Midterm #1

Question 1

Explain hindsight bias

Answer 1

hindsight bias is the “i knew it all along effect” after something has already happened, it is an exaggeration of one’s ability to predict how something would have turned out

Question 2

Counterfactual thinking?

Answer 2

When you think of Counterfactual thinking, think of “if only I had done it differently”, it is false certainty that one could have changed the outcome if they had acted differently.
- Thinking what is obvious to us now should have been obvious to us then e.g. relationships

• Counterfactual thinking is a concept in psychology that involves the human tendency to create possible alternatives to life events that have already occurred; something that is contrary to what actually happened.
• Silver medal winners do it all the time. The closeness to winning causes much regret and they need to excuse themselves for their ‘failure’. In a reverse effect, Bronze medal winners often feel lucky to get a medal, as they were very close to not getting a medal at all.

Question 3

what is mundane realism

Answer 3

the degree to which an experiment is superficially similar to everyday situations

Question 4

experimental realism

Answer 4

the degree to which an experiment produces the real psychological experiences that it is intended to create

Question 5

Attribution theory

Answer 5

how people identify causes of their own and others’ behaviour

Question 6

Dispositional (internal)

Answer 6

attributing behaviour to the person’s disposition or traits (internal)

Question 7

Situational (external)

Answer 7

attributing behaviour to the environment (external)

Question 8

Kelley’s theory of attribution

Answer 8

• consistency
• distinctiveness
• consensus

Question 9

Consistency

Answer 9

how consistent is the person’s behaviour in this situation?

Question 10

Distinctiveness

Answer 10

how specific is this person’s behaviour to the situation?

Question 11

Consensus

Answer 11

to what extent do others in this situation behave in the same way?

Question 12

Fundamental attribution error

Answer 12

the tendency for observers to underestimate situational influences and overestimate dispositional influences upon others’ behaviour

“she’s tired because she’s lazy”
Instead of
“she’s tired because the prof is boring her to tears.”

Question 13

Self-serving bias

Answer 13

the tendency to make

• an internal attribution when the outcome is positive (I got an A because I studied hard)
• an external attribution when the outcome is negative (I got an F because the test was too hard)

Question 14

Actor-observer bias

Answer 14

when we are the actor, we tend to attribute our own behaviour to external causes (environment)
- I’m too tired because this class is boring
but when we observe others, we tend to underestimate the environment
- she’s sleeping because she’s lazy

Question 15

Dependent upon setting

Answer 15

• in some settings the FAE is more likely

- but perhaps an over statement to say it happens in ALL settings

Question 16

Correspondence bias

Answer 16

a tendency to view behaviour as coming from inner dispositions

-We attribute our own actions to our situations, seeing our behaviors as perfectly normal responses to experience. But when someone else kicks a vending machine, we don’t see their past history trailing behind them in the air. We just see the kick, for no reason we know about, and we think this must be a naturally angry person—since they lashed out without any provocation.

Question 17

Folk-conceptual theory

Answer 17

• an alternative explanation for the FAE

- focus: how we interpret the intentionality of the act

Question 18

Why do we make the fundamental attribution error?

Answer 18

• differing perspectives
• perspectives change with time
• cultural differences

Question 19

what is social psychology?

Answer 19

social psychology is the study of social behavior.

It is the scientific study of how people think about, influence, and relate to one another.

Question 20

the 6 ways psychologists believe we form and sustain false beliefs

Answer 20

1. our preconceptions control our interpretations
2. we ignore base rate information
3. we are swayed by memorable events rather than by facts
4. we misperceive correlation and control
5. we tend to be over confident in our judgments
6. Our beliefs can generate their own confirmation

Question 21

what is the difference between a theory and a hypothesis?

Answer 21

A Theory is an idea which helps to summarize and explain facts. This implies a hypothesis but a Hypothesis is a testable prediction

Question 22

Is social psychology just a matter of common sense? why not?

Answer 22

sometimes common sense can be helpful, but social psychologists study peoples behaviour for the times where people act differently/ stray from the norm.

Question 23

what is the difference between a correlation and an experiment?

Answer 23

the difference between a correlation and an experiment is in correlational research we ask whether two or more factors are naturally associated.

Where in experimental research we manipulate some factor to see its effect on another.

Question 24

What are the (3) possible conclusions that we could draw from the VVG and VAP example from class?

(VVG - violent video games)
(VAP - violent playground acts)

Answer 24

1. playing VVG’s causes VAP’s
2. VAP’s cause kids to play VVG’s

**3. There is a THIRD factor.
could be permissive parents etc.

Question 25

Define the Independent variable

Answer 25

The independent variable is the variable that is manipulated

Question 26

Define Self Esteem

Answer 26

Self esteem is self confidence in a nut shell

Question 27

There are 5 parts involved in the ethical principles, can you name them? (Hint: IC. T. P. CO. D.)

Answer 27

- Informed consent - being Truthful - Protect - Confidentiality - Debrief

Question 28

the 6 ways psychologists believe we form and sustain false beliefs

Answer 28

1. our preconceptions bias our interpretations 2. we ignore base rate information 3. we are swayed by memorable events rather than by facts 4. we misperceive correlation and control 5. we tend to be over confident in our judgments 6. Our beliefs can generate their own confirmation

Question 29

Do teachers expectations affect their students?

