Midterm 2 Material Flashcards
(240 cards)
1
Q
Q: What is mental imagery?
A
A: Mental imagery is the ability to mentally recreate perceptual experiences in the absence of sensory stimuli. It is also called perception without sensation.
2
Q
Q: What are the two systems in Dual-Coding Theory?
A
A: The two systems are:
Non-verbal system: Modality-specific, analog representations that resemble what they stand for.
Verbal system: Abstract, symbolic representations that do not resemble what they stand for.
3
Q
Q: What is the imagery debate?
A
A: The imagery debate is about whether mental images are:
Depictive (Kosslyn): Analog representations that maintain perceptual and spatial characteristics.
Descriptive (Pylyshyn): Symbolic codes that do not resemble real-world images but are an epiphenomenon of cognition.
4
Q
Q: What did Shepard & Metzler’s mental rotation study find?
A
A: The greater the angular rotation of an object, the longer it takes to mentally rotate it, suggesting that mental images are processed similarly to real-world objects.
5
Q
Q: Harvey Specter (Suits) is coaching Mike Ross on how to improve his memory. Harvey tells Mike to picture case files as vivid images instead of just memorizing words. Which theory supports this method?
A
A: Dual-Coding Theory – Using both verbal and visual representations improves memory encoding.
6
Q
Q: Shawn Spencer (Psych) claims he can “see” a crime scene in his head just as clearly as if he were there. Gus, skeptical as always, argues that he’s just making educated guesses based on logical connections. Their argument mirrors which major cognitive psychology debate?
A
A: The imagery debate – Kosslyn would side with Shawn, arguing that imagery is depictive, while Pylyshyn would side with Gus, arguing that imagery is descriptive and based on propositions.
7
Q
Q: Patrick Jane (The Mentalist) tells Lisbon to mentally “walk through” a suspect’s house to recall where an important clue was hidden. Lisbon follows the instructions, and it takes her longer to “walk” from the front door to the kitchen than from the living room to the kitchen. Which cognitive concept does this reflect?
A
A: Mental scanning – It takes longer to mentally “travel” longer distances, supporting the idea that mental images preserve spatial characteristics.
8
Q
Q: Annie Edison (Community) is competing in a study group challenge against Jeff. They are shown 3D figures at different angles and must decide if they are the same shape or different. Annie answers faster when the rotation is small but takes longer when the angle is large. Which cognitive phenomenon explains this?
A
A: Mental rotation – Greater angular differences require more time to mentally rotate an object.
9
Q
Q: Rory Gilmore (Gilmore Girls) is trying to remember details from an old book. She first thinks of the title and the author’s name, then slowly recalls the book cover, and finally visualizes a specific passage. Her process is more aligned with which side of the imagery debate?
A
A: Descriptive processing (Pylyshyn) – Her recall process suggests she is retrieving verbal propositions before constructing an image.
10
Q
Q: Michael Westen (Burn Notice) is planning a mission. He visualizes the entire layout of a building and imagines moving through it before actually executing the plan. The time it takes to mentally move through different areas corresponds to real-world distances. Which concept explains this?
A
A: Mental scanning – His mental image preserves spatial relationships, making it a depictive representation.
11
Q
Q: What is mental scaling?
A
A: The phenomenon where objects appear physically larger as they get closer, eventually filling the visual field.
12
Q
Q: What did Kosslyn’s mental scaling experiment show?
A
A: Participants answered questions more quickly about an imagined object when it was mentally “larger” (next to a small object like a fly) and more slowly when it was mentally “smaller” (next to a large object like an elephant), supporting depictive representation.
13
Q
Q: What does Mary Cheves Perky’s (1910) experiment suggest about imagery and perception?
A
A: That mental imagery can be influenced by weak sensory input, supporting the idea that imagery and perception share cognitive systems.
14
Q
Q: What did Segal and Fusella’s (1970) experiment show about modality interference?
A
A: Mental imagery in the same modality as a stimulus (visual-visual or auditory-auditory) interferes with perception, making detection slower.
15
Q
Q: How does neuroimaging support the idea that imagery and perception share mechanisms?
A
A: Both imagery and perception activate similar brain areas, such as the primary visual cortex (V1), fusiform face area (FFA), and parahippocampal place area (PPA).
16
Q
Q: In Suits, Mike often visualizes legal cases in his mind before presenting arguments in court. If Mike imagines a contract as a giant document covering the room, making the details easier to mentally “zoom into,” which cognitive concept is he using?
A
A: Mental scaling
17
Q
Q: In Psych, Shawn often claims to have psychic visions, but in reality, he just picks up on small clues. Imagine he’s asked to visualize a crime scene while being shown a faint image of the real scene. If his mental image starts aligning with the faint image without realizing it, which psychological phenomenon is at play?
A
A: Perky effect (imagery being influenced by weak sensory input)
18
Q
Q: In Burn Notice, Michael Westen sometimes has to rely on memory and mental imagery to reconstruct scenes from past spy missions. If he tries to visualize the room where he planted a device but struggles when imagining a different object in the room at the same time, which cognitive principle is interfering with his perception?
A
A: Modality interference (from Segal & Fusella, 1970)
19
Q
Q: In The Mentalist, Patrick Jane asks a witness to imagine a suspect’s face while looking at a blurry security camera image. If the witness is better at recognizing the face when their imagined image matches the real image, which study does this support?
A
A: Farah (1985) – Imagery facilitates perception when the imagined and actual stimuli match.
20
Q
Q: In Community, Abed replays movie scenes in his mind like a mental film projector. If he is tested on his ability to recall a shape within a complex image but struggles in some cases, which argument against depictive representation does this support?
A
A: Reed (1974) – Mental representations may not always be purely depictive but could involve propositional or combinatorial representations.
21
Q
Q: In Gilmore Girls, Rory is cramming for a test, imagining pages of her textbook as if she were flipping through them. If fMRI scans showed activity in her brain’s visual processing areas while she does this, what would this support?
