Mid-Term Flashcards
(106 cards)
1
Q
What are the four main divisions of philosophy?
A
Logic, axiology, epistemology, and metaphysics
2
Q
For Socrates, to what does an unexamined life tragically and grievously harm?
A
A person’s soul (true self, or essence). The soul is harmed by lack of knowledge – ignorance of one’s own self and the most important values in life (the good)
3
Q
What is the question-and-answer dialogue in which propositions are methodically scrutinized to uncover the truth known as?
A
Socratic Method
4
Q
If you assume that a set of statements is true, and yet you can deduce a false or absurd statement from it, then the original set of statements as a whole must be false. What kind of argument is this?
A
reductio ad absurdum
5
Q
What is the systematic use of critical reasoning to try to find answers to fundamental questions about reality, morality, and knowledge called?
A
The Philosophical Method
6
Q
Questions like “What is knowledge?” and “What is truth?” are mainstays of what branch of philosophy?
A
Epistemology
7
Q
What is a group of statements in which one of them is meant to be supported by the others called?
A
An Argument
8
Q
In an argument, the statement being supported is the conclusion. What are the statements supporting the conclusion called?
A
Premises
9
Q
What kind of arguments give logically conclusive support to their conclusions so that if the premises are true, the conclusion must be true?
A
Deductive
10
Q
What kinds of arguments give probable support to their conclusions?
A
Inductive
11
Q
analogical induction
A
Two or more things are similar in several ways; therefore they are probably similar in one further way.
12
Q
sound deduction
A
When premises are true, a good deductive argument is said to be sound.
13
Q
valid inference
A
A deductive argument provides logically conclusive support for its conclusion.
14
Q
enumerative induction
A
We arrive at a generalization about an entire group of things after observing just some of its members.
15
Q
What is the type of argument which begins with premises about a phenomenon or state of affairs to be explained, and then reasons from those premises to an explanation for that state of affairs
A
Inference to the best explanation
16
Q
What is the fallacy of misrepresenting a person’s views so they can be more easily attacked or dismissed?
A
Straw Man Fallacy
17
Q
What is the fallacy of rejecting a statement on the grounds that it comes from a particular person?
A
Ad Hominem
18
Q
What is the fallacy of arguing that a claim must be true simply because many people believe it?
A
Appeal to Popularity
19
Q
What is the fallacy that argues either that (1) a claim is true because it hasn’t been proven false or that (2) a claim is false because it hasn’t been proven true?
A
Appeal to Ignorance
20
Q
What is the fallacy of trying to prove a conclusion by using that very same conclusion as support?
A
Begging the question
21
Q
What is the fallacy of arguing erroneously that a particular action should not be taken because it will lead inevitably to other actions resulting in some dire outcome?
A
Slippery slope
22
Q
What is the fallacy of assigning two different meanings to the same significant word in an argument?
A
Equivocation
23
Q
What are the required components of any good argument?
A
True premises. Good reasons for accepting the conclusion.
24
Q
What do subjectivists claim about everyone’s moral view?
A
That right actions are those endorsed by an individual.
25
What is the shared view of truth held by each of the following: cultural relativism and ethical subjectivism?
That morality and moral standards are relative.
26
What does universal ethical egoism maintain that everyone ought always to do?
Act in ways that maximizes your own well-being.
27
What is the only thing, according to psychological egoism, that anyone is capable of desiring or pursuing?
Self Interest
28
In theory, what is the primary focus of psychological egoism?
A theory that the believe to be a fact of human nature, that people always act out of self-interest.
29
According to critics of the divine command theory say that if the theory is true, if God lacks reasons for his commands, then what must one conclude about God?
That he is less than perfect.
30
If God has excellent reasons for laying down the moral law, then what makes moral law valid?
These reasons and not God’s commands
31
According to critics, in order to avoid portraying God as arbitrary, upon what basis must God issue His commands?
Upon what is good independently.
32
Upon what principle does the view of the rightness of actions depend in act-utilitarianism?
Rightness depends solely on the overall well-being produced by individual actions.
33
What is Mill's comparison concerning Socrates and a pig?
It is better to be human being satisfied than a pig satisfied; better to be Socrates dissatisfied than a fool satisfied.
34
Slippery Slope
That a particular action should not be taken because it will lead inevitably to other actions resulting in some dire outcome
35
False Cause
(Ergo Propter Hoc or Post Hoc) This approach argues conclusions which do not reasonably accrue from the preceding conditions. The attempt is made to give the appearance of causation where there is none. The issue is one of relevance.
36
Overgeneralization
The attempt is made to win support for a position by appealing to one example, or an extremely small group, which lacks the scope necessary to make the support credible. The issue is one of quantity.
37
Argument from Ignorance
The fallacy that argues either that (1) a claim is true because it hasn't been proven false or that (2) a claim is false because it hasn't been proven true?
38
Appeal to Authority
The attempt is made to show that a position should be accepted by drawing attention to the fact that a popular or well-known figure seems to support this position. The issue is one of relevance.
