Midterm 1 Material Flashcards
(305 cards)
1
Q
What is cognition?
A
Cognition is the act of thinking and its effects on behavior in the brain.
2
Q
What is the difference between basic and applied research?
A
Basic research aims to expand knowledge, while applied research focuses on solving practical problems.
3
Q
What does cognitive psychology measure, and why?
A
Cognitive psychology measures behavior to understand the mind.
4
Q
What is the emotional enhancement effect?
A
Emotional stimuli are more easily attended to and remembered than neutral stimuli.
5
Q
What is mental chronometry?
A
Mental chronometry refers to measuring reaction times to estimate the time taken for cognitive processes.
6
Q
Mike Ross is known for his ability to read people quickly and recall case law effortlessly. If a psychologist wanted to study the cognitive processes behind his rapid decision-making, which subfield would they use?
A
Cognitive psychology (measuring behavior to understand thought processes).
7
Q
Shawn Spencer claims he has psychic abilities, but in reality, he is just extremely observant. His ability to notice small details and recall them later is an example of what philosophical theory?
A
Empiricism (knowledge comes from experience and perception).
8
Q
Michael Westen relies on his ability to process multiple sources of information under stress. If researchers wanted to study how stress affects memory, what psychological effect might they investigate?
A
Emotional enhancement effect (negative emotional stimuli are remembered better, but details like faces might be forgotten).
9
Q
Patrick Jane often uses illusions to trick criminals into revealing the truth. Plato believed that illusions occur because knowledge is shaped by an innate inner logic. What is the name of this theory?
A
Rationalism (reasoning is guided by innate knowledge).
10
Q
Abed is fascinated by analyzing human behavior systematically, often breaking it down into patterns and structures. His approach is most similar to which early psychological school of thought?
A
Structuralism (breaking down mental experiences into basic building blocks).
11
Q
Rory Gilmore prides herself on thinking critically and engaging deeply with literature. If a researcher wanted to analyze her cognitive processes using computational modelling, what would they study?
A
The underlying computational processes linking the brain and mind (how cognition is modeled as an information-processing system).
12
Q
What is Functionalism?
A
Functionalism focuses on why the mind works rather than breaking it down into basic elements.
13
Q
How does Functionalism differ from Structuralism?
A
Functionalism focuses on how cognition serves a function and adapts to context, while Structuralism seeks to identify the basic building blocks of mental processes.
14
Q
What is Behaviourism?
A
Behaviourism is the study of observable actions, rejecting the study of mental processes.
15
Q
What is Classical Conditioning?
A
Learning through associations between a stimulus and a natural response (Pavlov).
16
Q
What is Operant Conditioning?
A
Learning through reinforcement and punishment (Skinner).
17
Q
Why did Behaviourism decline in the 1950s?
A
It failed to explain complex human behaviors like language acquisition, which required internal mental rules.
18
Q
What was the Cognitive Revolution?
A
A shift in psychology that accepted internal mental states and used the scientific method to study them, influenced by technological advances.
19
Q
Mike Ross is able to pass the bar exam without attending law school, relying on his photographic memory and deep understanding of legal principles. Which psychological perspective best explains his ability to apply knowledge to real-world problems?
A
Functionalism (emphasizes how cognition adapts to goals and context).
20
Q
Gus is skeptical of Shawn’s detective methods and prefers logical reasoning based on past experiences. His preference aligns with which philosophy?
A
Empiricism (knowledge comes from observation and experience).
21
Q
Fiona teaches a new recruit how to handle explosives through trial and error, rewarding correct actions and correcting mistakes. Which psychological principle is she using?
A
Operant Conditioning (learning through reinforcement and punishment).
22
Q
Patrick Jane trains a young detective using a strict reinforcement schedule, giving praise for accurate observations and withholding it for mistakes. What learning theory is he applying?
A
Instrumental/Operant Conditioning (behavior depends on reinforcement schedules).
23
Q
Jeff Winger is skilled at persuasion, often manipulating conversations to get what he wants. If a Behaviourist were studying him, what would they focus on?
A
Observable actions and reinforcement patterns (ignoring internal thought processes).
24
Q
Rory learns French without ever being explicitly taught the grammar rules, yet she applies them correctly when speaking. What does this challenge about Behaviourism?
A
Latent learning (she acquired knowledge without direct reinforcement).
25
What is the Information Processing View of cognition?
The mind is like a computer, processing external information in a systematic way to generate behavior.
26
What is the difference between primary memory and secondary memory?
Primary memory is temporary (working memory), while secondary memory is long-term. Rehearsal moves information from primary to secondary memory.
27
Why do humans process information?
To reduce uncertainty. The more uncertain something is, the longer it takes to process.
28
What is choice overload bias?
Too many choices overwhelm cognitive processing, leading to poor decision-making.
29
What is decision fatigue?
The decline in decision-making ability as cognitive resources are depleted over time.
30
What is ecological validity?
The extent to which research findings apply to real-world situations.
31
Harvey Specter rarely struggles with decisions, while Mike Ross sometimes overthinks legal strategies. If a psychologist studied Mike's longer decision-making times, what cognitive principle might explain it?
More uncertainty leads to longer information processing times.
32
Shawn is great at solving crimes quickly, but when faced with choosing a restaurant, he takes forever. What cognitive bias explains why too many options make decisions harder?
Choice overload bias.
33
Michael Westen always prepares mission plans early in the morning when he’s well-rested. What cognitive strategy is he using?
Making important decisions when cognitive resources are high (reducing decision fatigue).
34
Patrick Jane can recall key details from crime scenes easily, but if he doesn’t rehearse them, he forgets some of them. What cognitive principle explains this?
Without rehearsal, information in primary memory is lost.
35
Abed runs a social experiment on how students choose their electives. He finds that students given 10 options struggle more than those given 3. What psychological effect is at play?
Choice overload bias.
36
Rory is mentally exhausted after a long day of studying and struggles to decide what to eat. What cognitive principle explains why decision-making gets harder over time?
Decision fatigue.
37
Jessica Pearson makes quick, confident decisions in high-pressure situations. If a psychologist wanted to study her decision-making in a real courtroom instead of a lab, what concept would they be considering?
Ecological validity.
38
What is Rationalism?
The belief that we have innate knowledge that guides our reasoning.
39
What is Empiricism?
The belief that knowledge comes from experience and observation.
40
What is the main focus of Structuralism?
Identifying the basic building blocks of thought through systematic observation and introspection.
41
What is Functionalism concerned with?
Understanding how cognition serves a purpose and changes with goals and context.
42
How does Behaviorism differ from earlier schools of thought?
It focuses on observable behavior rather than mental processes.
43
What is decision fatigue?