A
A: Neuroimaging evidence that perception and mental imagery share brain mechanisms.
22
Q
Q: In Burn Notice, if Fiona is blinded in one eye but can still perform mental imagery tasks perfectly, whereas Sam, who suffered brain damage, loses his ability to visualize things but retains normal vision, which brain damage study does this resemble?
A
A: Moro et al. (2008) – Some patients lose imagery abilities while keeping perceptual abilities intact.
23
Q
Q: What is episodic memory?
A
A: Memory of personal experiences, such as recalling what you did for your birthday last year.
24
Q
Q: What is semantic memory?
A
A: General knowledge about the world, such as understanding the difference between a cat and a mouse.
25
Q: What is procedural memory?
A: Memory for skills and actions, such as riding a bike.
26
Q: What is memory consolidation?
A: The process through which memories become stable and less dependent on the hippocampus over time.
27
Q: What is the multi-store model of memory?
A: A model that divides memory into three stages: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.
28
Q: In Suits, Harvey remembers the details of a high-stakes case he worked on last year but struggles to remember something he heard earlier in the day. What type of memory is Harvey struggling with?
A: Episodic memory (since he's remembering a personal experience from the past but unable to recall something recent).
29
Q: In Psych, Shawn needs to differentiate between a cat and a mouse while solving a case. He’s using his knowledge from general observations over the years. Which type of memory is he using?
A: Semantic memory (general knowledge).
30
Q: In Burn Notice, Michael Westen finds himself in a high-pressure situation where he has to quickly assemble a plan, relying on skills he’s learned in the field. Which type of memory is Michael drawing on to recall how to perform these tasks?
A: Procedural memory (skills and actions).
31
Q: In The Mentalist, Patrick Jane can vividly remember details from past investigations but struggles to remember recent conversations. If his brain is forming memories, which part of the brain is primarily responsible for consolidating new memories over time?
A: The hippocampus (responsible for consolidating new memories).
32
Q: In Community, Abed tries to recall the first time he watched Star Wars but struggles to remember the exact emotional experience. Which brain regions would be involved in this memory recall?
A: The hippocampus for the memory binding and the amygdala for emotional details.
33
Q: In Gilmore Girls, Rory is studying for her finals and memorizing her textbooks. If she’s rehearsing information to ensure it moves from short-term to long-term memory, which type of memory is she working with?
A: Short-term memory (or working memory).
34
Q: In Burn Notice, Fiona is dealing with a complex mission and trying to recall details of a previous mission. However, she’s only able to focus on what she’s experiencing in the moment. What kind of memory is she using right now?
A: Working memory (short-term memory used in the current task).
35
Q: In The Mentalist, Patrick Jane is having a difficult time remembering details from a recent case because of a lack of mental rehearsal. He is only able to retain a few pieces of the information. Which stage of memory is he struggling with?
A: Short-term memory (because he didn’t rehearse the information enough to transfer it to long-term memory).
36
Q: What is long-term memory?
A: A type of memory that stores information indefinitely and includes explicit and implicit memory.
37
Q: What is explicit memory?
A: Conscious memory that includes semantic (facts) and episodic (personal experiences) memories.
38
Q: What is implicit memory?
A: Unconscious memory, including procedural memory (skills) and priming (unconscious associations).
39
Q: What is sensory memory?
A: Memory that briefly stores sensory input, such as visual, auditory, or tactile information, for a few seconds.
40
Q: What is the multi-store model of memory?
A: A model suggesting that memory is processed through sensory memory, short-term memory (STM), and long-term memory (LTM).
41
Q: What is working memory?
A: A system that retains and manipulates information not in the environment, essential for cognitive functions.
42
Q: In Suits, Harvey remembers a key fact from a past case but struggles to remember something he just learned during a meeting. Which type of memory is Harvey struggling with?
A: Short-term memory (STM), as he has difficulty retaining new information.
43
Q: In Psych, Shawn has just learned a new skill to help with solving a case and can perform it without thinking about it. Which type of memory is Shawn using?
A: Procedural memory (skills and actions).
44
Q: In Burn Notice, Michael Westen needs to remember a list of important information he just heard, but he only has a few seconds to retain it. What type of memory would he be using at this moment?
A: Sensory memory, as he’s quickly taking in new sensory information that will be processed into short-term memory.
45
Q: In The Mentalist, Patrick Jane is reading someone's body language to gather clues for an investigation. This skill requires him to draw upon unconscious associations. Which type of memory is Patrick drawing upon?
A: Implicit memory (specifically priming).
46
Q: In Gilmore Girls, Rory is trying to remember the beginning of a sentence she just heard, but she only has about 20 seconds to keep the information in mind before it fades. Which type of memory is she using?
A: Short-term memory (STM).
47
Q: In Community, Abed has trouble remembering the specific details of a movie plot after hearing it once. If he doesn't rehearse it, which type of memory will he lose access to?
A: Short-term memory (STM), which will fade unless rehearsed.
48
Q: In Burn Notice, Fiona is recalling a series of chess moves from a previous game, using her knowledge of the game. What memory strategy is she utilizing to recall the moves?
A: Chunking (grouping related information together to aid memory).
49
Q: In Suits, Harvey and Mike are discussing a case. Harvey uses his "inner voice" to rehearse key points he wants to remember during their conversation. What part of working memory is he using?
A: The articulatory control loop (a component of the phonological loop in working memory).
50
Q: What is the visual cache in the visuospatial sketchpad?
A: It stores information about visual features.
51
Q: What is the inner scribe in the visuospatial sketchpad?
A: It stores information about spatial location, movement, and sequences.
52
Q: What is the episodic buffer?
A: A component of working memory that integrates information from short-term and long-term memory.
53
Q: What is the difference between implicit and explicit memory?
A: Implicit memory involves unconscious skills (e.g., playing the piano), while explicit memory involves conscious recall of facts or events (e.g., remembering your first piano lesson).
