Perception Final Material Flashcards
(255 cards)
1
Q
Q: What is a phoneme?
A
A: A unit of sound that distinguishes one word from another in a particular language (e.g., “kill” vs. “kiss”).
2
Q
Q: What is the function of the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)?
A
A: It helps represent speech sounds consistently across languages, avoiding confusion between spelling and pronunciation.
3
Q
Q: What is articulation in speech production?
A
A: The act of producing speech sounds using the vocal tract by manipulating the jaw, lips, tongue, and velum.
4
Q
Q: Shawn Spencer is trying to fake a British accent to impress Juliet. He changes how he moves his tongue and lips to produce different sounds. What speech process is he using?
A
A: Articulation.
5
Q
Q: Rory Gilmore is learning French. She notices that two sounds she thinks are the same actually mean different things in French. What is she learning about?
A
A: Phonemes.
6
Q
Q: Harvey Specter is giving a speech, and Donna notices his voice sounds deeper than usual. What could be causing this change in pitch?
A
A: Less tension in his vocal folds or longer vocal folds.
7
Q
Q: What is coarticulation?
A
A: When experienced speakers adjust their speech in anticipation of the next sound, causing overlap in articulation.
8
Q
Q: What is the McGurk effect?
A
A: A phenomenon where visual information influences auditory perception of speech, showing that what we see can affect what we hear.
9
Q
Q: In Burn Notice, Michael Westen is undercover and speaks super fast to stay in character. Despite speaking quickly, he still sounds clear. What allows him to do that?
A
A: Coarticulation.
10
Q
Q: In Community, Troy watches someone say “ba” but hears “da” due to mismatched visual and audio cues. What phenomenon is he experiencing?
A
A: The McGurk effect.
11
Q
Q: At what age do English-speaking infants start to lose the ability to distinguish phonemes from non-native languages?
A
A: Around 10 months.
12
Q
Q: What does research suggest about four-day-old French babies?
A
A: They prefer hearing French over other languages, like Russian.
13
Q
Q: Lorelai plays Hindi lullabies for baby Rory. Before 10 months old, Rory can distinguish different “t” sounds, but after a year she can’t anymore. What does this show?
A
A: Infant phoneme discrimination declines for non-native sounds after 10 months.
14
Q
Q: Juliet is babysitting a French infant and plays Russian radio. The baby gets fussy. What might this suggest?
A
A: Babies prefer the sound of their native language early on.
15
Q
Q: What is the role of Wernicke’s area?
A
A: It controls speech comprehension.
16
Q
Q: What is Broca’s aphasia?
A
A: A condition where speech production is impaired, but comprehension remains intact.
17
Q
Q: Abed from Community is speaking fluently but none of his words make sense after a blow to the head during a paintball game. Which brain area might be damaged?
A
A: Wernicke’s area.
18
Q
Q: Patrick Jane (The Mentalist) can understand everything Lisbon says but struggles to speak after a head injury. What condition does he likely have?
A
A: Broca’s aphasia.
19
Q
Q: What is tone height?
A
Tone height is how high or low a sound seems, based on its pitch. Higher frequencies have higher tone heights (like a whistle), and lower frequencies have lower tone heights (like a drum).
20
Q
Q: What is tone chroma?
A
A: A sound quality shared by tones an octave apart; notes of the same name across octaves sound similar.
21
Q
Q: What does an octave represent in music?
A
A: A 2:1 ratio of frequency between two tones. An octave means one note has double the frequency of another. For example, if one note is 200 Hz, the note an octave higher is 400 Hz—they sound similar but higher or lower in pitch.
22
Q
Q: In Gilmore Girls, Lane is practicing the same note in different octaves. She says they “sound related.” What musical concept is she describing?
A
A: Tone chroma.
23
Q
Q: Shawn (Psych) says a low C and a high C “feel the same but different.” What’s he referring to?
A
A: They share tone chroma but differ in tone height.
24
Q
Q: What is consonance in music?
A
A: When notes have simple frequency ratios (like 3:2 or 4:3), resulting in a pleasant, harmonious sound.
25
Q: What is dissonance in music?
A: When notes have complex frequency ratios (like 42:33), creating a rough or unpleasant sound.
26
Q: Troy from Community plays two notes on the piano and says they “sound off and clash.” What musical phenomenon is he describing?
A: Dissonance.
27
Q: Jess is playing guitar and chooses C and G chords that sound great together. Why do they sound pleasing?
A: Their fundamental frequencies form a simple ratio, creating consonance.
28
Q: Juliet is testing baby preferences for a psychology experiment. Even at two months, babies react more positively to harmonic sounds. What are they preferring?
A: Consonance.
29
Q: What is the difference between a scale and a key?
A: A scale is a set of notes in an octave; a key uses a particular scale as the basis for a composition.
30
Q: What distinguishes a major scale from a minor scale?
A: The pattern of intervals between notes: major = 2-2-1-2-2-2-1; minor = 2-1-2-2-1-2-2.
31
Q: What is the tonic in a musical key?
A: The root note that acts as the “gravitational center” of the key.
32
Q: Rachel Zane is planning a wedding and says she wants the music to feel "happy and bright." Which kind of scale should the band use?
A: Major scale.
33
Q: Shawn hums a tune, changes a few notes, and Gus says, “That’s not in key!” What does Gus mean?
A: The notes don’t fit the expected scale for that key.
34
Q: Lorelai says her favorite songs always feel like they "go away and come back home." What musical concept is she describing?
A: Movement away from and back to the tonic.
35
Q: What is a melody?
A: A sequence of notes or chords perceived as a single musical idea.
36
Q: How are melodies identified across octaves or keys?