The decline in decision-making ability after prolonged cognitive effort.
44
What is Dualism?
The belief that the mind and the brain are separate entities that interact.
45
What is Monism?
The belief that the mind and the brain are one entity.
46
What is Interactionism?
The idea that the mind and brain can influence each other.
47
What is Epiphenomenalism?
The belief that brain activity causes mental states, but mental states do not influence the brain.
48
Mike Ross believes his talent for remembering legal cases is innate, while Louis Litt argues that he learned everything through hard work and observation. Which philosophical traditions do they represent?
Mike = Rationalism, Louis = Empiricism.
49
Shawn claims his ability to solve crimes is purely instinct, while Gus insists that observation and experience are key. What philosophical debate are they having?
Rationalism vs. Empiricism.
50
Fiona insists on knowing the "why" behind Michael’s plans, while Sam only cares about the individual steps. Which cognitive psychology schools do they align with?
Fiona = Functionalism, Sam = Structuralism.
51
Patrick Jane studies human behavior in the field to solve crimes, while a psychologist studying deception in a lab uses controlled experiments. Which psychological approaches do these methods reflect?
Patrick = Functionalism, Lab Psychologist = Structuralism.
52
The group is debating whether the mind and brain are separate. Annie argues that thoughts and brain activity are different things, while Jeff insists they are the same. What philosophical positions do they represent?
Annie = Dualism, Jeff = Monism.
53
Rory notices that when she's anxious (mental state), her brain feels foggy and unfocused. Which theory of dualism supports the idea that mental and physical states interact?
Interactionism.
54
Harvey insists that his thoughts shape his decisions, but Donna argues that his brain chemistry (like adrenaline) affects how he thinks. Which theories do they align with?
Harvey = Interactionism, Donna = Epiphenomenalism.
55
Gus claims that everything in life is just a physical process, while Shawn jokes that reality might just be in his head. Which philosophical theories do they represent?
Gus = Materialism, Shawn = Idealism.
56
What does the Central Nervous System (CNS) include?
The brain and spinal cord.
57
What is the main function of the CNS?
It is responsible for cognition and managing voluntary actions.
58
What does the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) do?
It connects the CNS to the rest of the body and manages motor and involuntary actions.
59
What are the two divisions of the Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)?
Sympathetic Nervous System (fight or flight) and Parasympathetic Nervous System (rest and digest).
60
What is Functional Specialization?
The idea that specific brain regions are responsible for specific cognitive functions.
61
What is Phrenology?
A historical (now debunked) theory that linked brain bumps to personality traits and intelligence.
62
What are two types of behavioural measurements used in cognitive experiments?
Voluntary (e.g., reaction time, memory tests) and Involuntary (e.g., eye movements, skin conductance).
63
What are the strengths of using animal models in neuroscience?
They allow researchers to establish causal links between brain structures and behavior.
64
What are the weaknesses of using animal models in neuroscience?
Differences in brain structure and function limit how findings generalize to humans.
65
What is the primary goal of studying neuropsychological patient cases?
To understand brain function by comparing patients with brain injuries to healthy individuals.
66
Harvey has to make a split-second decision in court. His Sympathetic Nervous System kicks in, increasing his heart rate and focus. What would happen after the trial when his Parasympathetic Nervous System takes over?
His body would calm down, reducing his heart rate and restoring balance.
67
Shawn sees a suspect from across the street and recognizes his face instantly. Which brain area helps with expert facial recognition?
The Fusiform Face Area (FFA).
68
Michael is interrogating someone and notices their skin conductance has increased. What does this suggest?
They might be experiencing stress or arousal, which is an involuntary physiological response.
69
Patrick Jane is conducting an experiment to see how long someone takes to recall a memory. What type of behavioural measurement is he using?
Voluntary (reaction time in a memory test).
70
Abed is fascinated by how the brain works and wants to map different mental functions to brain regions. Which early, controversial approach does this sound like?
Phrenology.
71
Rory is reading about a famous neuroscience case where a patient had their brain hemispheres separated, leading to unusual behavior. What kind of patient is this?
A split-brain patient.
72
Louis is feeling anxious and his heart is racing before an important trial. Which part of his Autonomic Nervous System is responsible?
The Sympathetic Nervous System.
73
Gus is studying for an exam and using self-reports to rate how stressed he feels. What kind of behavioural measurement is this?
Subjective self-report.
74
What happens in split-brain patients when an image is flashed to the right visual field?
It is processed by the left hemisphere, allowing the patient to name the object.
75
What happens in split-brain patients when an image is flashed to the left visual field?
It is processed by the right hemisphere, so the patient cannot verbalize the object but may draw it with their left hand.
76
What is hemisphere specialization?
The idea that the left hemisphere processes language, while the right hemisphere processes visual and spatial information.
77
What test measures creativity in split-brain research?
The Alternative Uses Test (AUT), which asks participants to list as many uses as possible for a common object.
78
What does EEG measure?
Electrical activity in the brain, specifically event-related potentials (ERPs).
79
What is the main strength of EEG?
It has high temporal resolution, meaning it can detect brain activity at precise moments.
80
What is the main weakness of EEG?
It has poor spatial resolution, meaning it cannot pinpoint where activity is happening in the brain.
81
What is the difference between structural MRI and functional MRI (fMRI)?
Structural MRI shows brain anatomy, while fMRI detects brain activity during tasks.
82
What does fMRI measure?
Changes in oxygenated blood flow, which is an indirect measure of neural activity.
83
What is a major strength of fMRI?
It provides precise information about where brain activity occurs.
84
What is a major weakness of fMRI?
It has poor temporal resolution and relies on indirect measures of neural activity.
85
What is Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS)?
A noninvasive brain stimulation technique that can increase or inhibit neural activity using a magnetic coil.
86
What is the main strength of TMS?
It allows researchers to test causal relationships between brain regions and cognition.
87
What is a major weakness of TMS?
It has broad effects on the brain, making it difficult to localize specific functions.
88
Mike is taking the bar exam and must quickly recall legal principles. Which neuroimaging technique would best measure his real-time brain activity?
EEG, since it has high temporal resolution.
89
Gus wants to analyze which brain regions are active when people recognize pineapple-shaped objects. Which neuroimaging method should he use?
fMRI, since it provides precise spatial resolution.
90
Michael is testing whether disabling a specific brain area affects decision-making. Which technique should he use?
TMS, since it can temporarily disrupt or enhance brain function.
91
Patrick is investigating a suspect’s brain activity while they look at different crime scene images. He needs a method that detects fast brain responses. Which technique is best?
EEG, because it captures moment-to-moment electrical activity.
92
Abed is studying brain creativity and wants to test if hemisphere communication affects imagination. What type of patients should he study?