54
Q: What is the forgetting curve?
A: A phenomenon that shows memory loss is largest shortly after learning and slows down over time.
55
Q: What is proactive interference?
A: When older information interferes with the ability to learn new information.
56
Q: What is retroactive interference?
A: When new information interferes with recalling old information.
57
Q: In Suits, Donna is struggling to remember a new client’s case details while still recalling old case facts. Which type of interference is she experiencing?
A: Proactive interference (old information is interfering with new learning).
58
Q: In The Mentalist, Patrick Jane forgets a previous password because of the new password he just set. Which type of interference is this?
A: Retroactive interference (new information interferes with old memory).
59
Q: In Burn Notice, Michael Westen is trying to remember an old phone number but keeps thinking of his new number. What type of interference is this?
A: Retroactive interference.
60
Q: In Psych, Shawn ties his shoelaces without thinking. What type of memory is involved in this action?
A: Implicit memory (unconscious skills).
61
Q: In Gilmore Girls, Rory is trying to remember her ski trip from last weekend but can't recall specific details. What type of memory is this related to?
A: Explicit memory (conscious recall of a personal event).
62
Q: In Burn Notice, Fiona tries to recall the ingredients of a complicated recipe but struggles because of a new recipe she just learned. What type of interference is affecting her memory?
A: Retroactive interference (new information interfering with the recall of old information).
63
Q: In Sherlock Holmes, Holmes uses the Memory Palace technique to remember complex details about a case. Which mnemonic method is he using?
A: The Method of Loci (Memory Palace).
64
Q: In Suits, Harvey is cramming for a case and struggling to retain the information. What is the best strategy he should use to optimize his memory retention?
A: The spacing effect (spread out study sessions over time).
65
Q: In Psych, Shawn recalls details of his first case more vividly when he connects them to his personal experiences. What concept explains this enhanced memory?
A: The self-reference effect (memory is better when related to oneself).
66
Q: In Community, Troy is learning a new skill and is told that the more he practices and focuses on it, the stronger his memory of the skill will be. What concept is this referring to?
A: The depth of processing (deeper engagement with information strengthens memory).
67
Q: What is the multi-store memory model?
A: A model that describes memory as consisting of sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.
68
Q: What is iconic memory?
A: A type of sensory memory that stores visual information for a brief period.
69
Q: What is echoic memory?
A: A type of sensory memory that stores auditory information for a brief period.
70
Q: What is haptic memory?
A: A type of sensory memory that stores tactile (touch) information for a brief period.
71
Q: What is working memory?
A: A system that temporarily stores and manipulates information for cognitive tasks.
72
Q: What is long-term memory?
A: A memory store with a large capacity that holds information for an extended period, from hours to a lifetime.
73
Q: What is procedural memory?
A: A type of implicit (non-declarative) memory related to skills and actions, like riding a bike.
74
Q: What is priming in memory?
A: A type of implicit memory that involves a prior exposure to a stimulus influencing the response to a later stimulus.
75
Q: What is episodic memory?
A: A type of explicit memory that involves recalling personal experiences, including the "what, where, and when."
76
Q: What is semantic memory?
A: A type of explicit memory that involves general knowledge, facts, and concepts that are not tied to a specific time or place.
77
Q: In Gilmore Girls, Rory recalls her trip to Europe, including the places she visited and the people she met. What type of memory is she using?
A: Episodic memory (personal experiences and events).
78
Q: In Psych, Shawn effortlessly recalls how to tie his shoes without consciously thinking about it. What type of memory is this?
A: Procedural memory (skills and actions).
79
Q: In The Mentalist, Patrick Jane instantly recalls the details of a crime scene after being primed by a previous clue. What type of memory is this?
A: Priming (implicit memory).
80
Q: In Suits, Harvey struggles to remember a fact from a case years ago but easily recalls general legal knowledge. What type of memory is affected?
A: His episodic memory (experiences/events) is affected. His semantic memory (general knowledge, not tied to a specific event) is unaffected.
81
Q: In Community, Abed uses the Method of Loci to remember a list of movies for a trivia contest. What mnemonic technique is he using?
A: Method of Loci (Memory Palace).
82
Q: In Burn Notice, Michael Westen practices techniques for missions without consciously thinking about the steps. What type of memory is this?
A: Procedural memory (unconscious skills).
83
Q: In Psych, Gus is trying to recall a specific moment from their childhood but can only remember general details. What type of memory is Gus using?
A: Semantic memory (general knowledge, not tied to a specific event).
84
Q: In Sherlock Holmes, Sherlock accurately recounts his observation of a suspect's behavior during a case. What type of memory is he using?
A: Episodic memory (personal, time-stamped recollection).
85
Q: What are the four components of the working memory model?
The Working Memory Model has four components:
1. Central Executive – Directs attention and manages tasks.
2. Phonological Loop – Stores and rehearses verbal/auditory info.
3. Visuospatial Sketchpad – Handles visual and spatial info.
4. Episodic Buffer – Integrates info from different sources and connects to long-term memory.
86
Q: In the working memory model, what is the role of the episodic buffer?
A: It integrates information from long-term memory and other components of working memory.
87
Q: How does the central executive function in working memory?
A: It guides the process, coordinating the activities of other components (episodic buffer, visuospatial sketchpad, phonological loop).
88
Q: In Suits, Harvey is quickly processing case information in his head while imagining courtroom details. Which components of working memory is he using?
A: The visuospatial sketchpad (for visualizing the courtroom), the phonological loop (for holding and rehearsing verbal case information), and the central executive (for coordinating the process).
89
Q: In The Mentalist, Patrick Jane is analyzing a crime scene. He mentally rehearses key verbal details while also picturing the layout of the room and the positions of different objects. What components of working memory is he using?
A: Phonological loop (for rehearsing verbal details), visuospatial sketchpad (for picturing the crime scene), and central executive (for guiding the process).
90
Q: What is the spacing effect?