39
Argument from Analogy
The attempt is made to gain support for a position by making an unfair comparison between two things, the purpose of which is to give the appearance of a relationship where there is none. The issue is one of relevance.
40
Argument from Force
The attempt is made to gain support for a position and compliance to demands by threatening physical and/or non-physical harm. This approach operated from a “bully” mentality, as though the power to harm someone proves the validity of one's position. The issue is one of relevance.
41
Argument from Ignorance:
Support for a position is based upon the argument that because no opposition is voiced or because one has no information concerning opposition the position must be valid. The issue is one of quantity.
42
Argument Against the Man
(Ad Hominem) The attempt is made to discredit a position by attacking a person associated in some way with that position. The issue is one of relevance.
43
empirical claims
Empirical claims propose truths concerning physical reality– These claims are “proven” or “disproven” by gathering and interpreting physical data. Absolute certainty is possible if the necessary data is accessible.
44
analytical claims
Analytical claims propose truths concerning words and their meanings–These claims are “proven” or “disproven” by examining word meanings and the reasonableness of their uses and applications. Absolute certainty is possible once the meanings of words are established.
45
value claims
Value claims propose truths concerning what one should be or what one ought to do– These claims are “proven” or “disproven” through comparative analyses of the benefits and liabilities concerning the support of the claim. This involves examining both quantity and quality supports for the claim. Absolute certainty is not possible; however, support or non-support for such a claim is conclusive if the that which is most reasonable discernible.
46
metaphysical claims
Metaphysical claims propose truths concerning non-physical, transcendent reality– These claims are by nature abstract; therefore, attempting to verify their validity through empirical means is doomed to failure. However, empirical evidence may provide conclusive circumstantial support or refutation concerning this type of claim. Verifying such a claim involves abstract reasoning based on the application of the principles of logic along with circumstantial non-abstract evidence. The goal is to determine what is most reasonable and, therefore, most likely to be true. Absolute certainty is not currently attainable for beings who are finite and limited; however, that which is most reasonable and most likely is attainable.
47
teleology
The explanation of phenomena in terms of the purpose they serve rather than of the cause by which they arise.
48
cosmology
The science of the origin and development of the universe. Modern astronomy is dominated by the Big Bang theory, which brings together observational astronomy and particle physics.
49
anthropology
The study of human societies and cultures and their development– the study of human biological and physiological characteristics and their evolution.
50
paleontology
The branch of science concerned with fossil animals and plants.
51
ontology
The branch of metaphysics dealing with the nature of being.
52
What is the principle of logic stating that two claims which are direct opposites cannot both be true?
The excluded middle
53
What is the principle of logic stating that two opposing claims must be judged by the same criteria?
The Law Of Verification
54
What is the principle of logic stating that a self-refuting statement cannot be true?
Law of Noncontradiction
55
What is the principle of logic stating that a thing exists as "unique" with specific "particulars" which cannot be fully applied to any other thing?
Law of Identity
56
external, objective revelation
This approach presumes that a metaphysical source for knowledge and guidance is preferable. This viewpoint asserts that such a source provides the best means for determining what is true and right.
57
nature and conditioning
This approach presumes that genetics and conditioning determine what is true and right.
58
majority rule
This approach presumes that the opinions and practices of the greatest number of individuals in any group constitute the basis for determining what is true and right.
59
personal, subjective intuition
This approach presumes that personal feeling, inner “knowing,” mystical impressions, and individual intuition determine are the valid basis for determining what is true and right.
60
According to Craig, what is established by the kalam cosmological argument?
That the universe has a cause
61
What is Craig's position concerning an actually infinite number of things?
Meaningless– That the very idea involves logical contradiction. That it is just an idea that exists in our mind, not in reality.
62
What is Craig's conclusion if the series of events in time cannot be actually infinite?
That the universe began to exist– It is finite in the past
63
What is Aquinas's view concerning an infinite regress of causes?
That there could not be an infinite regress of causes because then there would not have been anything that started everything moving. There had to me a “first mover.”
64
What is the first efficient cause of everything according to Aquinas?
God. The unmoved mover.
65
What is Paley's watch analogy?
That if the universe has characteristics that are there to serve a certain purpose, it must be designed with those purposes in mind.
66
What does Paley maintains is the key difference between the "contrivance" of a watch and that of nature?
That the contrivances of nature surpass those of the watch. They are greater and grander.
67
According to Paley, upon what basis does one conclude that a watch has an intelligent designer ?
Because it shows purposefulness. That each feature does a specific job in reference to each other feature
68
What is Cleanthes's analogy, and what is Philo's response?
Cleanthes’s analogy is the universe is like a house, and when we see a house we assume a builder. Philo responds by saying that it is a bad analogy because there are too many dissimilarities. Furthermore that human intelligence is one of many sources that produce change in the world. We therefore have no reason to presume that intelligence is the one that that is responsible for the universe as a whole. This would be a composition fallacy (arguing from the part two the whole)
69
What is Anselm's argument concerning existence, reality, and understanding?