Split-brain patients, since their hemispheres cannot communicate.
93
Rory reads about a study where researchers increase memory performance by stimulating the brain. What technique is likely being used?
TMS, since it can enhance cognitive function.
94
What is the difference between sensation and perception?
Sensation is when sensory receptors detect stimuli and convert it into neural signals.
Perception is the brain's interpretation of those signals.
95
What are the five external senses?
Vision, hearing (audition), touch, taste (gustation), smell (olfaction).
96
What are three internal senses (interoception)?
Proprioception (sense of limb position), nociception (pain detection), equilibrioception (balance).
97
What is synesthesia?
A condition where stimulation of one sense automatically triggers another sense (e.g., hearing colors).
98
What are two common types of synesthesia?
Grapheme-color synesthesia (seeing colors with letters/numbers).
Chromesthesia (associating sounds with colors).
99
Why is synesthesia important to neuroscience?
It suggests cross-talk between sensory processing regions in the brain.
100
What is the McGurk Effect?
A phenomenon where a mismatched visual cue changes how we perceive a sound.
101
What does the McGurk Effect demonstrate?
The dominance of vision in sensory integration and cross-talk between senses.
102
What are the two types of photoreceptors in the retina?
Rods (low-light, night vision) and cones (high-light, color vision).
103
Where are cones concentrated, and why is this important?
In the fovea, allowing for high-detail vision in the center of the visual field.
104
Where are rods concentrated, and what does this mean for vision?
In the periphery, leading to lower detail but better night vision in peripheral vision.
105
Why does the brain need to compress visual information?
Millions of photoreceptors converge onto fewer ganglion cells, reducing data before sending it to the brain.
106
What is perceptual filling-in?
The brain fills in missing details in peripheral vision based on information from the center.
107
Harvey is reading legal documents in dim lighting. Which photoreceptors help him see?
Rods, since they work in low-light conditions.
108
Shawn claims he can hear colors and see numbers as specific colors. What condition might he have?
Synesthesia, specifically chromesthesia and grapheme-color synesthesia.
109
Fiona is tailing someone at night and relies on her peripheral vision to detect movement. What type of photoreceptors is she using?
Rods, which are abundant in peripheral vision.
110
Patrick tests a suspect by playing a video where the spoken sound doesn’t match the speaker’s lip movements. What illusion is this?
The McGurk Effect.
111
Abed theorizes that creative people experience sensory overlap more often than others. What neurological condition supports this?
Synesthesia, which is 8x more common in artists.
112
Rory is fascinated by how the brain compensates for missing details in vision. What process is she studying?
Perceptual filling-in.
113
What causes the blind spot in our vision?
It is the area where the optic nerve exits the eye, leaving no photoreceptors.
114
Why don’t we usually notice our blind spot?
The brain uses perceptual filling-in to replace missing visual information.
115
What is the role of the lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN)?
It acts as a relay station in the thalamus for visual information before it reaches the visual cortex.
116
How is visual information represented contralaterally in the brain?
The left visual field is processed by the right hemisphere, and the right visual field is processed by the left hemisphere.
117
What are the two major pathways for late visual processing?
Ventral (What) Pathway: Identifies objects (shape, size, details).
Dorsal (Where) Pathway: Identifies location, movement, and spatial awareness.
118
What does bottom-up processing rely on?
Information from sensory input (external environment) influencing perception.
119
What does top-down processing rely on?
Expectations, knowledge, and context influencing perception.
120
What is the constructivist theory of perception?
Perception is constructed based on both bottom-up sensory input and top-down expectations.
121
What is the Ponzo illusion?
A visual illusion where parallel lines appear different lengths due to converging background lines.
122
What is the Munker-White illusion?
A brightness illusion where gray rectangles appear lighter or darker depending on surrounding patterns.
123
What is the “letters in context” effect?
We can read words with jumbled letters as long as the first and last letters remain in place.
124
What is the “color in context” effect?
Our perception of color is influenced by surrounding colors and lighting context.
125
Mike spots a contract clause that looks odd, even though he didn’t read it carefully. What type of processing helped him?
Top-down processing, since prior knowledge influenced his perception.
126
Shawn tricks Gus by hiding an object in his blind spot, making it disappear. Why can’t Gus see it?
His optic nerve exit lacks photoreceptors, creating a blind spot.
127
Michael uses illusion tricks to make an enemy misjudge object sizes in the distance. What illusion is he using?
The Ponzo illusion, which alters size perception using background depth cues.
128
Patrick convinces a suspect they saw something different than they actually did by using misleading context clues. What concept is this?
Top-down processing, where expectations shape perception.
129
Abed challenges the group to read a jumbled sentence, but they can still understand it. What effect allows this?
The letters in context effect, which relies on word expectations.
130
Rory notices that a gray wall appears lighter in one room and darker in another. What illusion explains this?
The Munker-White illusion, where brightness perception is affected by surrounding patterns.
131
What is the difference between sensation and perception?
Sensation is the registration of stimuli and the transmission of this information to the brain.
Perception is the process of adding meaning to the brain signals.
132
What is the process from sensation to perception?
Stimulation -> Transduction -> Sensation -> Perception.
133
What is the approach motivation effect?
Desirable objects appear closer and larger, and desirable events pass more quickly, due to motivation and emotion.
134
What are mechanoreceptors responsible for?
They respond to touch stimuli and transmit signals to the somatosensory cortex via the spine.
135
What is the cortical homunculus?
A spatially organized map of the body that represents sensory and motor functions.
136
How is the sense of smell (olfaction) processed differently from other senses?
Smell bypasses the thalamus and has direct connections to the memory and emotion regions of the brain.
137
What is the link between taste and smell?
Taste is closely related to smell, and they both process chemical signals that are interpreted in the brain.
138
What role does vision play in taste perception?
Vision can influence taste by associating colors (e.g., red with sweetness and green with bitterness).
139
What is the constructivist theory of perception?
Perception is shaped by stored knowledge and context, which generate mental models that guide actions.
140
What are bistable figures?
Ambiguous images that can be perceived in two different ways, leading to a subjective change in perception.
141
What does Gestalt psychology suggest about perception?
Gestalt principles emphasize top-down organizational strategies that help us interpret ambiguous or bistable images, using context and knowledge.
142
Harvey is negotiating, and the tone of the meeting influences his perception of time. What concept explains why the meeting feels faster than it actually is?
Approach motivation effect, where desirable events (successful negotiations) seem to pass more quickly.
143
Shawn notices a certain smell and immediately recalls a specific childhood memory. Why is his sense of smell so linked to memory?
The olfactory system bypasses the thalamus, directly connecting to memory and emotion centers in the brain.