A: The phenomenon where memory retention improves when learning is spaced out over time.
91
Q: What are the primacy and recency effects?
A: Primacy effect: better recall of information presented at the beginning of a session.
Recency effect: better recall of information presented at the end of a session.
92
Q: What is the self-reference effect?
A: The phenomenon where information is better remembered when it is linked to oneself.
93
Q: What is the generation effect?
A: The phenomenon where actively generating information (e.g., completing word pairs) leads to better memory than simply reading or hearing it.
94
Q: What is maintenance rehearsal?
A: The process of repeating information to keep it in short-term memory.
95
Q: In Psych, Shawn uses active recall to remember case details instead of passively reviewing them. What effect is he utilizing?
A: The generation effect (actively generating information leads to better memory).
96
Q: What type of memory is impaired in Patient KC?
A: Episodic memory (personal experiences), but semantic memory (general facts) is preserved.
97
Q: What can Patient KC still do despite his episodic memory impairment?
A: KC can still use semantic knowledge to infer answers, though he cannot recall the context or specifics of when or where events happened.
98
Q: What is Anoetic consciousness?
A: Implicit memory with no awareness or personal engagement.
99
Q: What is Noetic consciousness?
A: Semantic memory with awareness but no personal engagement.
100
Q: What is Autonoetic consciousness?
A: Episodic memory with awareness and personal engagement, often associated with mental time travel.
101
Q: What is the Reappearance Hypothesis in memory retrieval?
A: The idea that episodic memories are recalled the same way each time, reproduced exactly as originally encoded.
102
Q: What are Flashbulb memories?
A: Memories of emotionally arousing, surprising, and self-important events that seem to be more vivid and resistant to forgetting.
103
Q: How do Flashbulb memories change over time?
A: Flashbulb memories change over time, with some details becoming distorted, even though people often believe their memories are vivid and unchanging.
104
Q: What did the 1997 O.J. Simpson murder trial flashbulb memory study find?
A: Over time, 50-70% of recollections changed, with major distortions in 40% of cases.
105
Q: What is the distinction between subjective and objective memory?
A: Subjective memory is the personal experience and belief in the accuracy of memory, while objective memory involves the actual event or fact.
106
Q: What is the role of schemas in memory distortion?
A: Schemas organize and categorize information, and can lead to memory distortions by altering recalled details to fit expectations.
107
Q: How did participants in Bartlett's (1932) "War of Ghosts" experiment distort the story?
A: They simplified and changed the story details to match their Western schemas, such as changing "hunting seals" to "fishing."
108
Q: How can schemas lead to false memories?
A: Schemas may lead individuals to remember details that were never present, such as recalling a chalkboard in a classroom that didn’t have one.
109
Q: How does a negative self-schema affect memory?
A: A negative self-schema (e.g., feeling unlovable) can lead to distorted memories and expectations, influencing how past and future events are interpreted.
110
Q: What is the Misattribution effect in memory?
A: It occurs when individuals incorrectly attribute a memory to the wrong source or context, often due to familiar feelings.
111
Q: How can misleading questions lead to false memories?
A: Misleading questions, like "How fast were the cars going when they SMASHED into each other?" can influence how a memory is recalled.
112
Q: What is the Implanting Memories study?
A: A study where participants were led to believe in a false childhood event (e.g., an overnight hospital stay), with 20% of participants "remembering" the event by the end of the experiment.
113
Q: What is Memory Consolidation?
A: The process by which short-term memories are stabilized into long-term memories through encoding and storing them in the brain.
114
Q: What is Memory Reconsolidation?
A: The process that occurs when a memory trace is reactivated, becoming unstable and subject to modification before being reconsolidated into long-term memory.
115
Q: Why do we construct memories?
A: Constructing memories allows us to use past experiences to imagine and plan for future events, helping us navigate and prepare for life.
116
Q: What is the difference between explicit and implicit memory?
A: Explicit memory involves facts (semantic) and events (episodic) and is supported by the medial temporal lobe and diencephalon. Implicit memory includes procedural memory, priming, classical conditioning, and emotional responses, supported by areas like the basal ganglia, neocortex, cerebellum, and amygdala.
117
Q: What type of memory involves automatic behavior/actions related to motor movements and sequence organization?
A: Procedural memory, which is linked to the basal ganglia (motor sequence) and prefrontal cortex (organization), is more resistant to forgetting.
118
Q: How does habit formation occur in terms of memory systems?
A: Habit formation initially relies on explicit memory but shifts to implicit memory with training or exposure. Example: Learning a motor action sequence, like typing a password without thinking.
119
Q: How do you break a habit?
A: To break a habit, you must inhibit the prefrontal cortex and change the reward associated with the behavior. For example, associating a new positive reward with the desired behavioral change.
120
Q: What is priming in implicit memory?
A: Priming occurs when prior exposure to information facilitates the processing of related information without conscious awareness, like completing word fragments from previously shown words.
121
Q: How does the implicit memory theory explain déjà vu?
A: Déjà vu is thought to occur when a place or situation implicitly reminds you of a similar experience, creating the sensation of familiarity without conscious memory of the prior experience.
122
Q: What brain region is primarily responsible for conditioned emotional responses in implicit memory?
A: The amygdala is responsible for conditioned emotional responses, like fear to stimuli such as snakes or the dark.
123
Q: What unique characteristic was found in Alex's brain during his MRI regarding his fear response?
A: Alex's amygdala was found to be under-stimulated, requiring a higher level of stimulation to respond, which could explain his unique lack of fear when free soloing.
124
Q: What is semantic memory?
A: Semantic memory is the acquired knowledge of facts, concepts, and general ideas about the world and self, formed through repeated experiences and regularities.
125
Q: How is semantic knowledge stored in the brain?
A: Semantic concepts are stored in an interconnected network, where concepts can be accessed at different levels of specificity (general vs. specific).
126
Q: What happens when a concept is activated in the semantic network?