That which exists in reality is greater than that which only exists in the understanding. God exists in understanding so must exist in reality as that with exists in reality is greater than that which exists only in understanding.
70
According to Rowe, what does Anselm believe concerning existence in reality?
That it is a great-making quality
71
What is Rowe's argument concerning the ability to define God and the existence of God?
We can allow someone to define God anyway he or she wants, yet it will not follow from that definition that such a being actually exists.
72
What is Hick's position concerning evil in the world?
That it is necessary to provide humans with a world where moral and spiritual progress is possible. For the evolution of the soul
73
What is Hick's view concerning the idea that a person can be infallibly guaranteed always to act rightly?
Self-contradictory.
74
What is Hick's belief concerning evils such as poverty, oppression, persecution, and war?
Manifestations of human sin.
75
What does Pascal believe resolves the question of God's existence?
Because it he is beyond out comprehension we are incapable of knowing either what he is or if he is. Therefore would should simply believe because it is advantageous.
76
What is Pascal's wager concerning the existence of God?
That the safe bet would be on God. If he does exist you have an infinity to gain and if he does not exist you have nothing to lose.
77
According to James, what is a “live option?”
An option that reflects alternatives that could possibly be actualized–One that appeals as a real possibility to him to whom it is proposed.
78
According to James what is a “genuine option?”
forced, living, and momentous
79
What does James say concerning the desire for “a certain kind of truth?”
That they can bring about the special truth's existence.
80
What does Kant say about “Being?”
That it is not a concept of something which could be added to the concept of a thing. It is merely the positing of a thing, or of certain determinations, as existing in themselves
81
What does Mackie says concerning the nature of religious experiences?
That they closely resemble pathologies and can explained in purely human terms.
82
According to Hick, what kind of world would prevent the forwarding of the divine purpose?
An hedonistic paradise.
83
What does Behe says that an irreducibly complex biological system would powerfully challenge?
The argument for gradual evolutionary change
84
According to Behe, what does the gradual accumulation of mutations demonstrate?
That it is impossible for irreducibly complex systems to develop in this way.
85
deductive inferences
Inference in which the conclusion is just as certain as the premises
86
inferences to the best explanation
Begin via a premise, then reason from those premises trying to produce the best explanation.
87
According to Swinburne, what accounts for the simplicity of a scientific theory?
The principle of credulity
88
According to Philo, what is the conclusion concerning God's existence if the universe is not perfectly ordered?
That God must be imperfect
89
What does Paley indicate concerning the anthropic principle and the idea of the intelligent design of the universe.
That if looks as if it were designed then it likely was.
90
What is Craig's view concerning the origin of the universe?
Kalam cosmological argument. (1) Whatever began to exist has a cause (2) the universe began to exist (3) The universe has a cause.
91
What do Aquinas's arguments attempt to prove concerning God's existence?
That all things that move were set in motion. Because the universe is moving it was set in motion. God is the first mover.
92
What is Aquinas's view concerning an infinite series of causes?
That there could not be an infinite series of causes. That this was not possible. That there had to be a first cause that itself was eternal.
93
How should one live, according to ethical egoism?
After the manner that best suits your individual self-interest
94
What is Alan Dershowitz's argument concerning torture?
That since it is likely already being practiced, it would be better to make it legal so we could govern and oversee it with a system such as warrant application.
95
What does Mill believe concerning the relationship between the moral worth of an action and one's motives.
Altruism is never a motive; that all act out of self-interest
96
What is Kant's position concerning happiness?
That a goodwill constitutes the indispensable condition even being worthy of happiness.
97
What is Mary Wollstonecraft's primary contribution to philosophical thought?
Equality of men and women in the development of reason, virtue, and knowledge.
98
What is Aristotle's position concerning virtue?
That it is the “golden mean” between two vices
99
(1)What are philosophical presuppositions? (2)What is meant by logical conclusions?
(1) Beliefs which provide the foundation for everything else one believes, which constitute the real basis for one's attitudes, words, & actions
(2) The results, or outcomes, which will occur as the result of living consistently and coherently
with one's philosophical presuppositions
100
Hicks argument
Soul Making
101
Anselms argument
Ontological proof of the being than which none greater can be conceived
102
Aquinas’s argument
The Unmoved mover
103
Mill
Ethical Egoism
104
William James
Living-forced-momentous truth (will to believe)
105
What does Hick assert concerning God's power if God cannot accomplish the logically impossible?
Hick asserts that it is no limitation on God’s power that he cannot accomplish the logically impossible.
106
What does Kant argue concerning the conditional nature of moral law?
Kant argued that the moral law is a truth of reason, and hence that all rational creatures are bound by the same moral law. Thus in answer to the question, “What should I do?” Kant replies that we should act rationally, in accordance with a universal moral law.