144
Michael is analyzing a bistable figure to identify hidden details. The figure appears as one object, then suddenly shifts into something else. What is this phenomenon?
Bistable figure, where perception alternates between two different interpretations.
145
Patrick sets up an experiment in which context influences how people perceive ambiguous figures. What principle is at play?
Gestalt principles, using context and shared knowledge to shape perception.
146
The group is in a stressful situation, but Britta perceives the threat as closer and more immediate. What cognitive effect is guiding her perception?
The approach motivation effect, making threatening objects appear closer due to emotional arousal.
147
Rory tastes a new dessert, but the visual color of the food influences her perception of its flavor. What concept explains this?
Vision influences taste, as the color of food can suggest sweetness or bitterness.
148
What is the Principle of Proximity in Gestalt psychology?
Objects or features that are close to one another in a scene are perceived as belonging together.
149
What is the Principle of Closed Forms in Gestalt psychology?
We tend to perceive shapes as complete or whole even if they are incomplete or missing parts.
150
What is the Principle of Good Contour in Gestalt psychology?
We perceive objects as continuous when we expect them to continue, even if part of the object is obscured.
151
What is the Principle of Similarity in Gestalt psychology?
We organize objects or features in a scene based on their similarity (color, shape, size, etc.).
152
What is the Principle of Experience in Gestalt psychology?
Figure-ground segmentation (the process of identifying the main object in a scene) depends on both sensory input and prior knowledge (top-down processing).
153
What are direct models of perception?
The idea that sensory information is rich enough to guide perception without needing top-down processes or prior knowledge.
154
What is the Ambient Optical Array (AOA)?
The pattern of light reaching the retina that provides enough cues to guide perception and action without interpretation by the mind.
155
What is the role of texture gradients in perception?
Texture gradients provide information about distance and movement, as near objects appear more spread out than far objects.
156
What are affordances in perception?
Visual cues that provide immediate information about the potential function of an object based on its appearance.
157
What is blindsight?
A phenomenon where individuals with damage to the visual system have no conscious awareness of objects in a visual field, but can implicitly respond to them.
158
What does the test of blindsight involve?
Patients are asked to guess if a light is on or off in a blinded area (scotoma) and can perform better than chance, indicating implicit perception.
159
What does blindsight suggest about perception?
It suggests that perception occurs on a continuum and may involve non-conscious pathways for visual information.
160
In a tense negotiation, Harvey uses his prior knowledge of the other party to guide his decisions. What Gestalt principle is influencing his perception?
Top-down processing (informed by prior knowledge and context).
161
Shawn notices that he can still accurately sense the position of an object even though he cannot consciously "see" it. What phenomenon is this?
Blindsight, where implicit perception occurs without conscious awareness.
162
Michael is assessing a scene and notices that two objects are perceived together because they are physically close. What Gestalt principle is at work?
Principle of proximity, which organizes objects that are close together as part of the same group.
163
Patrick uses texture gradients to estimate the distance of an object in the environment. What concept does this relate to?
Texture gradients, which provide cues about the distance of objects based on their appearance.
164
Britta is observing a new chair and instinctively understands its function (whether it's for sitting or decorative). What visual concept explains this?
Affordances, the cues in the environment that indicate the function of an object.
165
Rory is discussing how the visual field can lead us to interpret objects in specific ways based on proximity and continuity. What Gestalt principle is guiding her thoughts?
Principle of good contour, where we perceive objects as continuous, even when parts of them are obscured.
166
What is the function of the dorsal "where" pathway in vision?
It processes spatial information, including depth perception and the movement and direction of objects.
167
What happens when the dorsal/where pathway is damaged?
It can lead to Akinetopsia (visual motion blindness) and optic ataxia (difficulty reaching for objects despite recognizing them).
168
What is Akinetopsia?
Visual motion blindness, where the individual cannot see motion and perceives it as a series of stationary objects.
169
What is optic ataxia?
A symptom of Akinetopsia, where there is difficulty reaching for objects despite being able to recognize them.
170
What is the function of the ventral "what" pathway in vision?
It is responsible for recognizing objects and processing visual details such as shape and identity.
171
What is visual agnosia?
Difficulty in recognizing everyday objects, often due to damage to the Lateral Occipital Cortex.
172
What is auditory agnosia?
Difficulty identifying objects through sounds, like not recognizing the sound of a ringing telephone.
173
What is olfactory agnosia?
Difficulty recognizing smells, such as the smell of pancakes.
174
What is prosopagnosia?
Face blindness, a selective deficit in recognizing faces, while the ability to recognize other objects remains intact.
175
What is the Fusiform Face Area (FFA)?
A brain region involved in the recognition of faces, with damage to it leading to prosopagnosia.
176
What is the difference between apperceptive agnosia and associative agnosia?
Apperceptive agnosia involves problems perceiving objects as a whole, while associative agnosia involves problems associating visual input with meaning.
177
What is apperceptive visual agnosia?
Difficulty perceiving visual features as a whole, such as seeing faces as contorted despite intact perception of individual features.
178
What is associative visual agnosia?
Difficulty associating visual objects with meaning, such as struggling to name, draw, or identify the function of an object.
179
Harvey faces a challenging situation and struggles to determine the movement of an object, though he can still identify its features. What pathway might be affected?
The dorsal/where pathway is likely affected, leading to difficulty with movement and depth perception.
180
Shawn encounters a person with prosopagnosia and finds they can't recognize faces, but can identify other objects easily. What brain region might be damaged?
Fusiform Face Area (FFA), responsible for face recognition.
181
Michael notices someone having difficulty reaching for objects despite recognizing them, like a cup of coffee. What symptom are they exhibiting?
Optic ataxia, a symptom of Akinetopsia, where there is difficulty reaching for recognized objects.
182
Patrick is studying a subject with visual agnosia who can't recognize common objects, but can still identify them through other senses. What part of the brain might be damaged?
Likely damage to the Lateral Occipital Cortex, which affects object recognition.
183
Britta has a friend who can’t distinguish between different types of objects based on sight, even though they can describe their features. What type of agnosia is this?
This sounds like apperceptive agnosia, where the person struggles to perceive objects as a whole but can identify individual features.
184
Rory meets someone who has difficulty associating the appearance of objects with their meaning—for example, they cannot name or draw a chair. What type of agnosia is this?
Associative agnosia, where the person has trouble associating visual input with meaning.
185
What is the basic idea behind pattern recognition in visual perception?
Pattern recognition involves processing basic visual features of an input and then matching these features to existing patterns (concepts) stored in memory.
186
What is feature detection in visual object recognition?
Feature detection involves breaking visual input into individual parts (features), each of which is processed separately. The combination of features forms the pattern for recognition.
