methods: self-report data

Question 1

what is a survey and what is it used for in research?

Answer 1

• a survey is a self-report method
• used to gather information about:
• how people feel
• their attitudes and opinions
• personality types and other traits.
• designed to collect a large amount of info
• can be conducted through:
• questionnaire
• large-scale interview

Question 2

what are key features of questionnaires as a research method?

Answer 2

• designed to gather a large amount of data
• access a large sample of ppts
• can be administered by:
• post
• email
• face to face
• online
• often include questions about:
• attitudes
• opinions
• lifestyles
• any aspect of a person’s life

Question 3

what types of data can questionnaires gather, and how are they defined?

Answer 3

• quantitative data:
• can be converted into numbers
• provides numerical information
• qualitative data:
• non-numerical
• presented in prose form
• a single question can yield either quantitative or qualitative data

Question 4

what are closed questions and what type of data do they yield?

Answer 4

• closed questions have preset fixed answers
• respondent selects the answer that best matches their opinion (by circling or ticking)
• can be yes/no response questions or have a list of options

Question 5

what are the advantages and disadvantages of closed questions?

Answer 5

• advantages:
• easy and quick for respondents to answer
• easy for researchers to analyse data
• disadvantages:
• can be frustrating if answers do not match what the participant wants to express
• limited in the amount of information that can be analysed
• doesn’t provide insight into why respondent answered in certain way
• level of detail obtained is limited
• solution: attitude scales have been designed to increase level of detail in questionnaires

Question 6

what are attitude scales and likert-type scales, and how are they used?

Answer 6

• attitude scales:
• offer more than yes/no response
• provide range of options to gauge the strength of a respondent’s opinion
• likert-type scale:
• involves selecting from a fixed set of choices to rate agreement with a series of statements
• used to measure attitudes or opinions in more detail
• eg a likert scale was used in the Adorno et al. survey on authoritarianism

Question 7

what are likert scales and ranked scales, and how are they scored?

Answer 7

• likert scales:
• respondents rate their opinion on a series of statements
• measures the strength of agreement or disagreement
• ranked scales:
• respondents rank their choices relative to other options
• each preference is given a weighting (eg, most preferred = higher weighting)
• eg if ranking animals by how fearful they are, the most feared animal gets the highest score
• animal with highest score represents most feared animal.

Question 8

what are open questions and what are their advantages and disadvantages?

Answer 8

• open questions:
• do not have pre-set answers
• allow respondents to answer freely and elaborate on their responses
• enable respondents to justify their opinions
• advantages:
• provide more detailed responses
• allow for deeper insights and explanations
• disadvantages:
• require more time and effort from respondents
• responses need qualitative analysis, which can lead to subjective interpretation by the researcher

Question 9

weakness of questionnaire design: social desirability

Answer 9

• occurs when respondents give answers that portray them in a more favourable light
• respondents answer in ways that align with prevailing social norms (eg avoiding controversial opinions)
• eg few respondents would agree with segregation or claim heterosexuality as the only natural sexuality due to social norms
• can be problematic in research on socially sensitive issues or attitudes against social norms
• many questionnaires have inbuilt lie detectors to identify socially desirable responses
• if too many responses are socially desirable, the respondent’s questionnaire may be excluded from analysis

Question 10

weakness of questionnaire design: question construction

Answer 10

• researchers avoid technical, ambiguous, or complex questions
• ensure questions are easy for respondents to understand
• do not prompt respondents to give a particular answer
• avoid personal questions that violate the right to privacy
• designing likert scale statements:
• consider the number of options:
• odd number of options: middle value may be selected more frequently
• even number of options: forces a choice, preventing a “neutral” or “neither agree nor disagree” response

Question 11

what is response bias (response acquiescence) in likert-style scales, and how can it be avoided?

Answer 11

• occurs when respondents agree or disagree with all statements without carefully considering each one
• can happen if all statements are worded favourably or unfavourably
• avoiding:
• reverse statements: alternate between positive and negative wording
• mix up statements: prevent respondents from simply agreeing or disagreeing with all answers
• eg favourable statement: “marriage helps society to function.” reversed statement: “society doesn’t help marriage to function”

Question 12

what are demand characteristics? (weakness of questionnaire design)

Answer 12

• occur when characteristics of a question or features of a study give clues to ppts about the expected answer(s)
• can lead ppts to respond in ways that align with what they think the researcher wants

Question 13

what is reliability in questionnaires, and how is external reliability tested? (problems in questionnaire design)

Answer 13

• reliability: refers to the consistency of a measure or finding
• external reliability: consistency of a measure over time
• internal reliability: consistency within the measure itself
• test-retest method: used to check external reliability
• same people complete the same questionnaire on a different occasion
• if responses are the same or very similar, external reliability is established

Question 14

what is internal reliability, and how can it be tested? (problem in questionnaire design)

Answer 14

• internal reliability: refers to the consistency of a measure within itself, especially when multiple questions are used to measure the same trait or attitude
• problem: different questions may not equally measure same concept
• split-half method:
• split the questionnaire into two halves and compare the findings from both halves
• if both halves achieve the same score, it suggests the questions measure the same concept
• if the scores differ, it suggests some questions may measure a different concept

Question 15

what is validity, and how can it be established in a questionnaire? (problem in questionnaire design)

Answer 15

• validity: refers to the extent to which a questionnaire measures what it intends to measure
• eg questionnaire measuring attitudes about education should only measure that attitude
• face validity: established by looking at each question to ensure it makes sense in terms of the construct being measured (eg attitudes about education)
• can also be confirmed by asking an expert to review the questions
• predictive validity: measures the ability of the questionnaire to predict same construct in the future
• eg intelligence test with predictive validity should correlate with future educational success (e.g., A-level or degree grades).
• concurrent validity: established by comparing the questionnaire to another test that measures same construct

Question 16

what are interviews?