A: By their pitch contours (rises and falls), not just exact frequencies.
37
Q: Troy and Abed are singing “Row, Row, Row Your Boat” in a new key but it still sounds like the same song. What feature of melody allows that?
A: Melodic contour.
38
Q: Patrick Jane hears a familiar tune played in a different octave. He still recognizes it. Why?
A: Melodies can remain recognizable across octaves.
39
Q: Which side of the brain primarily processes music?
A: The right auditory cortex.
40
Q: What did Peretz’s study compare?
A: Fixed-pitch sequences and changing-pitch sequences.
41
Q: Michael Westen (Burn Notice) listens to a repeating tone vs. a melody. His right auditory cortex is more active during the melody. What does this show?
A: The brain is more responsive to pitch changes in music.
42
Q: What is congenital amusia?
A: A lifelong difficulty with music perception not due to other disabilities or damage.
43
Q: What musical elements are people with congenital amusia bad at detecting?
A: Small pitch deviations and out-of-key tones.
44
Q: What is the difference between ERAN and P600?
A: ERAN is an automatic response to tonal violations; P600 reflects conscious awareness of those violations.
45
Q: Abed takes a music test and can’t tell when notes are out-of-key, though his brain reacts to them. What condition might he have?
A: Congenital amusia (specifically, no P600 despite normal ERAN).
46
Q: Rory’s lab partner scores normally on verbal tests but can’t detect pitch changes in music. What might she be experiencing?
A: Congenital amusia.
47
Q: A scan of an amusic brain shows issues in the right frontotemporal network. Which areas are involved?
A: Inferior frontal gyrus and superior temporal gyrus, with disrupted connections.
48
Q: What is absolute pitch?
A: The ability to identify or produce a note without reference to another note.
49
Q: Is absolute pitch genetic or learned?
A: Both — it has a genetic component and usually requires early musical training.
50
Q: Lane (Gilmore Girls) names each piano note without hearing a reference note. What rare ability does she likely have?
A: Absolute pitch.
51
Q: In a twin study, monozygotic twins are more likely to both have absolute pitch than dizygotic twins. What does this suggest?
A: Absolute pitch is heritable.
52
Q: What is somatosensation?
A: The perception of the body, including touch, proprioception, and pain.
53
Q: What are the three main somatosensory modalities covered in this unit?
A: Touch, proprioception, and pain (main focus).
54
Q: What is proprioception?
A: Awareness of limb position and movement.
55
Q: What are “passions of the soul” according to Descartes?
A: Bodily sensations like pain, hunger, and thirst that reveal the deep connection between body and soul.
56
Q: What is interoception?
A: The perception of internal bodily states (e.g., pain, temperature, hunger, thirst).
57
Q: What is the difference between tactile and thermoalgesic receptors?
A: Tactile receptors are complex structures, while thermoalgesic receptors are simple free nerve endings.
58
Q: What are A-delta fibers and C fibers?
A: A-delta: small, myelinated, fast-conducting pain fibers.
C fibers: unmyelinated, slower-conducting pain fibers.
59
Q: What is the two-point discrimination threshold?
A: The minimum distance between two stimuli for them to be felt as separate; used to measure tactile sensitivity.
60
Q: What does a small two-point discrimination threshold indicate?
A: High tactile sensitivity (e.g., hands, face).
61
Q: What does the somatotopic map (homunculus) show?
A: How much cortical brain area is devoted to each body part, not the size of the body part.
62
Q: Which tactile receptor type detects fine spatial details like Braille?
A: SA1 (Merkel cells).
63
Q: Which receptors detect skin stretch and aid in grasping?
A: SA2 (Ruffini corpuscles).
64
Q: What is the function of FA1 (Meissner corpuscles)?
A: Detect low-frequency vibrations (e.g., detecting an object slipping).
65
Q: What determines the conduction speed of nerve fibers?
A: Fiber size and myelination (larger and myelinated = faster).
66
Q: In Psych, Shawn reacts instantly when he touches a hot pan, feeling a sharp, localized pain. Which fibers carried that sensation?
A: A-delta fibers.
67
Q: In Gilmore Girls, Rory lies on her hand too long and feels “pins and needles.” Which nerve fibers are being impaired?
A: Myelinated fibers (e.g., A-delta and touch fibers).
68
Q: In The Mentalist, Patrick burns his hand and feels a lingering ache minutes later. What type of fibers are responsible for this "second pain"?
A: C fibers.
69
Q: In Burn Notice, Michael uses fine motor skills to pick a lock. Which receptor helps detect slippage of his tools?
A: FA1 (Meissner corpuscles).
70
Q: In Suits, Donna describes the feel of a high-quality fabric with detail. Which receptors allow her to detect such fine texture?
A: SA1 (Merkel cells).
71
Q: In Community, Abed studies pressure point attacks in martial arts. Which parts of the nervous system helps him localize pain and pressure accurately?
A: Touch and proprioception systems using large, myelinated fibers.
72
Q: In Psych, Gus mentions how uncomfortable it is to be cold in the office. Which type of receptor is detecting this?
A: Thermoalgesic receptors (free nerve endings).
73
Q: Lorelai gets a paper cut and flinches, then keeps feeling an annoying sting. What explains the two phases of pain?
A: First pain = A-delta fibers; Second pain = C fibers.
74
Q: What makes pain difficult to define objectively?
A: Pain is a subjective experience without a clear physical stimulus like light or sound.
75
Q: How does nociception differ from pain?
A: Nociception is the objective detection of harmful stimuli; pain includes the conscious, emotional experience.
76
Q: What are nociceptors?