A: Activating a concept spreads activity to related concepts. For example, thinking about "canary" activates concepts like "bird," "yellow," and "singing."
127
Q: What is semantic priming?
A: Semantic priming occurs when activation of one concept influences the processing of related concepts. For example, thinking about "spaghetti" can lead to thoughts about "Italy."
128
Q: How does interconnected knowledge explain seemingly random thoughts?
A: Due to the interconnected nature of semantic memory, thinking about one concept can automatically lead to other related concepts, creating a "weird train of thoughts" (e.g., spaghetti → Italy → boots → tennis).
129
Q: What is spreading activation in the semantic network?
A: Spreading activation is the automatic spread of activity from an activated concept to related concepts. For example, thinking about a canary can activate other bird-related concepts.
130
Q: How does spreading activation relate to priming?
A: Spreading activation can lead to priming, where thinking about one concept (e.g., spaghetti) triggers the activation of related concepts (e.g., Italy).
131
Q: What is episodic memory amnesia?
A: Episodic memory amnesia refers to the loss of the ability to recall personal experiences and events, often due to brain injury.
132
Q: What happened in the case of HM?
A: HM underwent neurosurgery that removed his hippocampus, causing severe episodic memory loss. He could not form new memories but retained short-term and procedural memory.
133
Q: What is anterograde amnesia?
A: Anterograde amnesia is the inability to form new episodic memories after the onset of amnesia.
134
Q: What is retrograde amnesia?
A: Retrograde amnesia is the inability to access memories from before the onset of amnesia. Memory loss is temporally graded, with recent memories being more affected than older ones.
135
Q: What causes Korsakoff's Syndrome?
A: Korsakoff’s Syndrome is caused by chronic alcoholism leading to thiamine deficiency, which damages the mammillary bodies of the hypothalamus and affects memory.
136
Q: What is confabulation?
A: Confabulation is the production of false memories or narrative stories of events that have not occurred, often due to deficits in memory monitoring processes.
137
Q: What is dissociative amnesia?
A: Dissociative amnesia is a rare psychiatric disorder, often resulting from trauma, that causes retrograde amnesia and memory loss of autobiographical experiences.
138
Q: What are the early symptoms of Alzheimer's disease?
A: The earliest symptom of Alzheimer's disease is a deficit in episodic memory, with other symptoms developing as the disease progresses, including personality changes and functional problems.
139
Q: What is the associative deficit hypothesis?
A: The associative deficit hypothesis suggests that older adults have difficulty with recollection (associating items with context) but not with familiarity (recognizing items).
140
Q: What is the difference between familiarity and recollection in recognition memory?
A: Familiarity is recognizing an item without context, while recollection involves remembering the context in which the item was encountered. Recollection is typically impaired in aging.
141
Q: What is the reminiscence bump?
A: The reminiscence bump refers to the tendency of older adults to remember more events from their teenage years than any other period of life, potentially due to the novel nature of these experiences.
142
Q: How do taxi drivers' memories differ from bus drivers' memories?
A: Taxi drivers have better spatial memory due to memorizing extensive street maps, and they show greater posterior hippocampus grey matter volume than bus drivers.
143
Q: What is Highly Superior Autobiographical Memory (HSAM)?
A: HSAM is a condition where individuals can recall every day of their lives in vivid detail. However, they do not excel at laboratory memory tests and do not have photographic memory.
144
Q: What are the downsides of having superior memory, like HSAM?
A: The downsides of HSAM include the obsessive recall of memories, which can relate to OCD symptoms.
145
Q: What does the Goldilocks principle suggest about memory?
A: The Goldilocks principle suggests that memory works best when we have neither too little nor too much information, but just the right amount.
146
Q: What is the role of the hippocampus in episodic memory?
A: The hippocampus is crucial for encoding and retrieving episodic memories. Damage to it, as in HM’s case, leads to severe episodic memory loss but leaves other types of memory, such as procedural and semantic, intact.
147
Q: What memory types did HM retain after his brain surgery?
A: After his brain surgery, HM retained short-term memory, procedural memory (skill-based learning), and semantic memory (knowledge of facts).
148
Q: What is the definition of episodic memory?
A: Episodic memory refers to the ability to recall personal experiences and events from one’s life, including specific details such as time and place.
149
Q: How does Alzheimer’s disease affect memory in the early stages?
A: In the early stages of Alzheimer’s disease, episodic memory is primarily affected, leading to difficulty recalling recent events, often before other noticeable symptoms appear.
150
Q: What is the primary cause of Alzheimer's disease?
A: Alzheimer's disease is caused by the buildup of amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles, which disrupt neuronal function and cause cell death, particularly in the medial temporal lobe.
151
Q: What is the relationship between Korsakoff’s syndrome and memory loss?
A: Korsakoff’s syndrome leads to both anterograde and retrograde amnesia due to damage to the mammillary bodies of the hypothalamus, often caused by chronic alcoholism and thiamine deficiency.
152
Q: How does aging affect memory?
A: Aging typically leads to a decline in episodic memory and working memory, while semantic and implicit memory tend to remain intact. The prefrontal cortex and hippocampus are especially affected by age-related volume loss.
153
Q: What is the primary difference between familiarity and recollection in older adults' memory?
A: Older adults have difficulty with recollection, which involves remembering the context of an item, while familiarity, or recognizing an item without context, tends to remain intact.
154
Q: What changes occur in Alzheimer's disease as it progresses to moderate and severe stages?
A: In moderate to severe stages, Alzheimer's causes personality changes (e.g., impulsivity), functional problems (e.g., difficulty eating or dressing), and further cognitive decline, including problems with communication and recognizing objects.
155
Q: What are the different types of dementia?
A: Types of dementia include Alzheimer's disease (60-75% of cases), frontotemporal dementia (language and emotion problems), Lewy body dementia (movement and cognitive issues), and vascular dementia (caused by strokes and blood flow disruption).