187
What is the role of a "probe" in visual object recognition?
A probe is the pattern of features that is compared to long-term memory traces to determine recognition. The highest similarity between the probe and a memory trace leads to recognition.
188
What is template matching theory?
Template matching theory suggests that every object has a specific template stored in long-term memory, and recognition occurs when the probe matches one of these templates.
189
What is the main criticism of template matching theory?
It is computationally demanding and cannot explain flexible object recognition (e.g., identifying objects from different perspectives or recognizing new objects).
190
What is prototype theory?
Prototype theory suggests that recognition is based on comparing objects to a prototype—the average representation of an object concept. A “good enough” match leads to recognition.
191
How does prototype theory differ from template matching theory?
Prototype theory allows for more flexible identification by comparing objects to an average representation, whereas template matching theory requires a literal match with a stored template.
192
Harvey needs to recognize a new object he’s never seen before. What type of theory would suggest he compares it to an average representation of similar objects in his memory?
Prototype theory, as it relies on comparing new objects to average representations (prototypes).
193
Shawn sees a familiar face from an unusual angle and still recognizes it. What theory helps explain this ability to recognize objects from different perspectives?
Prototype theory, as it allows for flexible recognition that doesn’t require a literal match from all perspectives.
194
Michael encounters a device he’s seen before but in a slightly altered form. How might his brain recognize it, given the shift in perspective?
Prototype theory, which allows recognition even when the object’s appearance doesn’t match a stored template exactly.
195
Patrick examines a subject with damage to the fusiform gyrus and notices difficulties with face recognition. Which theory would suggest the brain stores templates for individual faces?
Template matching theory, which implies that faces would be stored as individual templates in long-term memory.
196
Britta recognizes a chair based on its general shape but not its exact model. What theory of visual object recognition might explain this?
Prototype theory, as it involves recognizing the average shape of an object, rather than a specific template.
197
Rory is trying to identify a new piece of equipment she has never encountered before. She compares it to a similar object in her memory to decide if it fits the same category. What theory does this align with?
Prototype theory, where recognition occurs by comparing the new object to a prototype or average representation.
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What is the Scene Consistency Effect in object recognition?
The Scene Consistency Effect refers to the phenomenon where objects are named more accurately and more quickly when presented in consistent contexts (e.g., a pinecone in the woods vs. a pinecone in the bathroom sink).
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What is attention, and how is it best understood?
Attention is the ability to focus on something without being distracted. It is best understood in terms of what it does (directing focus) rather than what it is.
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What is the role of arousal in attention?
Arousal refers to attention based on how alert or physically present you are during a given task. Optimal arousal-based attention is when you're slightly physiologically engaged, but not overly stressed or lethargic.
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What is bottom-up attention?
Bottom-up attention is driven involuntarily by external factors in the environment, often occurring when something catches your attention automatically (e.g., a movement in your peripheral vision).
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What is top-down attention?
Top-down attention occurs when you, the observer, actively choose what to focus on, driven by goals or intentions that inhibit other distracting thoughts.
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What neural regions are involved in bottom-up attention?
Bottom-up attention involves the Temporoparietal Junction (TPJ) and Ventral Frontal Cortex (VFC), which help with automatic attentional orienting.
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What neural regions are involved in top-down attention?
Top-down attention engages the Intraparietal Sulcus (IPS) and the Frontal Eye Field (FEF), responsible for controlled and goal-directed attention.
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What is the difference between endogenous and exogenous attention?
Endogenous attention is goal-driven (top-down), where you choose what to focus on. Exogenous attention is driven by external stimuli (bottom-up), automatically capturing your attention.
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What is spatial neglect?
Spatial neglect occurs due to damage to the right hemisphere's ventral parietal cortex, leading to an inability to attend to information in the contralateral field of view, often affecting awareness of one side of space.
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How does spatial neglect affect behavior?
People with spatial neglect may ignore one side of their world (e.g., only reading the words on one side, eating from one side of the plate) and may have difficulty in searching for objects, even if they are in plain view.
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Harvey is asked to identify an object in a setting where it doesn’t belong, such as a pinecone in a bathroom. What effect would impact his recognition speed and accuracy?
The Scene Consistency Effect would make it harder for Harvey to recognize the object as accurately or quickly because it doesn’t fit the expected context.
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Shawn is trying to focus on a suspect’s face in a crowded room. He uses his goals to direct his attention specifically to that face. What type of attention is he using?
Shawn is using top-down attention, where his goals are guiding his focus.
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Michael is trying to notice anything unusual in a dimly lit alley. What type of attention is likely guiding his focus on movement or potential threats?
Bottom-up attention is likely at play, where external stimuli (e.g., a sudden movement) automatically capture his attention.
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Patrick is searching for a black car in a crowded lot. What brain region is likely engaged during this search process?
The Frontal Eye Field (FEF) would be engaged because it supports top-down attentional processes required for actively searching and locating the car.
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Britta is asked to multitask by taking notes while listening to a lecture. What type of attention is she using?
Divided attention, as she is shifting her focus between multiple tasks at once.
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Rory is concentrating on reading a book for an extended period of time without getting distracted. What type of attention does she demonstrate?
Sustained attention, as she maintains focus on the book over a long period.
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Why do we have selective attention?
Selective attention helps us prioritize what to process due to limited information processing resources. It depends on goals, or what we want to attend to at any given moment.
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What are the theories of selective attention?
Theories of selective attention include early selection filter models, attenuator models, late selection filter models, and load theory.
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What is Broadbent’s early selection filter model?
Broadbent’s model proposes that we filter information at the perception level, before it is processed for meaning. Unattended information remains in the sensory buffer and is not processed for meaning.
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What is the dichotic listening task?
In a dichotic listening task, two simultaneous messages are presented to each ear. Participants are better at recalling ear-by-ear information than simultaneous information, supporting the idea that information is selected for attention at the perception stage.
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What are shadowing tasks in dichotic listening?
In shadowing tasks, participants hear two different messages in each ear and repeat the message from one ear. They usually don’t remember the content of the unattended message but may notice certain sensory features (e.g., voice or noise), supporting the idea that unattended information is not processed for meaning.
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What evidence suggests early selection models may not be fully accurate?
Unattended information can sometimes “break through,” such as hearing your name in an ignored conversation, or in the case of skin conductance responses to emotionally charged words in the unattended ear, which suggests that unattended information can be processed for meaning.
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What is Treisman’s attenuator model?
Treisman’s attenuator model suggests that an early filter dials down the influence of unattended material, allowing some aspects to be processed for meaning. Important information may still pass through, even if it’s not the focus of attention.
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What is a late selection filter model?