A: Specialized free nerve endings that detect harmful stimuli and initiate pain signals.
77
Q: What are transducers in the context of nociceptors?
A: Proteins on nociceptors that respond to harmful stimuli like heat, acidity, or mechanical force.
78
Q: What types of stimuli can activate transducers on nociceptors?
A: Heat, acidity, capsaicin, mechanical force, cold pain.
79
Q: What are the two main types of nociceptors?
A: A-delta fibers (myelinated, fast) and C fibers (unmyelinated, slow).
80
Q: What is saltatory conduction and why is it important?
A: It's the jumping of action potentials between nodes of Ranvier in myelinated fibers, which increases conduction speed.
81
Q: Describe first pain.
A: Fast, sharp, and localized; carried by A-delta fibers.
82
Q: Describe second pain.
A: Slow, dull, and diffuse; carried by C fibers.
83
Q: How do pain and itch differ in their behavioral responses?
A: Pain leads to guarding/protection, while itch leads to scratching.
84
Q: What is qualia in the context of pain?
A: The subjective, conscious quality of what pain "feels like."
85
Q: In Burn Notice, Michael touches a red-hot surface and immediately jerks his hand away. What type of nerve fibers triggered that quick reaction?
A: A-delta fibers (first pain).
86
Q: In Psych, Gus complains about a lingering ache after getting hit with a football. Which nerve fibers are responsible for this "second pain"?
A: C fibers.
87
Q: In Community, Abed pinches himself after his arm goes numb from leaning on it. The pain feels dull and strange. Why?
A: A-delta fibers were impaired due to loss of circulation, so mostly C fiber signals remain.
88
Q: In Suits, Harvey feels a sharp jab stepping on a tack, followed by a burning sensation. What does this sequence illustrate?
A: First pain (A-delta) followed by second pain (C fibers).
89
Q: In Gilmore Girls, Rory eats a super spicy taco and says it “hurts.” Which type of receptor is being triggered by the capsaicin?
A: A transducer on a nociceptor sensitive to heat and capsaicin.
90
Q: In The Mentalist, Jane tries a cold therapy treatment and says it’s “painfully cold.” What kind of nociceptor transducer is likely being activated?
A: One sensitive to cold pain (a specific type of nociceptor transducer).
91
Q: In Burn Notice, Fiona tests a homemade pepper spray. What compound triggers the pain receptors, and how?
A: Capsaicin; it activates transducers on nociceptors sensitive to heat.
92
Q: What is Congenital Insensitivity to Pain (CIP)?
A: A genetic condition where individuals are born without nociceptors and cannot feel pain.
93
Q: Why is pain important for survival?
A: Pain alerts us to injury or danger and prevents further harm.
94
Q: What are common consequences of CIP?
A: Frequent injuries, infections, unnoticed wounds, and risk of amputation.
95
Q: What happened to Ashlyn in the documentary example of CIP?
A: She didn’t cry from injuries as a baby and once had a massive corneal abrasion without noticing.
96
Q: What happened to Gabby in the CIP documentary?
A: She bit her fingers to the bone while teething and had her teeth and eventually one eye removed due to self-injury.
97
Q: What emotional challenge do parents of children with CIP face?
A: Balancing freedom with safety, and wishing their children could feel pain to stay safe.
98
Q: Where is there a known cluster of Type 2 CIP cases?
A: In the Dana Nodia region between Montreal and Trois-Rivières.
99
Q: How does the pain signal travel through the nervous system?
A: It crosses to the other side at the spinal cord and travels to the thalamus via the spinal thalamic tract.
100
Q: How does the touch signal pathway differ from pain?
A: Touch crosses over at the brainstem, not the spinal cord.
101
Q: What are the two types of spinal projection neurons involved in pain?
A: Nociceptive Specific Neurons and Wide Dynamic Range Neurons.
102
Q: What’s the difference between Nociceptive Specific and Wide Dynamic Range neurons?
A: NS neurons respond only to painful stimuli; WDR neurons respond to both non-painful and painful stimuli and scale with intensity.
103
Q: In Community, if Troy had CIP and didn’t feel pain after running full speed into a door, what risks would he face?
A: He might keep running or using the injured limb, worsening internal damage without realizing it.
104
Q: In Gilmore Girls, if Lorelai noticed a child never cried when hurt and constantly got bruises or infections, what condition might she suspect?
A: Congenital Insensitivity to Pain (CIP).
105
Q: In The Mentalist, Jane notices someone casually walking on a badly broken ankle. He suspects what rare condition?
A: Congenital Insensitivity to Pain.
106
Q: In Suits, if Louis can't feel pain after stubbing his toe and later finds it badly infected, what might be impaired?
A: His nociceptors, possibly due to a condition like CIP.
107
Q: In Psych, if Shawn says, “This kid keeps biting his fingers and doesn’t even flinch,” what kind of neurological condition might Gus suggest?
A: Congenital Insensitivity to Pain.
108
Q: In Burn Notice, if Fiona doesn’t react to touching a hot metal surface and later shows severe burns, what would that imply neurologically?
A: A lack of nociceptors or impaired nociception, consistent with CIP.
109
Q: What does Specificity Theory of pain propose?
A: The Specificity Theory of pain proposes that pain is detected and transmitted by dedicated pain receptors (nociceptors) that respond only to harmful or potentially harmful stimuli. These receptors send signals along specific pathways to the brain.
110
Q: What does Intensity Theory suggest about pain?
A: Intensity Theory proposes that pain is not caused by special pain receptors, but instead occurs when a stimulus is strong enough to exceed a certain threshold. The stronger the stimulus, the more intense the pain. This idea is supported by wide dynamic range neurons, which respond to both light touch and strong, potentially painful stimulation.