156
Q: How does the associative deficit hypothesis explain memory differences in older adults?
A: The associative deficit hypothesis suggests that older adults have difficulty with tasks requiring recollection (associating information with context), but familiarity-based recognition tasks remain relatively unaffected.
157
Q: What cognitive strategy might older adults use to compensate for memory loss?
A: Older adults with high memory performance may recruit more brain regions, such as bilateral PFC, showing evidence of neural compensation for memory deficits.
158
Q: What is the reminiscence bump and how does it relate to memory in older adults?
A: The reminiscence bump refers to the tendency for older adults to recall more memories from their teenage years, likely due to the importance of these experiences for forming self-identity.
159
Q: How does memory differ between taxi drivers and bus drivers?
A: Taxi drivers perform better on spatial memory tasks and have greater posterior hippocampus grey matter volume, which correlates with their years of experience navigating city streets.
160
Q: What are the characteristics of Highly Superior Autobiographical Memory (HSAM)?
A: Individuals with HSAM remember every day of their life in vivid detail, but they do not excel in laboratory memory tasks and do not have photographic memory.
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Q: What are the potential downsides of having Highly Superior Autobiographical Memory (HSAM)?
A: Individuals with HSAM may experience difficulties with OCD symptoms, as their tendency to recall every detail of their lives may lead to obsessive thoughts.
162
Q: What does the Goldilocks principle suggest about memory performance?
A: The Goldilocks principle suggests that memory is most effective when we have just the right amount of information—enough to recall, but not too much to overwhelm us.
163
Q: What is the prototype in Prototype Theory?
A: The prototype is the center of a category network, representing the most typical or central member of a category. Other category members resemble the prototype to varying degrees.
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Q: What is the Typicality Effect?
A: The Typicality Effect refers to the preference for processing items that are closer to the prototype, with typical items being recognized and processed faster than less typical ones.
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Q: How does the Typicality Effect influence memory and recognition?
A: More typical items are recognized faster than less typical items, such as recognizing a common bird (e.g., a robin) faster than a less typical bird (e.g., a penguin).
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Q: What is the Lexical Decision Task?
A: The Lexical Decision Task involves participants seeing words and deciding quickly whether they are real words. Reaction times are measured, and this task is often used to study typicality effects in language processing.
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Q: What is the priming effect in a Lexical Decision Task?
A: The priming effect in this task occurs when a concept label (e.g., "fruit") is shown before related words (e.g., "apple"), speeding up reaction times for typical examples and showing that typical items are more easily recognized.
168
Q: How does context affect the typicality of concepts?
A: Context influences how typical a concept is perceived to be. For example, a chicken may be seen as more typical in a farm context than in a city context, highlighting how context impacts concept representation.
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Q: What is Exemplar Theory?
A: Exemplar Theory posits that instead of having a single abstract prototype, every instance of a category is stored as an individual exemplar. To categorize a new item, we compare it to stored exemplars and assess its similarity.
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Q: How does Exemplar Theory explain the influence of context on concept representation?
A: Exemplar Theory suggests that our experience and the situational context influence how we retrieve and categorize concepts. For example, whether something is considered a dog depends on one's past experiences with dogs.
171
Q: What are Knowledge-Based Theories of categorization?
A: Knowledge-Based Theories propose that concept categorization is based on intuitive, implicit knowledge rather than similarity to prototypes. People categorize items based on their essential, underlying characteristics.
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Q: What is Essentialism in Knowledge-Based Theories?
A: Essentialism is the idea that certain categories have an underlying reality or true nature that cannot be directly observed but is essential to understanding the category.
173
Q: What is the embodied view of concepts?
A: The embodied view of concepts suggests that concepts are shaped by our sensory, motor, and perceptual systems, and are formed based on our experiences and interactions with the environment.
174
Q: What are Ad-Hoc Categories in the context of goal facilitation?
A: Ad-Hoc Categories are temporary, invented categories created for specific goals or purposes, such as "things that can catch on fire," and often involve creative thinking to bring together dissimilar members.
175
Q: What is the Perceptual Symbols System?
A: The Perceptual Symbols System proposes that perception and conceptual knowledge are linked through "perceptual symbols." These symbols activate sensory perceptions and mental simulations based on the current task or goal.
176
Q: How do different brain regions contribute to concept representation?
A: Different brain regions are activated depending on the type of question asked about a concept. For example, thinking about whether a watermelon is tasty activates taste-related brain regions, while thinking about whether it is round activates vision-related brain regions.
177
Q: What evidence supports that concepts are rooted in sensory and motor systems?
A: Studies using MRI scanners show that reading action words like "pick," "kick," or "lick" activates specific motor regions of the brain associated with those actions, supporting the idea that concepts are linked to sensory and motor representations.
178
Q: What are category-specific deficits in neuropsychological cases?
A: Some patients with brain injuries experience selective impairments, such as being unable to name animals but able to name tools, or vice versa, suggesting that concepts may be organized by domains like living vs. non-living things in the brain.
179
Q: What do sensory-functional theories propose about how concepts are represented in the brain?
A: Sensory-functional theories suggest that living things are represented by visual features (processed in visual regions), while inanimate objects, such as tools, are represented by functional features (processed in motor cortical regions).
180
What shapes concepts in our brain?
Concepts are shaped by context, environment, and the questions we are asked or the goals we pursue.
181
What are ad-hoc categories?
Categories created spontaneously for a specific purpose or question, often consisting of dissimilar items grouped together (e.g., "Things that can catch on fire").
182
How do ad-hoc categories resemble more established categories?
Ad-hoc categories can have prototypical items and are subject to the typicality effect, just like typical categories.
183
What is an example of dissociation in concept categorization?
A brain injury patient may struggle with naming animals but can name tools, or vice versa.
184
What are sensory functional theories in concept categorization?
Living things are defined by visual features, engaging visual processing regions, while inanimate objects (tools) are defined by functional features, activating motor cortical regions.
185
What are the characteristics of language?