Answer 29

- Jamieson (1987) found that positive expectations from profs influenced: level of student attention, grades, teacher ratings

Question 30

Behavioural confirmation

Answer 30

- a type of self-fulfilling prophecy whereby people's social expectations lead them to act in ways that cause others to confirm the expectations

Question 31

Illusionary correlation

Answer 31

- perception of a relationship where none exists, or perception of a stronger relationship than actually exists - e.g. sugar consumption and hyperactivity in children

Question 32

Illusion of control

Answer 32

- perception of uncontrollable events as subjects to one's control or as more controllable than they are - e.g. gambling ("I got a lucky feeling about this one...")

Question 33

If high self-esteem improves our lives, what are the factors that increase self-esteem?

Answer 33

- self-efficacy | - locus of control (LOC)

Question 34

Confirmation bias

Answer 34

we are eager to verify our beliefs, but less inclined to seek evidence that might disprove them

Question 35

Self-fulfilling prophecies

Answer 35

the tendency for one's expectations to evoke behaviour in others that confirms the expectations i.e. Dartmouth people are hotheads, if someone happens to freak out in public this fulfills your expectations of them

Question 36

Do teachers expectations affect student performance?

Answer 36

- according to Rosenthal's study in 1991, teachers' expectations predicted performance in 39% of the 448 published experiments - high expectations seem to be more influential for low achievers

Question 37

Do student expectations affect teachers?

Answer 37

- Jamieson (1987) found that positive expecations influenced: level of student attention, grades, teacher ratings

Question 38

Behavioural confirmation

Answer 38

- a type of self-fulfilling prophecy whereby people's social expectations lead them to act in ways that cause others to

Question 39

People with high self-esteem compared to people with low self-esteem

Answer 39

- happier - healthier - less likely to become addicted to drugs or alcohol - sleep better - worry (obsess) less

Question 40

There are two general categories for the self & culture, can you define them?

Answer 40

Individualistic: self before others; emphasis on independence, individuality - North America, Aussie, Europe Collectivist: others before self, emphasis on family, community, and belonging - Asia, Africa, South America

Question 41

SELF KNOWLEDGE what is the durability bias?

Answer 41

The durability bias pertains to when we mispredict the enduring impact of positive and negative events

Question 42

SELF KNOWLEDGE what is immune neglect? (psychological immune system)

Answer 42

Immune neglect occurs when we fail to take into account the resilience of our psychological immune system - when we over predict our misery e.g. break-ups

Question 43

what is self-presentation?

Answer 43

self presentation is wanting to represent a desired image to both an external audience and an internal audience (yourself)

Question 44

what is the self-reference effect?`

Answer 44

-Making things more applicable or memorable to you will make it easier to recall in the future The self-reference effect is a tendency for people to encode information differently depending on the level on which the self is implicated in the information. When people are asked to remember information when it is related in some way to the self, the recall rate can be improved.

Question 45

what is role playing?

Answer 45

role playing is a set of norms that define how people in a given social position ought to behave "fake it till you make it"

Question 46

what is false modesty?

Answer 46

false modesty is presenting ourselves in a false, depreciating - negative light

Question 47

what is self handicapping?

Answer 47

self handicapping is sabotaging our own chance of success "i bombed the exam because i was out partying"

Question 48

Define self serving bias - give examples

Answer 48

Self serving bias is the idea that we perceive ourselves favourably. Explaining positive and negative events. - we take credit for our successes - we do not take credit for our failures

Question 49

What is unrealistic optimism?

Answer 49

unrealistic optimism occurs when we overestimate the likelihood of our success

Question 50

What is the false consensus effect?

Answer 50

the false consensus effect is the idea that our opinions are held by most others

Question 51

what is false uniqueness?

Answer 51

false uniqueness is the fallacy of thinking that nobody has our talents

Question 52

How do psychologists measure self-esteem?

Answer 52

``` The Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale - most frequently used instrument in the literature for assessing self-esteem - designed to assess the degree to which (people are generally satisfied with their lives, the consider themselves worthy people) e.g., 1 = strongly agree 2 = agree 3 = disagree 4 - strongly agree ```

Question 53

If high self-esteem improves our lives, what are the factors that increase self-esteem?

Answer 53

- self-efficacy | - locus of control

Question 54

Self-efficacy

Answer 54

- people's beliefs about their abilities to produce effects - how competent you feel to do something - an optimistic confidence in our own abilities

Question 55

what role does self esteem maintenance and self esteem threats play in contributing (or not) to self esteem?

Answer 55

When we look for explanations that boost our self image this is self esteem maintenance. Competition that leads to tension or jealousy lead to self esteem threats

Question 56

define self efficacy

Answer 56

self efficacy is knowing that you can do something. this also applies to being a burglar or a defence lawyer - not always positive.

Question 57

How is the self serving bias adaptive/ maladaptive?

Answer 57

Adaptive: - can protect us from depressive episodes Maladaptive: - illusory belief in our own ability - cease to improve - not motivated

Question 58

Explain the difference between downward and upward social comparison

Answer 58

downward social comparison: comparing ourselves to those who are not as proficient as we are at a given task upward social comparison: comparing ourselves to others who are better than we are

Question 59

Locus of control (LOC)

Answer 59

the extent to which people perceive outcomes as... - internally controllable by their own efforts and actions (internal locus of control) - externally controlled by chance or outside forces (external locus of control)

Question 60

compare/contrast counterfactual thinking with hindsight bias (this ones a struggle for me loool)

Answer 60

Counterfactual thoughts are thoughts of what might have been, of what could have happened had some detail or action been different. Hindsight bias refers to an exaggerated sense of certainty in the factual outcome's occurrence, defined relative to a certainty of judgments made in foresight.