111
Q: What is Pattern Theory of pain perception?
A: Pattern Theory of pain perception suggests that pain is not carried by special "pain-only" nerves. Instead, the brain interprets pain based on the pattern of activity across many types of sensory neurons. It’s the combination and intensity of signals from different neurons that the brain uses to decide whether a stimulus is painful.
112
Q: What is the Gate Control Theory of pain?
A: This theory suggests that non-painful touch signals can "close a gate" in the spinal cord, reducing the brain’s perception of pain. It explains why rubbing a sore spot can sometimes make it hurt less.
113
Q: In Gate Control Theory, what happens when A fibers (touch) are activated?
A: They stimulate inhibitory interneurons, reducing transmission of pain signals.
114
Q: How do spinal cord stimulators help with pain?
A: Spinal cord stimulators reduce pain by sending mild electrical signals to the dorsal columns of the spinal cord. These signals interfere with pain messages traveling to the brain, often replacing the sensation of pain with a gentle tingling feeling. This process helps "mask" the perception of pain.
115
Q: How do opioids reduce pain at the spinal cord level?
A: By blocking neurotransmitter release presynaptically and hyperpolarizing the postsynaptic neuron.
116
Q: What is placebo analgesia and how does it work?
A: It's pain relief from belief alone, mediated by the release of endogenous opioids (pain-relieving chemicals).
117
Q: What happens when naloxone is used during a placebo analgesia study?
A: It blocks the placebo effect by preventing endogenous opioids from binding.
118
Q: What is referred pain?
Referred pain is when you feel pain on your skin, but the source of the pain is actually from an internal organ. This happens because the nerves that carry pain signals from the skin and the internal organ share the same pathways in the spinal cord, which causes the brain to confuse the source of the pain. For example, a heart attack might cause pain in your left arm.
119
Q: What are the two main pain pathways?
A: Ascending pathways (carry pain to brain) and descending pathways (modulate pain from the brain).
120
Q: What is Conditioned Pain Modulation (CPM)?
A: A phenomenon where pain in one area reduces sensitivity to pain elsewhere.
121
Q: What brain structure is essential for descending pain inhibition?
A: The brainstem.
122
Q: How is CPM affected in fibromyalgia?
A: Descending inhibitory controls are impaired, so CPM doesn’t occur properly.
123
Q: How do psychological factors influence spinal pain processing?
A: Psychological factors, like emotions, can influence how the body processes pain. For example, stress, anxiety, or depression can make pain feel more intense. This happens because emotions can affect the body's reflexes, like the nociceptive flexion reflex, which is a protective response to pain. When emotions are involved, the brain might amplify or change the way pain signals are interpreted, altering how much pain you feel.
124
Q: In Psych, Gus burns his hand but feels better after Shawn rubs it. What theory explains this?
A: Gate Control Theory — touch reduces pain via spinal inhibition.
125
Q: In Suits, Harvey sprains his wrist but uses a spinal cord stimulator during trial prep. What sensation replaces the pain?
A: A tactile sensation from the stimulator that masks the pain signal.
126
Q: In Burn Notice, Michael uses his old spy trick — dunking one hand in ice water to reduce pain in the other. What’s happening?
A: Conditioned Pain Modulation — pain in one hand activates descending inhibition that helps with pain in the other.
127
Q: In The Mentalist, Jane tricks someone with a fake painkiller that still works. What’s that effect called?
A: Placebo analgesia — belief triggers endogenous opioids and reduces pain.
128
Q: In Community, Abed says rubbing a bumped knee helps because "A fibers are blocking C fiber transmission." What is he referencing?
A: Gate Control Theory.
129
Q: In Gilmore Girls, Rory reads that heart attack pain can show up in the arm. Lorelai says, “That’s referred pain, right?” Is she right?
A: Yes — referred pain is when internal pain is felt in a different area due to shared spinal pathways.
130
Q: In Psych, Shawn says, “Pain is just your neurons freaking out.” Gus corrects him using which theory?
A: Specificity Theory — pain is transmitted by specific nociceptive neurons.
According to this theory, pain is not just a general "freaking out" of neurons but is actually carried by specific nociceptive neurons that are dedicated to detecting harmful or noxious stimuli. These neurons send pain signals to the brain, which then interprets them as pain.
131
Q: In Suits, Louis claims he's "more sensitive to pain than others." Which theory might support that claim?
A: Gate Control Theory — individual differences in inhibition may cause higher pain sensitivity.
132
Q: In Burn Notice, Fiona takes opioids after an injury. How do they reduce her pain?
A: By binding to MU opioid receptors, reducing neurotransmitter release and neuron excitability.
133
Q: What is Congenital Insensitivity to Pain (CIP)?
A: A rare genetic condition where individuals are born without functioning nociceptors, preventing them from feeling pain.
134
Q: Why is the ability to feel pain important?
A: Pain acts as a warning system, helping protect the body from injury.
135
Q: What are common risks associated with CIP?
A: Severe injury, unnoticed infections, self-harm, and gangrene leading to amputation.
136
Q: How does CIP affect life expectancy?
A: It often reduces lifespan due to injury-related complications.
137
Q: What emotional toll can CIP have on families?
A: Feelings of helplessness and distress, especially during injury management.
138
Q: Which spinal cord fibers are responsible for fast and slow pain?
A: A-delta fibers (fast), C fibers (slow).
139
Q: How do touch and pain signals differ in spinal processing?
A: Touch crosses at the brainstem; pain crosses immediately in the spinal cord.
140
Q: What is the spinothalamic pathway?