Language is symbolic (representing something else), shared (common among a group), and purposeful (to communicate thoughts).
186
What can influence the complexity of a language?
Languages spoken by more people tend to have less complex morphology, while cold climate languages often have more words for snow (e.g., Swedish has 25, Scots has 421).
187
What is Broca’s aphasia?
A form of expressive aphasia, where individuals have difficulty producing speech but can still understand language. Common in those with damage to Broca's area.
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What is Wernicke’s aphasia?
A condition where speech is fluent but nonsensical, often with paraphasias (word substitutions) and neologisms (invented words). Caused by damage to Wernicke’s area.
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What is conduction aphasia?
A language disorder where individuals can speak and understand language but have difficulty repeating words or sentences, due to damage to the neural pathway between Broca's and Wernicke's areas.
190
Which hemisphere is typically responsible for language?
Language is typically left-lateralized in the brain, with the right hemisphere supporting non-literal language use, such as speech prosody (intonation and emotion in speech).
191
What is the nurturist (behaviorist) view on language acquisition?
Language acquisition is learned through skill-building, trial and error, reinforcement, and modeling by others.
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What is the naturist (Chomsky) view on language acquisition?
Language is innate and humans are born with the capacity to learn language, supported by an inborn "Language Acquisition Device" (LAD).
193
What is the innateness hypothesis?
The idea that children are born with principles of grammar, which helps them rapidly acquire language. Children only need to learn language-specific aspects based on Universal Grammar.
194
What is convergence in language acquisition?
Children exposed to different learning environments tend to converge on similar grammatical structures (e.g., "Can anyone who is interested see me later?" vs. "Is anyone who interested can see me later?").
195
What does the principle of uniformity in language development suggest?
Language development follows the same stages in all children, indicating that there must be an inborn plan for language learning.
196
Q: What is the poverty of stimulus argument?
A: The idea that children do not receive enough linguistic input to learn a language through reinforcement, rules, or imitation alone, suggesting an innate component to language acquisition.
197
Q: Define phonemes.
A: The smallest linguistic units that can change the meaning of a word, such as /d/, /o/, and /g/ in "dog."
198
Q: What is lexical ambiguity?
A: When a single word can refer to more than one concept (e.g., "bat" as in the animal vs. the baseball equipment).
199
Q: What are the two theories of sentence parsing?
A:
Syntax-first (Garden Path) approach: Sentences are initially parsed using grammatical rules only.
Constraint-based model: Parsing integrates non-grammatical cues like context, expectation, and frequency.
200
Q: What is the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis?
A: The idea that language shapes how people think and perceive the world.
201
Q: Harvey Specter is negotiating a deal, but his opponent keeps using ambiguous legal terms to try and confuse him. Harvey quickly determines the correct meaning based on the context of the conversation. Which type of ambiguity resolution is he using?
A: Lexical ambiguity resolution—he is using context to determine the correct meaning of words with multiple definitions.
202
Q: Shawn Spencer is at a noisy bar, trying to overhear a conversation. Because of the background noise, he mishears "spy" as "buy." What psycholinguistic concept is at play here?
A: Phonological ambiguity—Shawn is using his knowledge of speech sounds and context to interpret unclear auditory input.
203
Q: Michael Westen is deciphering a coded message, but one phrase has multiple possible interpretations depending on how the sentence is structured. He initially reads it one way but then realizes he was led astray by an ambiguous phrase. What kind of sentence did he encounter?
A: A garden path sentence—he initially parsed it one way but had to revise his interpretation.
204
Q: Patrick Jane hears the word "bug" in a conversation about a crime scene. Initially, he considers both meanings—an insect and a surveillance device. However, after a few moments, he realizes the speaker was referring to a hidden microphone. What psycholinguistic principle explains this process?
A: Homophone processing—both meanings of "bug" were initially active, but the irrelevant meaning was later suppressed.
205
Q: Annie Edison is learning Russian and discovers they have separate words for light and dark blue. She then realizes she starts noticing the distinction in shades of blue more often than before. What theory of language and thought does this support?
A: Linguistic relativity—it suggests that language influences perception.
206
Q: Lorelai Gilmore sees a word written down that she has never encountered before. She tries to sound it out but struggles because it doesn't follow standard pronunciation rules. What type of dyslexia might she be experiencing if she consistently struggles with irregular words?
A: Surface dyslexia—difficulty with whole-word recognition and reliance on letter-by-letter reading.
207
Q: Gus is taking an experimental psychology test. He listens to sentences with ambiguous words and then quickly decides if flashed words are real or not. If he responds faster to words related to the sentence’s meaning, what type of task is he completing?
A: A cross-modality priming task—testing how prior auditory input affects reaction time in recognizing written words.
208
Q: Harvey Specter (Suits) is in a negotiation with a French-speaking client. He learned French later in life and sometimes has trouble recalling legal terms quickly. According to research on bilingual language processing, what effect might his dominant English have on his ability to use French fluently in this context?
A: His L1 (English) may interfere with his L2 (French), especially if he has weaker conceptual links in French. He may need to inhibit English while trying to recall French legal terms.
209
Q: Shawn Spencer (Psych) is playing a game where he has to quickly name objects in both English and Spanish. Some words, like "hotel," are the same in both languages, while others, like "pie" (foot in Spanish), have different meanings. What cognitive effects might he experience while playing?
A: Cognates (like "hotel") will facilitate processing, making them easier to recall, while interlingual homographs (like "pie") may cause interference, slowing him down.
210
Q: Michael Westen (Burn Notice) frequently switches between English and Spanish when gathering intel. However, he finds that switching from Spanish back to English is more difficult than the reverse. Why might this be?
A: Inhibitory control requires suppressing the dominant language (English) when using Spanish. When switching back, reactivating English takes extra effort, making the transition harder.
211
Q: Patrick Jane (The Mentalist) is investigating a case and interviews witnesses in both French and English. He notices that bilingual witnesses in Montreal respond to French-English homographs more slowly than monolingual witnesses. What does this suggest about co-activation?