Answer 16

• can be used in a survey if they are administered to a large sample
• more likely when using a structured interview

Question 17

what are structured interviews, and what are their advantages and disadvantages?

Answer 17

• defined by a set format with standardised questions asked in the same way to all respondents
• often use closed questions to gather quantitative data
• advantages:
• easy to administer to large samples
• no need to establish rapport between researcher and respondent
• disadvantages:
• data can be superficial and lack depth
• respondents may feel stifled and unable to fully express their opinions
• can be as frustrating as answering closed questions in a questionnaire

Question 18

what are semi-structured interviews, and how do they differ from structured interviews?

Answer 18

• more conversational and dynamic compared to structured interviews
• researcher has a set of questions but does not follow a rigid format
• allows for a more natural flow of conversation while still aiming to achieve research goals and gather relevant info
• advantages:
• can gather both quantitative and qualitative data
• more flexible, allowing for deeper insights than structured interviews

Question 19

what are unstructured interviews, and what skills are required from the interviewer?

Answer 19

• begin with a loose research aim and gather qualitative info from respondents
• unlike structured interviews, there is no fixed set of questions, the interview is more conversational
• skills required:
• needs to be analytical to probe and seek meaning from respondents
• must establish good rapport with respondents and be responsive to the information shared
• requires good listening skills and should use non-judgmental language

Question 20

what ethical issues are important when conducting unstructured interviews?

Answer 20

• confidentiality: respondents’ details should be anonymised and personal details disguised
• right to privacy: interviewer must handle personal information sensitively to avoid breaching the respondent’s right to privacy
• sensitive questions: due to reflexive nature of unstructured interviews, interviewer should be careful when asking for personal information to avoid making respondents uncomfortable
• ethical consideration: direct quotes from respondents need to be handled ethically, ensuring that no harm comes from the qualitative data gathered

Question 21

weakness in interviews: researcher effects

Answer 21

• sex, age, manner, and personality of the interviewer can influence how respondents answer questions.
• these characteristics can affect:
• whether a respondent is truthful
• whether they disclose certain information at all
• controlling for researcher effects:
• predict potential biases based on interviewer characteristics
• eg male interviewer might not obtain detailed information from a female participant about sensitive topics like marriage.
• can be controlled by employing an interviewer of the opposite sex (eg using a female interviewer for a female participant).

Question 22

what is an alternative hypothesis, and how is it formulated in a study?

Answer 22

• prediction about what is likely to occur in the study
• contains the variables under investigation
• should be a clear, testable, and precise statement
• formulating the hypothesis:
• often guided by previous research in the topic area
• if there is limited research or mixed findings, the hypothesis may just predict that a difference or relationship might exist between the variables, without specifying the direction of the difference/relationship

Question 23

strengths of close-ended questions

Answer 23

• easy to analyse - as date is in numbers (quan) which can be summarised using averages as well as simple graphs. therefore, easier to draw conclusions, as you can make comparisons
• answers are more objective; they are more likely to be interpreted in the same way by any researcher

Question 24

weaknesses of close-ended questions

Answer 24

• people can’t express their exact/precise feelings as researcher determined the choice of answers. data may be low in val and tends not to uncover new insights
• oversimplifies reality and human experience as it suggests that there a simple answers. in reality, people are likely to actually think several possible answers would reflect their views

Question 25

strengths of open-ended questions

Answer 25

- provides **rich detail** of how people behave as they’re given **free range** to express themselves. they can express what they **actually think** rather than being restricted by preconceived categories. this **increases val** of the data collected - the fact that ppts can provide **any answer** means that researchers may collect **unexpected findings**. with closed questions the researchers **make decisions** about likely answers, and this closes off any unusual possibilities

Question 26

weaknesses of open-ended questions

Answer 26

- more difficult to **draw conclusions** as there will be a **wide range** of respondents’ answers. therefore, a researcher may look for patterns rather than using **descriptive statistics** - interpreting what people mean is likely to be **subjective** - each researcher may have slightly different view of what a ppt actually meant

Question 27

strengths and weaknesses of structured interviews

Answer 27

- **strengths**: - can be **easy to replicate** - easier to analyse then unstructured as answers are **more predictable** - interviewer can provide extra info, for example explaining what a particular questions means - **weaknesses**: - the interviewers’ expectations may influence the answers the interviewee gives **(research bias)** - ppts may feel **reluctant** to **reveal personal info** when face-to-face with an interviewer. therefore may **lack depth**

Question 28

strengths and weaknesses of semi-structured interviews

Answer 28

- **strengths**: - convo **flows** so can achieve research aim and get **relevant info**, more **in-depth** - can access info that may not be revealed by predetermined questions - can gather **qual and quan** data - **weaknesses**: - more **subjective** - may still lack **some depth**

Question 29

strengths and weaknesses of unstructured interviews

Answer 29

- **strengths**: - **in-depth** and **detailed** responses - can access info that may not be revealed by predetermined questions - can gather **qual data** - can uncover **unexpected findings** - **weaknesses**: - more affected by **interviewer bias** than structure interview as the interviewer is developing questions on the spot and may be prone to issues eg inadvertently asking **leading questions** - requires **well trained interviewers**, which may be difficult to obtain and makes research more **expensive** - **subjectivity** when analysing data