrect information
71% of people who discussed then completed a test of recall gave incorrect information
185
What is an eyewitness testimony
The ability of people to remember the details of events such as accidents and crimes which they themselves have observed
186
What is anxiety
A state of emotional and physical arousal
The emotions include having worried thoughts and feelings of tension
Physical changes include an increased heart rate and sweatiness
Anxiety is a normal reaction to a stressful situations but can affect the accuracy of and details of eyewitness testimony
187
What are the two effects anxiety can have on recall
Positive
Negative
188
How can anxiety have a negative effect on recall
Some think anxiety has a negative effect on recall it creates physiological arousal in the body which prevents us paying attention to important cues so recall is worse
189
How can anxiety have a positive effect on recall
Some think anxiety can have a positive effect on recall the physiological arousal from anxiety triggers the fight or flight response
Which increases our alertness and improves our memory for the event because we become more aware of cues in the situation
190
What was Johnson and Scott’s procedure
Participants in this study were left in a waiting area outside the laboratory whilst watching for the “real study to start”
While they were waiting one of two situations occurred
They overhead a discussion in the laboratory about equipment failure
Followed by a man leaving the laboratory with grease on his hand and holding a pen
Participants overhead a heated discussion in the Laborite with the sound of breaking glass and crashing chairs followed by a man leaving the laboratory carrying a paper
knife covered in blood
The participants were later asked to identify the man from a set of 50 photographs
191
How many conditions were in Scott and Johnson’s
2
192
What was the first condition in Johnson and Scott’s
Low anxiety
Participants overhead a discussion in the labority about equipment failure followed by a man leaving with grease on his hand and holding a pen
193
What was Johnson and Scott’s second condition
Participants overhead a heated discussion from the laboratory with crashing chairs and breaking glass followed by a man leaving the laboratory carrying a paper knife covered with blood
194
What were Johnson and Scott’s findings
The results that 49% correctly identified the man holding the pen
33% could identify the man with the bloodstained knife
195
What did Johnson and Scott’s study
Showed that anxiety has a negative effect on recall
196
What was yuille and cutshall procedure
They conducted a real life shooting in a gun shop in Vancouver Canada
The shop owner shot a thief dead
There 21 witness and 13 agreed to take part in the study
The interviews were held 4-5 months after the incident and these were compared with the original police interviews made at the time of the shooting
Accuracy were determined by the number of details recorded in each account
The witnesses were also asked to rate how stressed they had felt at the time of the incident on a 7 point scale and asked if they had any emotional problems since the events
197
What were yuille and cutshall findings
They found that eyewitness were very accurate in their accounts and there was little change in the amount of accuracy after 5 months though some details were less accuracies (colour of items age height/weight/age)
Participants who reported the highest level of stress were the moist accurate (88% compared to 75% for the less-stressed group)
198
What did christainson and hubinette
58 witness of 22 real life bank robberies in Sweden were interviewed some time after the robberies
Some of the witnesses had been onlookers or customers in the bank (low anxiety)
And other were bank employees who had been directly treated or subjected to violence during robberies (high anxiety)
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What were Christian’s and hubinette findings
They found that all witness showed generally good memories for details of the robbery itself (better than 75% accurate recall)
Those witnesses who were the most anxious had the best recall of it
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What studies supports the claim that anxiety improves recall
Christainson and hubinette
Yuille and cutshall
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What studies support the claim anxiety has a negative impact on recall
Johnson and Scott
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What does yullie and cutshall show about anxiety
There is a positive impact
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What does hubinette and Christainson show about anxiety
That it has a positive impact on memory
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What is the tunnel effect made up of
The tunnel theory
Weapon focus effect
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What is the tunnel theory
Argues that witness attention narrows to focus on a weapon because it is the source of anxiety
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What is the weapon focus effect
Where this tunnel focus then negatively affects the recall of the overall events
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Does yerkes-Dodson law states
The law states that performance improves with increase in arousal up to some optimal point and then declines with further increases
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What are the ranges of yerkes-Dodson law
An increase in anxiety leads to an increase in physiological arousal
This therefore heightens alertness and may improve our memory because we become more aware of cues in a situation
However if it gets too high anxiety cause you to lose focus and thefore negatively affects performance
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What is yerkes-Dodson law
This law states that performance improves with increases in arousal up to some optimal point and then declines with further increases
An increase in anxiety leads to an increase in physiological arousal
This therefore heightens alertness and may improve our memory because we become more aware of cues in situation
However if it gets too high anxiety cause your to lose focus and therefore negatively affect performance
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What is an eyewitness testimony
The ability of people to remember the details of events such as accidents and crimes which they themselves have observed
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What effects the accuracy of Eyewitness testimonies
Misleading information
Leading questions
Anxiety
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What is a cognitive interview
A method of interviewing eyewitnesses to help them retrieve more accurate memories
CI uses four main techniques all based on well established psychological knowledge of human memory - report everything reinstate context reverse the order and change perspective
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What are the four main techniques used in cognitive interviews
Reporting everything
Reinstate context
Reverse order
Change perception
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How was the cognitive interview established
Established psychological knowledge of human memory
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What is a cognitive interview
This is a method of interviewing eyewitnesses to help them retrieve more accurate memories using four techniques that are based on psychological insights
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How do cognitive interviews and standard interview differ
A standard interview might just ask the witness to recall the event but the cognitive interview could ask them to recall the context in which it occurred
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What could the context involve in cognitive interviews
This could include environmental details and emotional factors
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What is reporting everything
When the witness is encouraged to include every single detail of the event even if they seem irrelevant or trivial
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Why is it important to report everything in a cognitive interview might
Witness might not realise that some details are importation and these may trigger other important memories
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What is reinstate the context
The witness should return to the original crime scene in their mind and imagine the environment and their emotions
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Why is reinstate the context important in a cognitive interview might
Recalling how you felt and the environment could enhance recall
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What is reverse order
Events should be recalled in different chronological order to the original sequence
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Why is it important to reverse order in cognitive interviews
This is to prevent people from reporting their expectations of how the event must have happened rather than the actual events
It also prevents dishonestly as it’s harder to lie when you have to explain something backwards
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What is a change in perspective
Witness should recall the incident from the perspective of someone else
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Why is it important to change perspective for cognitive interviews
This disrupts the effect of expectations and schemes on recall
The schema you have for particular settings generate expectations of what would have happened and it is the schema that is recalled rather than what actually happened
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What did kohnken et al do
Combined data from 50 studies
The enchanted cognitive interviews consistently provide more correct information than the standard interview used by police (81% increases in correct information)
Found a 61% increases in the amount of incorrect information when the enchanted cognitive interview was
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What were the findings from kohnken et al study
Found that 81% increase in correct information and a increase of 61% in the amount of incorrrect information when the enhanced cognitive interviews consistently provide was used to the standard interview