A: The bilingual witnesses experience greater co-activation, meaning both languages are active at the same time, causing interference with homographs.
212
Q: Abed (Community) tracks the speech patterns of his friends. He notices that Annie, who grew up speaking both English and Hebrew, can switch between them effortlessly, while Jeff, who started learning Spanish in college, struggles with quick transitions. What research finding explains this difference?
A: Age of acquisition affects bilingual processing—early bilinguals like Annie develop stronger connections, while late bilinguals like Jeff require more inhibitory control.
213
Q: Rory Gilmore (Gilmore Girls) is studying in Montreal and speaks English at home but French at school. Research suggests that her cognitive control skills might improve compared to someone in a monolingual environment. Why?
A: High language entropy (using both languages frequently in varied contexts) is linked to improved cognitive control and brain connectivity.
214
Q: Lorelai Gilmore works in an environment where she occasionally uses French for international guests but primarily speaks English. How would her language entropy compare to Rory’s?
A: Lorelai’s language entropy would be lower because she uses French in a limited, predictable context, while Rory’s is higher due to diverse, daily language use.
215
Q: Annie (Community) is participating in a research study where she has to quickly determine if a string of letters is a real word. She’s bilingual, and some words are cognates, while others are interlingual homographs. What would researchers expect to find in her reaction times?
A: Cognates will show facilitation (faster response times), while homographs will show interference (slower response times).
216
What is the key difference between Koslin’s depictive approach and Paivio’s descriptive approach to mental imagery?
Depictive: Mental imagery is an analog representation of perception, modality-specific.
Descriptive: Mental imagery is abstract and relies on verbal processing.
217
What is an example of Koslin’s depictive approach to mental imagery?
Imagining a red rose is like seeing it in the "mind’s eye."
218
3. (Suits) Harvey Specter is trying to memorize the layout of a courtroom for an upcoming case. He closes his eyes and pictures the room, including where the jury sits and the judge's bench. What mental imagery theory best explains this process?
Koslin’s depictive approach (He is using modality-specific imagery, like visualizing a real space).
219
(The Mentalist) Patrick Jane is asked to describe a suspect but can’t recall what they look like. Instead, he says, "They had sharp features, like a hawk." Which mental imagery theory is he using?
Paivio’s descriptive approach (He is relying on verbal representation rather than picturing the face).
220
What did Koslin’s mental scanning experiment demonstrate?
Participants took longer to scan longer distances on an imagined map, supporting depictive representation.
221
What brain regions show shared activation for perception and mental imagery?
Fusiform Face Area (FFA) for faces and Parahippocampal Place Area (PPA) for buildings.
222
(Psych) Shawn Spencer is recalling a crime scene layout in his head. The more he focuses on specific details, the longer it takes. This aligns with what research finding?
Koslin’s mental scanning experiment (His response time increases as he scans more imagined details).
223
(Burn Notice) Michael Westen needs to remember if an enemy had a scar. When he imagines the person standing next to a taller man, the scar is harder to visualize. What concept explains this?
Koslin’s mental scaling experiment (Details are harder to see when imagining something smaller next to something much larger).
224
Q: What is aphantasia?
The inability to form mental images.
225
Q: What kind of career might someone with hyperphantasia be drawn to?
Creative fields, such as art or writing.
226
(Gilmore Girls) Rory Gilmore has a vivid memory of the first time she walked through Yale’s campus and can picture every detail of the library. Which end of the mental imagery spectrum does she likely fall on?
Hyperphantasia (Her imagery is extremely vivid).
227
(Community) Abed Nadir struggles to picture Troy’s facial expression when he's not looking at him directly, but he can describe it in words. What condition might explain this?
Aphantasia (He lacks the ability to form mental images).
228
Q: What are the three main types of memory?
Episodic (personal experiences), Semantic (general knowledge), Procedural (skills).
229
Q: What is the difference between short-term memory (STM) and long-term memory (LTM)?
STM has limited capacity and short duration, while LTM has large capacity and long duration.
230
(Suits) Mike Ross has an excellent memory and can recall entire legal textbooks verbatim. Which type of memory is responsible for this?
Semantic memory (He is recalling general knowledge, not personal experiences).
231
(Burn Notice) Fiona learns a new lock-picking technique. At first, she has to think about every step, but after practice, she does it automatically. What type of memory is at work?
Procedural memory (Automatic, skill-based memory).
232
Q: What is the difference between implicit and explicit memory?
Implicit: Unconscious memory (e.g., procedural skills, priming).
Explicit: Conscious memory (e.g., facts, personal experiences).
233
(Psych) Gus doesn’t remember hearing a commercial jingle, but later, he hums the tune while working. What type of memory explains this?
Implicit memory (priming) (He unconsciously recalls the jingle).
234
(The Mentalist) Lisbon remembers catching a suspect in a past case and recalls every detail of that day. What type of memory is this?
Episodic memory (It’s a personal experience).
235
Q: What is the difference between retrograde and anterograde amnesia?
Retrograde: Loss of past memories.
Anterograde: Inability to form new memories.
236
(Community) After a prank gone wrong, Jeff Winger gets hit in the head and forgets everything about his past, but he can still learn new things. What type of amnesia does he have?
Retrograde amnesia (Past memories are lost, but new ones can be formed).
237
(Gilmore Girls) Luke gets into an accident and suddenly struggles to remember anything new from that day forward. What type of amnesia is this?
Anterograde amnesia (He can’t form new memories).
238
Q: What type of memory is most affected by aging?
Working memory & episodic memory.
239
Q: What is the associative deficit hypothesis?
Older adults struggle to link information together (e.g., matching names to faces).
240
(Suits) Jessica Pearson meets a new client and forgets their name almost immediately. This is an example of what memory issue related to aging?
Associative deficit hypothesis (Difficulty linking names to faces).