A: The major pain pathway from the spinal cord to the thalamus.
141
Q: What do nociceptive-specific (NS) neurons do?
A: They respond only to painful stimuli and support the specificity theory.
142
Q: What are wide dynamic range (WDR) neurons?
A: Neurons that respond to both painful and non-painful stimuli; they support intensity theory.
143
Q: What is the difference between specificity theory and intensity theory of pain?
A: Specificity theory is about specific neurons for pain; intensity theory focuses on the strength of stimulation.
144
Q: What does pattern theory of pain emphasize?
A: The overall activity pattern across neurons determines pain, not specific neurons. Pain is perceived when certain patterns of firing occur — especially intense or unusual patterns — rather than when specific “pain neurons” are triggered. It’s the combination and timing of signals that the brain interprets as pain.
145
Q: Who developed the Gate Control Theory, and what does it propose?
A: Ronald Melzack and Patrick Wall; it proposes that pain can be modulated by touch input at the spinal cord level.
146
Q: In Community, Troy steps on a nail but doesn’t notice because of an experimental drug. What rare condition would this simulate?
A: Congenital Insensitivity to Pain.
147
Q: In Burn Notice, Michael pretends not to react to a deep cut. Fiona says, "You're not a robot!" What real disorder might his behavior mimic?
A: Congenital Insensitivity to Pain.
148
Q: In Gilmore Girls, Lorelai jokes about not feeling pain after a fall. Rory explains that some people actually can't. What region near them might have a known cluster of cases?
A: Lanaudière region between Montreal and Trois-Rivières, Quebec.
149
Q: In Suits, Louis claims he can ignore all pain through "mental strength." What theory does this dismiss, and which theory explains his experience better?
A: Louis’s claim dismisses Specificity Theory, which says pain is automatically transmitted by dedicated pain neurons. His experience is better explained by Gate Control Theory or descending modulation, which suggest that the brain can influence or block pain signals — for example, through attention, emotion, or mental focus.
150
Q: In Psych, Shawn says rubbing a bruise “hacks the nerves.” What’s the real mechanism?
A: Gate Control Theory—touch activates A-beta fibers, which inhibit pain transmission.
151
Q: In The Mentalist, Jane creates a "no-pain illusion" in a suspect using misdirection. What theory best supports how perception can be altered?
A: Gate Control Theory — it suggests that psychological factors like attention and distraction (such as Jane’s misdirection) can "close the gate" to pain signals in the spinal cord, reducing the brain's perception of pain.
152
Q: In Burn Notice, Michael describes pain as “the brain’s guess.” Which theory does this align with?
A: Pattern Theory of pain.
Pattern Theory says that pain isn’t carried by special pain-only nerves (like Specificity Theory says). Instead, the brain figures out whether something is painful based on patterns of activity across many neurons — and how it interprets that input. So the brain is making an informed “guess” about whether something is painful based on context and neural patterns.
153
Q: In Gilmore Girls, Rory learns about spinal pathways and says, “Touch goes to the brain one way, pain another.” Is she right?
A: Yes—touch crosses at the brainstem, pain at the spinal cord.
154
Q: What is TENS, and how long do its pain-relief effects typically last?
A: Transcutaneous Electrical Nerve Stimulation; its effects usually end when treatment stops, except for high-intensity TENS, which may last a few minutes.
155
Q: Why is high-intensity TENS more effective for longer?
A: High-intensity TENS may engage more than just the touch-based "gate control" mechanism by also activating deeper pain-inhibiting pathways (like descending modulation). However, the A-fibers it stimulates can still become less responsive over time, limiting its effectiveness to about 20–30 minutes.
156
Q: What is the goal of pain management in chronic pain patients?
A: To reduce pain perception and enable physical activity, even in the absence of ongoing injury.
157
Q: What are spinal cord stimulators, and when are they used?
A: Surgically implanted devices that stimulate the dorsal columns to mask pain; used when other treatments fail.
158
Q: How does the Gate Control Theory explain touch reducing pain?
A: Touch activates A-beta fibers, which inhibit pain transmission in the spinal cord.
159
Q: What are opioids, and which receptor do they primarily target?
A: Drugs that activate MU opioid receptors to block pain signaling.
160
Q: How do opioids block pain at the synaptic level?
A: They block calcium influx presynaptically and cause potassium influx postsynaptically, inhibiting action potentials.
161
Q: What blocks the placebo pain relief effect, proving it’s opioid-mediated?
A: Naloxone, an opioid antagonist.
162
Q: What is conditioned pain modulation (CPM)?
A: A phenomenon where pain in one part of the body reduces sensitivity to pain elsewhere via descending inhibitory pathways.
163
Q: What part of the brain is central to descending pain modulation?
A: The brainstem (specific regions not needed).
164
Q: How is distraction ruled out in CPM studies?
A: By showing reduced pain sensitivity after cold water immersion, not just during.
165
Q: What dysfunction is associated with chronic pain conditions like fibromyalgia?
A: Impaired descending pain control, leading to widespread pain sensitivity.
166
Q: In the Sherbrooke cold-water study, which immersion condition reduced fingertip pain more, and why?
A: Condition B (decreasing) because early full-arm immersion triggered lasting descending inhibition.
167
Q: In Suits, Donna uses a TENS unit to help Louis with back pain before a big case. He asks why it doesn’t last. What would Harvey say if he actually paid attention in neurobio?
A: “Because your A-fibers get bored fast—habituation kicks in after like 30 minutes.”
168
Q: In Psych, Gus invents a fake therapy involving light shocks. Shawn says, “So it’s like TENS?” What key difference would a real neurologist explain between standard and high-intensity TENS?