In a late selection filter model, both the attended and unattended information are initially processed, and irrelevant information is filtered out at the level of meaning analysis.
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Harvey is at a noisy party, focusing on a conversation, but he hears his name being mentioned in an unrelated discussion. What type of attention is involved?
This is an example of late selection, where the unattended information (hearing his name) breaks through due to its meaning.
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Shawn is doing a shadowing task and is asked to repeat the message in his left ear. He doesn’t remember the content of the message in his right ear but notices the gender of the speaker. What does this suggest?
This suggests that unattended information is processed at the perceptual level (e.g., noticing the speaker’s gender) but is not processed for meaning, supporting the attenuator model.
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Michael is in a crowded room and focusing on a conversation with his informant. If he suddenly hears a loud noise from across the room, what attention model best explains his ability to quickly notice the noise?
This is explained by bottom-up attention (a form of early selection), where an unexpected external stimulus automatically grabs his attention.
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Patrick is listening to a list of words while being shown images of dangerous situations. He is more likely to remember certain words paired with images. Which theory explains this?
This demonstrates early selection (Broadbent's model) because the pairing of a word with a significant image (e.g., danger) helps him prioritize the information at the perceptual stage.
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Britta is attending a lecture in a noisy room and is able to concentrate on the professor's voice while filtering out background noise. What attention model does this represent?
Early selection or attenuator model, where background noise is filtered out at the perceptual level to maintain focus on the lecture.
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What are controlled tasks?
Controlled tasks are tasks that require effort and voluntary top-down attention, such as tasks that involve conscious decision-making or learning.
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What are automatic tasks?
Automatic tasks are tasks that are highly familiar and well-practiced, requiring little to no voluntary top-down attention, such as well-practiced habits or routines.
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What is the Stroop task?
The Stroop task involves naming the colour of the ink in which words are printed, rather than reading the word itself. The interference effect happens when the meaning of the word conflicts with the ink color (e.g., the word "red" written in blue ink).
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What is the interference effect in the Stroop task?
The interference effect occurs when the written colour name (unattended information) is processed for meaning, which conflicts with the ink color, causing a delay in naming the actual ink color.
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What is the Stroop task’s connection to late selection filter models?
Late selection filter models explain that for the Stroop task’s interference effect to occur, the written colour name must be processed for meaning. This shows that attention filtering happens at the semantic stage, not just at the perceptual stage.
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What happens when automatic processing is removed?
Hypnosis can be used to remove automatic processing of word meanings (e.g., colour names), eliminating the Stroop interference effect, as participants no longer automatically process the meaning of the word.
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What is load theory?
Load theory suggests that the placement of attentional filtering depends on the cognitive load required for a task. High load tasks use up more cognitive resources, resulting in earlier filtering of irrelevant information, while low load tasks allow for processing of both relevant and irrelevant information at later stages.
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How does attentional filtering vary with resource load?
With a high resource load (difficult tasks), irrelevant information is processed only to the perceptual stage, meaning attention is selected early. With a low resource load (easy tasks), irrelevant information can be processed at the semantic level, and attention is selected later.
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What are the two ways to define attentional load?
Central resource capacity view: There is one pool of attention resources that are allocated for all tasks.
Multiple resource capacity view: There are multiple pools of attention resources that are allocated based on task demands.
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How does attentional capacity relate to the modality of information?
Attentional capacity is reached more quickly if the relevant and irrelevant information come from the same modality (e.g., both auditory or both visual) because these resources are shared across similar inputs.
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Harvey is faced with a complex legal negotiation. He needs to focus entirely on the case details, ignoring any irrelevant background noise or distractions. What attentional model explains his focus?
This is an example of focused attention with high resource load, where he is processing only relevant information (legal case details) and filtering out irrelevant distractions early in the process, as suggested by load theory.
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Shawn is performing a task that he has done many times, like solving a puzzle. He does it without thinking much about the process. What type of task is this, and which model does it reflect?
This is an example of an automatic task where attention is not focused, reflecting the ease of well-practiced tasks and consistent with automatic processing theory.
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Michael needs to quickly analyze a situation involving multiple threats while ignoring non-urgent details. What attentional process is involved?
This scenario involves top-down attention and early selection where Michael focuses attention on urgent threats and filters out irrelevant stimuli.
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Patrick is attending a meeting with a group of people, but he keeps hearing the word "danger" in the background conversation. Despite focusing on the meeting, his attention shifts. What does this reflect?
This reflects bottom-up attention or early selection where the word "danger" automatically grabs his attention due to its meaning, as suggested by late selection filter models.
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Britta is asked to concentrate on her textbook while a loud fan runs in the background. She does not pay attention to the fan noise at all. How does load theory explain her ability to ignore the noise?
Low resource load and focused attention allow Britta to process only relevant information (her textbook) while ignoring the irrelevant background noise. This is an example of later filtering based on load theory.
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What is the role of selective attention?
Selective attention allows us to focus on important information and ignore distractions due to limited processing capacity. This helps to prevent us from being overwhelmed by irrelevant stimuli.
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What are the main theories of selective attention?
Early selection filter models: Information is filtered at perception before meaning is processed.
Late selection filter models: Information is processed for meaning before being filtered.
Attenuator theory: There is an early filter, but important information can still be processed at the semantic level later.
Load theory: Filtering depends on the cognitive load of the task. If the task is easier, more irrelevant information may be processed later.
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What is the purpose of the Flanker task?
The Flanker task measures how distractor interference (a distracting letter, or "flanker") affects the speed of response when participants search for a target letter in a visual array. The task helps investigate how attention is influenced by cognitive load.
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What did the Flanker task reveal about load theory?
The Flanker task showed that in low load conditions (where the task is easier), participants are more likely to be distracted by the flanker, as they have more cognitive resources available to process irrelevant stimuli. In high load conditions, the task consumes more cognitive resources, and distractor interference is reduced.
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What is the central resource capacity view?
According to the central resource capacity view, attention is drawn from a single pool of resources that is shared across different sensory modalities (e.g., vision, hearing, touch). This means that attending to one modality (e.g., visual) reduces resources available for others (e.g., auditory).
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What is the multiple resource capacity view?
The multiple resource capacity view suggests that each sensory modality (visual, auditory, etc.) has its own attentional capacity, meaning the limitations of attention depend on how similar the competing tasks or stimuli are in the same modality.
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What is change blindness?
Change blindness is the failure to detect changes in stimuli, especially when those changes occur during a brief interruption, such as in continuity errors in films.
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What is the flicker technique paradigm?
The flicker technique involves presenting two similar images with an interstimulus "mask" (e.g., a grey screen). Small changes are made to the images, and participants are asked whether something changed between them. This test demonstrates change blindness.