A: High-intensity TENS can cause longer pain relief by mildly activating pain fibers, while normal TENS only works while it’s on.
169
Q: In Burn Notice, Fiona places electrodes on someone to block pain during torture. Michael says, “You’re jamming the signal.” What theory supports this?
A: Gate Control Theory—touch input inhibits pain at the spinal cord level.
170
Q: In Community, Abed creates a simulator to show how opioids work. What does he highlight about the presynaptic and postsynaptic effects?
A: Presynaptically: blocks calcium. Postsynaptically: lets in potassium → less likely to fire.
171
Q: In Gilmore Girls, Rory explains the placebo effect to Paris using Benedetti’s study. What happens when naloxone is given with the placebo?
A: The placebo stops working—no increase in pain tolerance, showing it relied on endogenous opioids.
172
Q: In The Mentalist, Jane makes a suspect hold a freezing object, then tests their pain tolerance elsewhere. Lisbon says, “Why is this working?” What concept is Jane tapping into?
A: Conditioned Pain Modulation (CPM)—pain in one location suppresses pain in another.
173
Q: In Suits, Harvey says fibromyalgia isn’t real. Donna shuts him down. What biological mechanism would she cite?
A: Dysfunction in descending pain control from the brainstem leading to widespread pain sensitivity.
174
Q: In Community, the gang debates whether cold water immersion just distracts from pain. Who’s right when saying it actually causes lasting changes?
A: Whoever cites after-immersion studies—showing real inhibition, not just distraction.
175
Q: What are the two broad categories of sensory systems, and what distinguishes them?
A: Physical senses (stimulus remains outside the body) vs. chemical senses (stimulus must enter the body to be perceived).
176
Q: How does the visual system process light?
A: Light (photons) reflects off surfaces → enters eye → hits retina → rods and cones transduce signal → optic nerve → visual cortex.
177
Q: What structure converts sound vibrations into electrical signals?
A: Hair cells in the inner ear.
178
Q: What makes touch different from other senses in terms of receptor contact?
A: The stimulus doesn't directly contact the receptors; they're embedded within the skin or body.
179
Q: What are the five basic tastes detected by the gustatory system?
A: Sweet, sour, salty, bitter, umami.
180
Q: What cranial nerve carries taste from the anterior 2/3 of the tongue?
A: Cranial Nerve VII (Facial Nerve).
181
Q: What part of the brain first receives combined taste signals from the three cranial nerves?
A: The solitary nucleus in the brainstem.
182
Q: Where is the primary gustatory cortex located?
A: In the insula and inferior parietal cortex.
183
Q: What chemical senses system responds to spiciness and freshness?
A: The trigeminal system, via Cranial Nerve V.
184
Q: What distinguishes acidic from bitter tastes?
A: Acidic: lemon, vinegar. Bitter: coffee, greens. They’re often confused but are perceptually distinct.
185
Q: How does smell (olfaction) work at the receptor level?
A: Volatile chemicals enter the nose with inhaled air → bind to olfactory receptors in the nasal cavity → signal sent to brain.
186
Q: What metaphor did your prof use to describe the structure of the nasal cavity?
A: A Gothic cathedral—grand exterior (nose), small entrance (nostrils), vast and complex inside (nasal cavity).
187
Q: What additional brain areas help process emotional and physiological aspects of taste?
A: The hypothalamus and amygdala.
188
Q: In Suits, Mike tries to prove he understands sensory processing. Harvey tests him: “How does coffee become a smell?” What should Mike say?
A: “A bit of the coffee—volatile compounds—enter your nose and activate olfactory receptors.”
189
Q: In Community, Abed compares the brain’s taste pathways to highways. What’s the point of the analogy?
A: Multiple cranial nerves (like multiple highways) bring signals to the same destination (solitary nucleus and gustatory cortex).
190
Q: In Psych, Shawn says spicy food is a taste. Gus corrects him. What system actually detects spiciness?
A: The trigeminal system, not the gustatory system.
191
Q: In Gilmore Girls, Paris says she loves the taste of peppermint. Rory, who's studying neuroscience, says that’s only partly true. Why?
A: Peppermint’s “freshness” is sensed by the trigeminal system, not taste buds.
192
Q: In The Mentalist, Jane tries to disorient a suspect by blocking their sense of smell. Lisbon asks if that affects taste too. What should Jane say?
A: Yes—smell and taste are closely linked, and loss of smell can reduce flavor perception.
193
Q: In Burn Notice, Michael detects a nerve agent by its bitter taste. Fiona says it’s probably acidic. Which sensory distinction is he likely confusing?
A: Bitter and acidic—they're often confused but involve different chemical cues.
194
Q: In Community, the study group looks in mirrors for their homework. Shirley says it’s silly. What’s the point of the assignment?
A: To appreciate the nose’s structure and complexity—it's central to sensory perception but often overlooked.
195
Q: Where is the olfactory mucosa located?
A: On the bone separating the nasal cavity from the brain.
196
Q: What part of the olfactory receptor neuron interacts with odorants?
A: The cilia (hairs) on the knob of the dendrite, exposed to outside air.
197
Q: How many types of olfactory receptors do humans have, and how do they work?
A: About 400; each responds to chemical properties (e.g., sulfur, OH groups), not specific odors.
198
Q: What is a combinatorial code in olfaction?
A: Odors activate multiple receptors in specific patterns, creating unique smells through combinations.
199
Q: What is smell-blindness and how does it vary by individual?
A: Differences in olfactory receptors cause variations in smell perception; each person has a unique "smell palette."
200
Q: What causes some people to find cilantro soapy?
A: A specific olfactory receptor that makes them more sensitive to a compound in cilantro.
201
Q: Compare the number of olfactory vs. visual receptors in humans.
A: Olfactory: ~400 types; Visual: 4 types (1 B&W, 3 for color).
202
Q: What is orthonasal olfaction?
A: Smelling through the nostrils from the external environment (e.g., sniffing).
203
Q: What is retronasal olfaction?
A: Smelling from inside the mouth as odorants travel to the nose during chewing—critical for flavor.
204
Q: What happens when someone eats candy with their nose pinched?
A: They perceive basic tastes only; unpinching reveals complex flavors due to retronasal olfaction.
205
Q: What are hyposmia and anosmia?
A: Hyposmia: reduced smell. Anosmia: total loss of smell.
206
Q: What are parosmia and phantosmia?
A: Parosmia: distorted smell perception. Phantosmia: smelling odors that aren’t present.
207
Q: Why do many people mistake smell loss for taste loss?
A: Retronasal olfaction contributes significantly to flavor—smell loss feels like taste loss.
208
Q: Name a neurodegenerative disease linked to early olfactory loss.
A: Alzheimer's or Parkinson’s—smell dysfunction often appears 10–15 years before other symptoms.
209
Q: List some causes of olfactory dysfunction.
A: Nasal diseases, brain injury, aging, congenital anosmia, viral infections (e.g., COVID-19).
210
Q: In Suits, Donna smells a candle and says it reminds her of her grandmother’s house. Why can smell trigger such vivid memories?
A: Because olfactory pathways project to the amygdala and hippocampus, which are involved in emotion and memory.
211
Q: In Burn Notice, Michael can no longer taste Fiona’s cooking after a concussion. What’s the likely cause?
A: Olfactory nerve damage → loss of retronasal olfaction, which reduces flavor perception.
212
Q: In Psych, Shawn claims he can smell when someone’s lying. Gus says that’s nonsense. What real smell ability could Shawn be mistaking?
A: Retronasal olfaction—he might be picking up subtle scent cues, but not detecting lies directly.
213
Q: In Community, the group does the candy-with-nose-pinched experiment. What do they learn?
A: Smell is crucial to flavor—pinching the nose blocks retronasal olfaction, revealing only basic tastes.
214
Q: In Gilmore Girls, Emily says cilantro tastes like soap, but Lorelai loves it. Why?
A: Emily likely has the specific olfactory receptor linked to heightened cilantro sensitivity.
215
Q: In The Mentalist, Jane tells Lisbon he smells something burning, but nothing is there. What condition could he be experiencing?
A: Phantosmia—perceiving a smell when no odorant is present.
216
Q: In Burn Notice, Fiona breathes deeply while trying to identify a chemical. What does this sniffing do?
A: Increases airflow and turbulence → more odorants reach receptors → stronger smell perception.
217
Q: In Suits, Louis says his Bolognese tastes weird after COVID. What kind of olfactory dysfunction might he have?
A: Parosmia—distorted smell perception, which affects flavor via retronasal olfaction.
218
Q: In Psych, Gus tells Shawn he can’t smell anything after a cold. Shawn jokes he’s just being dramatic. What's a real condition Gus could have?
A: Temporary hyposmia or anosmia due to viral infection—common after colds or flu.
219
Q: In Community, Abed imagines what it’s like to have a fifth color receptor. What’s the olfactory equivalent?
A: A person with an uncommon receptor set might detect smells most people can’t perceive—like having an extra dimension of smell.
220
Q: What did Hubel & Wiesel discover in their cat experiments?
A: Closing one eye during a critical period causes loss of neurons for that eye and takeover by the open eye in the visual cortex.
221
Q: What are ocular dominance columns?
A: Stripes of neurons in the visual cortex that respond preferentially to input from one eye or the other.
222
Q: What is amblyopia and how is it treated?
A: A condition where one eye is weaker; often treated by patching the stronger eye to force use of the weaker one.
223
Q: What is strabismus and how does it affect vision development?
A: Misaligned eyes prevent binocular neurons from developing, which can result in permanent loss of depth perception.
224
Q: What happens if both eyes are deprived of vision during the critical period?
A: The visual cortex develops more normally than with one-eye deprivation, showing a genetic basis for visual system architecture.
225
Q: What does GABA do in relation to the critical period?
A: GABA triggers the end of the brain's plastic critical period, limiting future reorganization.
226
Q: How can the critical period be extended or shifted?
A: Through behavioral interventions (e.g., dark rearing) or pharmacological agents (e.g., suppressing or increasing GABA).
227
Q: What is Hebbian plasticity?
A: The principle that "neurons that fire together wire together" and "if you don't use it, you lose it."
228
Q: What is retrograde degeneration in long-term blindness?
A: Visual cortex neurons die off, followed by death of related synapses in the LGN.
229
Q: What is cross-modal plasticity?
A: When one sensory modality (e.g., touch) takes over the brain area usually devoted to another (e.g., vision).
230
Q: How does blindness impact brain organization?
A: Early blindness leads to thicker visual cortices and enhanced tactile and auditory abilities via cross-modal plasticity.
231
Q: What determines whether a brain area can be repurposed?
A: The new sensory function must be similar in processing style to the original one.
232
Q: How do dreams change in blind individuals?
A: Those who lose vision early have auditory/tactile dreams; late-blind people may retain visual dreams temporarily.
233
Q: What happens in the brain of Braille readers?
A: The visual cortex becomes active during tactile reading, showing sensory reallocation.
234
Q: In Community, Abed raises a kitten with one eye patched. Later, it seems clumsy with depth. What’s the neurological explanation?