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What is inattentional blindness?
Inattentional blindness is the failure to notice new or unexpected events in a scene, even when they occur in areas we are actively focusing on, such as not seeing a deer jump in front of a car while driving.
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Harvey is dealing with a complex case and is so focused on reviewing the evidence that he fails to notice someone entering the room behind him. What concept explains this?
This is an example of inattentional blindness, where Harvey fails to notice an unexpected event (someone entering) while focusing his attention on the task at hand (reviewing evidence).
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Shawn is conducting an investigation in a busy room, trying to focus on his conversation with Gus while ignoring background noise. What model of attention would explain how he manages this?
Multiple resource capacity view explains that Shawn can attend to auditory stimuli (his conversation with Gus) while filtering out irrelevant auditory distractions (background noise) because they are in the same sensory modality.
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Michael is driving through the streets while paying attention to an important visual target, such as a suspect’s car. The radio is on in the background, but it doesn't distract him. What theory does this demonstrate?
Central resource capacity view suggests that Michael has to divide his attentional resources between driving (visual attention) and the radio (auditory attention), and because of his focus, he might be less distracted by the radio in the low-load situation.
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Patrick is watching a security camera feed with a constant, low-level distraction (flashing lights in the corner). He doesn't seem to notice the flashing lights after a while. What theory explains this?
Load theory explains that as Patrick becomes more focused on the security footage, he has fewer cognitive resources available to notice the irrelevant flashing lights in the periphery, leading to early filtering.
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Britta is trying to multitask: texting while listening to a podcast. She finds it hard to follow the podcast when her phone screen has a lot of distracting notifications. What attentional theory does this illustrate?
This is an example of multiple resource capacity view, where the competing demands for visual and auditory attention reduce her ability to effectively process the podcast content.
256
What is inattentional blindness?
Inattentional blindness occurs when an individual fails to notice unexpected stimuli in their focus of attention, even though these events are occurring in the attended space.
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What is Posner’s attentional spotlight theory?
Posner’s attentional spotlight theory suggests that attention is like a spotlight that focuses on a specific area in space, and to shift attention, one must disengage from the current focus and shift to a new area.
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What is the Posner cueing task?
The Posner cueing task measures the reaction time to detect a target in a visual display, following a cue that directs attention to a location. The task includes valid trials (where cue and target match), invalid trials (where cue and target differ), and manipulations of Stimuli Onset Asynchrony (SOA).
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What is the concept of inhibition of return (IOR)?
Inhibition of return (IOR) occurs when attention is inhibited from returning to a previously attended location after a certain delay between cue and target. This mechanism helps us to move on and explore other areas in the environment.
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What is the difference between pre-attention and focused attention phases in visual search tasks?
Pre-attention phase involves automatic, bottom-up processing where object features are coded separately.
Focused attention phase is top-down and requires voluntary action to integrate object features and guide the search.
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What is the pop-out effect in visual search?
The pop-out effect occurs when a target object differing by a single feature (e.g., color or shape) from distractors is detected quickly and automatically, regardless of the number of distractors. This happens because the feature is processed in the primary visual cortex.
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Donna is in a high-pressure situation, trying to make a decision based on available information. However, she overlooks an important piece of evidence because she was too focused on a different part of the case. What concept explains this?
This illustrates inattentional blindness, where Donna fails to notice the relevant evidence because her attention is narrowly focused on other aspects of the case.
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Shawn is in the middle of a case when Gus distracts him with an offhand comment. Shawn is able to shift his focus quickly to Gus's comment and continue his investigation. What attentional theory explains Shawn's ability to refocus?
Posner’s attentional spotlight theory explains this as Shawn is able to shift his attention quickly from one focus (the case) to another (Gus's comment) by disengaging from the previous focus and moving his attentional spotlight.
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Michael is driving while keeping an eye out for a target vehicle. Suddenly, a distraction (like a pedestrian) appears in the environment. What attentional concept could explain why he might fail to notice the distraction?
Inattentional blindness could explain why Michael might fail to notice the distraction if he is overly focused on identifying the target vehicle and the pedestrian is unexpected in the context of his attentional focus.
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Britta is participating in a visual search task, trying to find a blue pencil in a crowded drawer. She quickly spots it because it is the only item of that color. What search task is Britta performing, and what attentional process is involved?
Britta is performing a feature search, where she looks for an object that differs by a single feature (color) from the distractors. This task involves bottom-up attention and automatic processing.
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Patrick is looking at a crowded street, trying to identify a suspect by their clothing. However, as he scans the crowd, he has to focus on certain features (like the color of a jacket) and ignore other irrelevant details. What attentional phase is Patrick in?
Patrick is in the focused attention phase, where he is using top-down processing to selectively focus on the relevant feature (the jacket color) and ignore the other distracting features in the crowd.
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Lorelai is in the kitchen, trying to find a specific ingredient, but the shelves are full of similar-looking items. It takes her longer to find what she needs. What type of search is Lorelai doing, and why does it take longer?
Lorelai is doing a conjunction search, where she must find an object that differs across multiple features (e.g., shape, size, color) from distractors. This takes longer because it requires top-down, resource-intensive processing.
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What is the difference between overt and covert visual attention?
Overt visual attention refers to attending to something by moving your eyes towards it.
Covert visual attention is when you attend to something without moving your eyes.
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What are the two types of attention in visual processing?
Overt visual attention: Moving your eyes to focus on a specific target.
Covert visual attention: Paying attention to a target without moving your eyes.
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What is sustained attention?
Sustained attention is the ability to maintain focus on a single task over time, also known as vigilance or concentration.
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What is divided attention?
Divided attention refers to the ability to manage and attend to multiple tasks simultaneously, such as multitasking.
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What is task switching?
Task switching involves changing from one task to another, which requires top-down processes to shift mental sets for each task.
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What is the concept of "switch cost"?
Switch cost refers to the decline in performance, either in reaction time or accuracy, that happens after switching tasks. This occurs because the attentional system must reset to engage the next task.
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What is attentional capture?
Attentional capture is the automatic processing of bottom-up cues in the environment, such as unexpected or surprising stimuli (e.g., a mouse scurrying or a car crash).
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What are some types of stimuli that can capture attention?
Stimuli like fearful images, our names, and addictive stimuli (e.g., cigarettes for smokers) can capture attention due to biological preparedness or personal relevance.
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Harvey is negotiating a deal, but his attention is suddenly drawn to an unusual figure across the room. What concept explains why Harvey’s attention shifted automatically?
Attentional capture explains Harvey's automatic shift in focus due to a surprising or unexpected stimulus, pulling his attention away from the negotiation.