A: The kitten missed the critical period for binocular vision development; neurons for the patched eye were lost.
235
Q: In Psych, Gus jokes he sees better after spending a month in a dark lab. Could dark rearing really impact brain development?
A: Yes, in animals, dark rearing suppresses GABA, delaying the critical period and preserving brain plasticity.
236
Q: In Burn Notice, Fiona patches Michael’s dominant eye to retrain him after an eye injury. What disorder is she mimicking treatment for?
A: Amblyopia (lazy eye), where the strong eye is patched to strengthen the weaker one.
237
Q: In The Mentalist, Jane notices a child who had strabismus surgery but still lacks depth perception. Why?
A: The surgery was likely after the critical period—binocular neurons never developed, so 3D vision couldn’t form.
238
Q: In Gilmore Girls, Rory reads Braille in the dark as part of a bet. Surprisingly, her visual cortex lights up on a scan. Why?
A: If she were blind, her brain might reallocate the visual cortex to tactile tasks like reading Braille—cross-modal plasticity.
239
Q: In Psych, Shawn loses vision temporarily. Later, he says his hearing feels sharper. Is this possible?
A: Yes, short-term sensory deprivation can lead to temporary enhancements in other senses due to plasticity.
240
Q: In Burn Notice, Sam hears about rewired hamsters using their auditory cortex to see. Is this real?
A: Yes, in experiments, if the auditory cortex is rewired to receive visual input early, it can develop visual-like structures.
241
Q: In Suits, Louis claims his blindfolded wine tastings have improved his sense of smell. Could sensory deprivation explain this?
A: Possibly—short-term visual deprivation can lead to heightened awareness in other senses due to plasticity.
242
Q: In The Mentalist, Lisbon asks Jane if his brain could rewire to see again after long-term blindness. He says maybe. What’s the real answer?
A: If blindness occurred early, rewiring is more likely. But after the critical period, visual cortex repurposing becomes limited.
243
Q: In Gilmore Girls, Paris insists babies must see bright colors to develop vision. Is she right?
A: Yes—early visual input is crucial during the critical period; lack of it can lead to permanent vision issues.
244
What is echolocation, and how does it relate to sensory compensation in blind individuals?
Echolocation involves producing sounds and interpreting the returning echoes to understand one's environment. It’s a form of sensory substitution, where blind individuals use hearing to “see,” often activating the visual cortex despite lack of visual input.
245
What are A delta fibers and C fibers, and how do they differ in pain detection?
A delta fibers mediate sharp, fast pain and are typically detected accurately by both sighted and blind individuals. C fibers mediate dull, slow pain, and blind people detect and respond to these more quickly and accurately than sighted people.
246
Define sensory substitution and give an example.
Sensory substitution is when a lost sense is compensated by an intact sense, such as reading Braille with touch or using echolocation with sound. Another example is using sesame seeds on burger buns to communicate ingredients to blind customers.
247
What is cortical reorganization, and how does it affect blind individuals?
Cortical reorganization is when the brain repurposes regions (like the visual cortex) for processing other senses in response to sensory loss. In blind individuals, this can lead to enhanced abilities in smell, touch, and hearing.
248
Rory is reading Braille to prepare for an article on accessible education. She's surprised to learn that the visual cortex is activated in blind individuals reading Braille. What does this suggest about the brain’s adaptability?
It suggests that in the absence of vision, the brain can repurpose the visual cortex for other sensory processing—an example of cortical reorganization.
249
Harvey takes on a client who is blind and uses echolocation to navigate the city. Louis is skeptical and says, “That’s not real.” Who is right, and what scientific evidence supports the answer?
Harvey is right. Blind individuals like Ben use echolocation to navigate by producing sound clicks and interpreting echoes. Scientific studies show echolocation activates the visual cortex and enhances spatial awareness.
250
Abed conducts a study on how the group reacts to pain. He notices that Shirley reacts to dull pain faster than Jeff. Assuming Shirley has been blind since birth, what sensory pathway is likely responsible for this faster reaction?
Shirley is likely responding more quickly via C fibers, which blind individuals detect and respond to with greater accuracy and speed than sighted individuals.
251
Jane is working a case involving a blind suspect. Lisbon says the suspect couldn’t have identified the fear in someone's body odor. Jane disagrees. Based on research, who’s correct?
Jane is correct. Blind individuals outperform sighted individuals in identifying negative emotional odors like fear and disgust, likely due to greater reliance on olfactory cues for environmental awareness and threat detection.
252
Shawn pretends to have a “heightened sense of smell” to impress Gus. Gus points out that unless Shawn has been blind since birth, his sense of smell probably isn’t that enhanced. Is Gus right, and why?
Yes, Gus is right. Enhanced olfactory abilities are mostly seen in congenitally blind individuals, not those with late-onset blindness or sighted people.
253
Michael Westen is training a blind informant who navigates without a cane or guide dog. Fiona questions how this is possible. What might Michael say about sensory substitution and environmental enrichment?
Michael could explain that blind individuals can develop echolocation and heightened touch/smell abilities, especially when raised in stimulating environments. Their brains adapt to maximize remaining senses, compensating for vision loss.
254
Paris is skeptical of using tactile writing on burger buns to help blind customers. Rory counters by referencing what psychological concept?
Sensory substitution—using touch to convey information typically gathered visually, like ingredients on a burger using sesame seed patterns.
255
Troy says people can start echolocating at any age. Abed disagrees and says it’s more effective if learned young. Who’s closer to the truth?
Abed. Congenital blindness often leads to better sensory compensation. Late-onset blind individuals don’t show the same enhancements, like echolocation or heightened olfactory sensitivity.