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Shawn is able to juggle multiple cases at once, remembering the specifics of each one while also making dinner. What type of attention is Shawn using?
Shawn is using divided attention, effectively handling multiple tasks simultaneously.
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Michael is working on a covert mission and needs to focus on the current task, but he is distracted by a sudden loud noise nearby. What is happening in his brain to cause this distraction?
The sudden loud noise likely captures his attention through attentional capture, a bottom-up process triggered by an unexpected, attention-grabbing event.
279
Britta is working on her presentation while listening to a podcast, but she struggles to switch between writing and paying attention to the podcast. What is causing her difficulty?
Britta is experiencing task switching, where the switch cost between focusing on writing and the podcast makes it harder for her to switch between tasks efficiently.
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Patrick is analyzing a crime scene and needs to focus intently on one aspect, but he suddenly notices a face in the crowd. What explains this shift in attention?
The shift in attention is likely due to attentional capture by the face, which is an inherently salient stimulus that automatically attracts Patrick’s focus.
281
Rory is attending a lecture but is distracted by the sound of her phone buzzing in her bag. What concept is at play when Rory’s attention is drawn to her phone?
Rory is experiencing attentional capture because the phone buzz serves as an unexpected or personally relevant stimulus that automatically pulls her focus away from the lecture.
282
What is a sound wave?
A sound wave is a vibration that travels as a pressure wave, where air molecules compress and expand as the wave propagates.
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What are the two main components of a sound wave?
Compression (peaks): Areas of the wave where air molecules are compressed, increasing air pressure.
Rarefaction (valleys): Areas of the wave where air molecules are dispersed, decreasing air pressure.
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What is vibration in terms of sound waves?
Vibration is a periodic motion around a stable point that propagates through air to enable hearing.
285
What are the three parts of the ear?
Outer ear: Includes the pinna, ear canal, and eardrum.
Middle ear: Includes the eardrum, ossicles (incus, malleus, stapes), and ends with the cochlea.
Inner ear: Includes the cochlea, which contains the basilar membrane responsible for processing sound.
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How do sound vibrations get converted into signals sent to the brain?
Sound vibrations are converted into fluid vibrations in the cochlea. The basilar membrane's hair cells transduce these mechanical signals into electrical signals, which are sent to the brain via the auditory nerve.
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What is the role of the dorsal and ventral auditory pathways?
Dorsal pathway: Processes sound localization (where the sound is coming from).
Ventral pathway: Processes sound properties (what the sound is).
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What are the physical properties of sound and their perceptual correlates?
Frequency (Hz): Perceived as pitch (how high or low a sound is).
Amplitude (dB): Perceived as loudness (how loud or quiet a sound is).
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What are the cues for locating sounds in space?
Interaural time difference (ITD): Determines direction based on which ear hears the sound first.
Interaural level difference (ILD): Determines direction based on which ear hears the sound more loudly.
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What is a complex sine wave?
A complex sine wave is a wave that does not have consistent peaks and valleys; the peaks are asymmetrically spaced and of different amplitudes.
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Harvey is discussing a case in a crowded room, but he immediately notices a phone ringing. How does his brain detect the sound?
Harvey’s brain detects the sound using interaural time difference (ITD) or interaural level difference (ILD) to determine the direction of the sound based on when and how loudly it reaches each ear.
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Shawn is investigating a crime scene when he hears a faint sound in the distance. How does his auditory system process and locate this sound?
Shawn’s brain uses ITD and ILD cues to determine the direction of the sound, processing it via the dorsal auditory pathway for localization.
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Michael is trying to listen for important information in a noisy environment. What physical property of the sound is most likely affecting his ability to hear?
The amplitude (dB) of the noise is affecting the loudness of the sound Michael is trying to hear, making it more difficult to focus on important details.
294
Abed is making a film and needs a sound with a high pitch. What physical property of sound does he need to manipulate?
Abed needs to adjust the frequency (Hz) of the sound to increase its pitch, making it higher.
295
Rory is listening to a podcast while studying. If she focuses on listening to specific words, what part of her auditory system is likely processing the details of the sound?
The ventral auditory pathway is processing the properties of the sound (what the sound is), allowing Rory to distinguish and understand specific words from the podcast.
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What is superposition in auditory perception?
Superposition refers to multiple sounds occurring at once, which presents a computational challenge for the auditory system in separating and interpreting the sounds.
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What is the role of Gestalt grouping principles in auditory perception?
Gestalt grouping principles help the brain organize and make sense of auditory stimuli, including:
Similarity: Sounds that come from the same source are grouped together.
Proximity: Sounds occurring around the same time are perceived as connected.
Connectedness: Sounds that transition smoothly are heard as a continuous flow, rather than separate staccato notes.
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What are the fundamental frequency and harmonics?
Fundamental frequency: The lowest frequency component of a sound wave.
Harmonics: Multiples of the fundamental frequency that influence the perceived sound, such as its timbre (quality).
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What is the challenge posed by superposition in auditory perception?
Superposition creates a challenge in how the auditory system processes multiple overlapping sounds and transforms them into meaningful auditory units (mental representations).
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What are the key characteristics of sound waves?
Loudness (amplitude), pitch (frequency), and timbre (complexity) are the three main characteristics of sound waves.
301
Harvey is listening to a busy office scene, and he hears a variety of conversations happening at once. How does his auditory system handle this "superposition" of sounds?
Harvey’s brain uses Gestalt grouping principles, like proximity and similarity, to group sounds that are likely coming from the same source and process them as a coherent unit rather than individual, separate sounds.
302
Shawn is at a party and hears several different songs playing at once. How does his auditory system differentiate between these overlapping sounds?
Shawn’s brain applies Gestalt principles like connectedness to distinguish between the different musical notes and rhythms, helping him perceive a continuous melody rather than a chaotic mix of sounds.
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Michael is trying to focus on a phone call while there’s loud background music playing. What auditory principle helps him concentrate on the conversation?
Michael’s auditory system likely uses proximity and similarity to filter out sounds occurring at different times or from different sources, helping him focus on the conversation while disregarding irrelevant noise.
304
Abed is watching a musical performance, and the notes in the melody seamlessly flow into one another. What principle of auditory perception helps him experience this as a continuous piece of music?
Abed’s brain uses the connectedness principle, which makes the smooth transition between notes appear as a cohesive whole rather than discrete, individual sounds.
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Rory is listening to a lecture while trying to tune out the surrounding noise in the café. How does her brain handle the challenge of superposition from multiple sounds in the environment?
Rory’s auditory system likely applies Gestalt principles such as proximity and similarity, focusing on sounds that are temporally close or from similar sources (like the lecturer’s voice) and filtering out background noise.
